310:(FMRI) scanner, where they were presented with 192 full colour photographs of scenes (containing a centrally presented novel scene and a smaller image of one of six objects). Participants were also instructed to imagine using the presented object in each scene, and were asked to report whether they were successful. A memory test was administered after participants were removed from the scanner. The test consisted of all previously viewed scenes (old) and an equal number of novel scenes (new). They were asked to make an old/new judgement, and if the scene was responded as being old, they were asked to report it as being "remembered" or "familiar". They were then asked to pick an object that was paired with that scene. The researchers were trying to determine the levels of activation for source recollection for the objects paired with the scene during encoding.
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fictitious events from family members. Subjects' parents were interviewed to create a list of memorable childhood events (vacations, instances of being lost, etc.), to which one false event was added, namely spilling a bowl of punch at wedding reception. For each event, subjects were provided with several cues to aid in memory (age at the time, location, nature of the event, etc.) and asked to describe the situation in as much detail as possible. If a participant was unable to recall any event, they were asked either to quietly think about the event for about a minute and then provide any additional information remembered (control condition) or imagine the event happening and describe the people who would have been involved, what the location would have looked like and how the event might have occurred (imagery condition).
219:, stipulates that memories are composed of two components; gist and verbatim traces. Verbatim traces are the surface details of physical stimuli, which encompass the clear visual images and source information of an experience. Though both traces are encoded simultaneously, they are stored in separate regions of the brain, allowing for each trace to posse a distinct lifespan. Verbatim traces, though readily available when a memory is first encoded, deteriorate quickly. Fuzzy-trace theory thus proposes that misattributed memories arise due to the short lifespan of verbatim traces, being that the quality of source information is rapidly declining. The misattribution of memory is therefore more likely to occur as the time between the encoding of an experience and the
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recollect specific details, subsequently causing people to make responses based on memory gist's rather than specific details. People may form a well-organized idea of what the semantic gist is, and anything that is semantically similar to that idea may be falsely recognized. Gist-based similarity has also been shown to occur in circumstances in which implicit associative responses are an unlikely source of misattribution. The false recognition error also becomes evident when a time pressure is presented during a recognition decision. Processes that work to discover a source for the basis of recognition take time to execute, as a result of a lack of time, false recognitions errors are made more often.
512:. In Jacoby's study, participants were given two lists of words: one to read and one which they would hear read aloud. All subjects were then given a "test" list which contained some words they had read, some they had heard, and some novel words; the subjects had to determine which words were which. Jacoby found that university students and 75-year-olds were equally likely to correctly recognize whether or not the word had been presented, but 75-year-olds were much more likely to mistake whether the word was spoken or read. In other words, while recognition of familiar versus novel words remained relatively stable across age groups, source confusion increased dramatically with age.
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later. They found that there were often large discrepancies between the first and second descriptions. For example, many initially reported that they heard the news while sitting in class, but later said that they remember seeing the news on a television broadcast. While the participants were confident in their reports, it became evident that their memories of these emotionally charged events were prone to being manipulated with time, and that false memories of details make their way into memory. One explanation of why false details exist in memories is that people are influenced by life experiences, and they therefore recall memories with insights from other non-related events.
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themselves. Jacoby explains that— because repetition of a word caused recognition to go up but ability to correctly remember the source to go down— recognition and source monitoring are likely separate neurological processes. This may shed some light on the common phenomenon of
Alzheimer's patients mistaking frequently presented non-famous faces as being those of celebrities or asking the same question repeatedly. Patients may recognize faces or identify that the subject of the question is important and was discussed recently, but they have no memory for the meaning attached to these common stimuli and so will misattribute this familiarity or simply ask again.
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associative response has shown to arise when seeing a word such as "car", might cause people to unconsciously think of an associative such as "truck". If the word truck is later presented to them, they may state they recognize seeing the item when they had actually generated it themselves. It is believed that the activation from the shown word may also activate the associative word, allowing the information to be easily accessible to the mind. Research has also shown that the more similar the presented and associative words are, or the more similar list items there are, the more likely it is that a false recognition error will be made.
393:, invites subjects to believe they have experienced a particular word in a given list. The subjects are read a list of associated words by the experimenter. These associated words could be for example: bed, rest, dream, tried, awake, etc. After the subjects have heard these words, they are required to engage in a free recall task in which they must list the words they have heard. The researchers carried out two experiments. The first one involved six lists of associated words. The second experiment involved a wider set of materials, in which twenty-four 15-item lists were read to the subjects.
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credible and accurate, based on the assumption that adults are better memory reporters. In this context, children are assumed to have poor memory capabilities. Eyewitness testimony in adults differs from that of children in a few other ways. Firstly, adults tend to provide more recalled information, whether accurate or inaccurate, to a legal case. Although, the general pattern is to have an increase the amount of correctly recalled information with age. Lastly, objective questions are more accurately answered with less influence of suggestibility in adults.
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differences exist, it is widely accepted that young children are highly susceptible to leading questioning and biased interviewing techniques, due to their insufficient cognitive development. A wide variety of studies on the subject have revealed that children become more accurate in their recollections with increasing age and their ability to ignore biased questioning practices increases substantially until age 12. As a result, neutral wording is encouraged where a young child's testimony must be relied upon.
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been, or not been, from the previously presented list. The word at the end of the sentence was either highly predictable given the context of the sentence, for example: "The stormy seas tossed the BOAT", or the end word was less predictable such as: "She saved her money and bought a LAMP". The subjects were then required to state whether the capitalized end word had appeared, or not, on the previous list of words. If not, they were to respond by saying that the word was "new" versus it being "old".
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provided themselves. This is likely due to memory compensation strategies of imagery and imagination employed at an early age. As children age, other memory strategies such as auditory rehearsal or use of schemas and semantic relationships replace the reliance on imagery, leading to more reliable memories for events, but also presenting greater opportunity for memory errors. By the time children reach high school, memory strategies such as audial rehearsal, schema formation and
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grade teacher and childhood best friend; in other conditions, the participants were told a more generic version of the story. When interviewed, 68.2% of participants in the self-relevant details condition reported mental images and memories of the false event, compared to only 36.4% of participants in the more generic condition. Thus, the presence of specific personal details from a participant's life greatly increase the chance that a false memory is successfully implanted.
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word "sleep". As with the study by Henry L. Roediger and
Kathleen McDermott, subjects claimed to remember similar amounts of non-presented words as they did the words that were actually presented. The researchers noted that brain activity during the true and false recognition tasks were very similar. Monitoring the blood flow in the brain revealed there were in the left medial temporal lobe for both veridical and illusory recognition.
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confidence in the source of each solution listed. Subjects were more likely to plagiarize solutions given by the computer opponent than their own solutions after indicating that they were very confident that the solution was truly novel; when subjects indicated that they were "guessing" whether the solution had been seen before, they were more likely to duplicate solutions they had found during the first round of the test.
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those responses was observed for both true and false memories in the imagery condition, while those in the control condition showed much less improvement. While participants who 'remembered' the false situation rated this event as being less emotionally intense than the other remembered true events, participants rated their confidence in accurately remembering the false scenario higher than any of the true events.
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were later asked whether specific events were familiar and how they happened. The study revealed that elderly subjects were more likely than younger subjects to claim that they recognized events that never happened. Additionally, these participants were more likely to say that they watched specific actions occurring when they had actually either imagined them occurring or had never experienced the actions.
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as well as other similar traumatic events. Participants were able to describe what they were doing, things around them, and other details. However, this data was collected just once, years after the event, and Brown and Kulik were not able to compare the accuracy of those recollections to previous descriptions to see if their memories were indeed comparable to photographs.
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than on properties that may elicit the influence of personal attitudes. One important question under consideration, is whether people confuse misleading suggestions and personal attitudes for their real memories of a witnessed event. Moreover, misattribution of memory has been especially well investigated in terms of its application to cases of potential eyewitness
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indicated that the more words and lists available the harder it is to actually recall words correctly. This experiment illustrates how subjects can provide false recall without noticing their errors. Even after the researchers indicate that they did not say the mistaken words, subjects still felt very convinced that the researcher had said the word.
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words. Whittlesea was able to conclude from this study that subjects misattributed their fast responses for highly predictable words as an indication that they had previously experienced the word whereas in fact that was incorrect. As a result, the fluency of processing caused the subjects to misinterpret their quickness as a case of familiarity.
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but hear the car misleadingly referred to as white after the fact may create a false memory of a white car present at the scene of the crime, rather than a blue one. False memories can range from small details about an event to entire events that never happened, such as being lost in a crowded shopping mall as a child.
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source information. The evidence provides support for the role of the right perirhinal cortex in attributing an object to the right source. As decreased activation was associated with poorer performance, decreased activation of the right perirhinal cortex could be a possible mechanism for source confusion.
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However, the fallibility of children's memories is a complicated issue: memory does not strictly improve over time, but varies in the number of errors made as different skills are developed. Young children are very prone to suggestibility and false memories, even for false story-situations which they
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In legal testimony, the fact that witnesses are under oath does not preclude the occurrence of unintentional false reports: false memory and cryptomnesia present a significant problem in cases of alleged child abuse, in which the principal witness is already at a memory disadvantage. While individual
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False memories are also related to flashbulb memories, which are memories of one's circumstances during an emotionally charged event. Examples of flashbulb memories include how one remembers learning about the explosion of the
Challenger shuttle, the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11,
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After three interviews in this fashion, 25% of participants from the imagery condition reported remembering the false situation of spilling the punch bowl, as compared to fewer than 10% of subjects in the control condition. An overall improvement in the detail of responses given and the confidence of
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That is not to say that there were not differences. While monitoring blood flow in the brain during false recognition, a part of the frontal lobe that is thought to be a key monitor of memories actually showed greater activity when presented with a false recognition than with a true one. There seemed
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False memories are memories that individuals believe and recall as true that, in fact, never occurred. Often, people form false memories for details of events after hearing others mistakenly report information about an event. For example, participants who watch a video of a crime featuring a blue car
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Early research done by Brown and Kulik (1977) found that flashbulb memories were similar to photographs because they could be described in accurate, vivid detail. In this study, participants described their circumstances about the moment they learned of the assassination of
President John F. Kennedy
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In a similar study, researchers convinced participants that they had played a prank on a first grade teacher involving toy slime. In the experimental condition, researchers added self-relevant details to the story (obtained from the participants' parents), such as the name of the participant's first
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activation was greater when scenes were recalled. The results provide evidence of distinct encoding activation in the subregions of the medial temporal lobe. The first subregion is the perirhinal cortex, which encodes item information. The second subregion, the parahippocampal cortex, is involved in
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postulates that memory errors occur when perceptual information is incorrectly attributed as being the source of a past experience. This may take place because one event shares the characteristics of another source. When a person has many sources of perceptual information about an event, their brain
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they are the original generators of the thought. When cryptomnesia arises in literature or scholarly ideas it is often termed 'inadvertent plagiarism', inadvertent because the subject genuinely believes the idea to be their own creation. Inadvertent plagiarism takes two forms. The first involves the
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effect occurs because the words associated with sleep are in the list leading subjects to believe that the words associated with the words provided in the list have to be right. In fact, with the second experiment the results were 55% false recall rate compared to 40% for the first experiment. This
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In an extension of this test, after each puzzle solution was generated, participants were asked one of two questions: is this word greater than 3 letters long? (physical judgement) or does this word have a positive connotation? (semantic judgement). Participants then generated lists of solutions as
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scanner. During the first scan, subjects would make recognition judgments to determine what were the previous presented words. During the second scan, subjects had to make judgments about words that were not presented. For example: bed, rest, dream, tired, and awake would be in the list but not the
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structures, have demonstrated that the same processes involved in accurate recognition, are also involved in false recognition. These cortices play a role in strategic monitoring processing, as they attempt to examine other cortical outputs. If these cortices were damaged, there would be no control
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damage and age-matched controls, showed a significantly higher level of false recognition amongst the frontal lobe damaged individuals. The damage is believed to have caused disruptions in the adequate encoding of item-specific details or caused defective retrieval monitoring processes. These types
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It has also been noted that misattribution may be a product of adaptive features of memory, rather than a product of a flaw in the memory system. The misattribution error often leads to conclusions of an inefficient memory system, however some researchers believe that the error is a cost associated
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Cohen and
Faulkner discovered similar age-related source confusion errors ten years earlier when studying short events rather than word lists. Participants were asked to carry out, imagine, or watch a series of short events (placing a fork on top of a plate, putting a pen inside a mug, etc.). They
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As noted, misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes at the time of retrieval. Hence, researchers have applied techniques to minimize misattribution by encouraging individuals to focus on distinctive characteristics, rather
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Later studies used a research technique called repeated recall to gauge the accuracy of repeated descriptions of traumatic events. Neiser and Harsh (1992) gave participants a questionnaire about the 1986 Challenger explosion at two periods of time: 1) The day after the incident, and 2) Three years
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In one particular case of source confusion, a female rape survivor falsely accused a memory doctor of being her rapist. In this case, the doctor had made a television appearance seen by the female survivor prior to her attack. The woman misattributed the doctor's face with that of her attacker. An
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The study revealed that the new words that were highly predictable were more likely to be incorrectly identified as being previously seen, whereas the new words that were less predictable were not so identified. In fact, subjects actually named predictable words faster than they did unpredictable
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through the conceptual context of the target word, rather than the physical context. After the subjects were given a brief moment to study the list of words, the subjects were presented with sentences that would contain a word that was capitalized at the end of the sentence that would have either
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False memories can also be created through leading questioning and simple use of imagination. In 1996, Ira Hyman Jr. and Joel
Petland published a study showing that subjects can falsely 'remember' anecdotes from their childhood, based on suggestions from the researcher and corroboration of these
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Bruce
Whittlesea presented subjects with a list of common words. Each word was briefly displayed to the subject. The task required the subject to judge whether a target word was semantically related to any word in the list. Unlike Whittlesea's first experiment involving the recognition of target
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Source confusion is an attribute seen in different people's accounts of the same event after hearing people speak about the situation. An example of this would be, a witness who heard a police officer say he had a gun and then that witness later says they saw the gun. Understanding the source of
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in 1993 monitored subjects' memory for solutions found to a word puzzle game when paired against a computer opponent. After several rounds of generating solutions in turn, participants were asked to generate a list of solutions they provided themselves, or a list of new solutions and rate their
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Unintentional plagiarism is greater for information generated by others than ourselves. Researchers believe this may due to having better memory and associations for words we generate, as self-generated information is better remembered later. Moreover, cryptomnesia increases when information is
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in which people often have difficulty determining whether a concept was internally generated or experienced externally. People occasionally misattribute the creation of a novel thought or idea as their own, when in fact they are retrieving it from a previous experience. Some individuals fail to
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These studies show that simply rehearsing material may not always work to improve memory. In the Jacoby study, older adults who read a word several times were likely to accurately judge it as familiar but were then more likely to think they had heard the word read aloud, rather than reading it
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Successful remembering involves recognition that something is familiar and recall of the context in which it was previously experienced. With age, the ability to discriminate between new and previous events begins to fail, and errors in recalling experiences become more common. Larry Jacoby of
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In terms of eyewitness testimony, judgements of memory credibility are particularly important in their persuasive impact. At any stage of a legal case, the success or failure of eyewitness persuasion can have consequences. Generally speaking, people assume the testimony of an adult to be more
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system in which information that does not require people to remember all the specific details is lost. Specific details would only be preserved in situations where the specific details need to be remembered, such as memories of a highly emotional experience. The use of semantic gists may be a
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information rather than distinctive encoding, is another cause of false recognition. When studying a list of numerous related words, there is a high level of semantic overlap between memory items. The inability to keep each concepts separate and distinct from one another makes it difficult to
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False recognition can occur as the result of making an implicit associative response, an automatic association between two concepts in memory. It is believed that associative responses never come to conscious attention, thus the activation of the concept is assumed to be implicit. An implicit
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The results of both experiments demonstrated that the subjects were confident about their incorrect answers regarding words heard in the list. For example, given the list; bed, rest, dream, tired, awake. Many of the subjects heard "sleep" which was not one of the words presented. This
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T. Awipi and L. Davachi sought to provide evidence of competing subregions in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) that differed on the type of content they encoded. The researchers conducted a study in which subjects were asked to perform an
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establish memories with enough detail to generate a source attribution, causing a misattribution of memory to the wrong source. People often truly believe that the information they plagiarized was actually that of their own.
53:. Misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes, toward their judgments, at the time of retrieval. Misattribution is divided into three components:
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in the first test. While the same correlation of confidence level and error type were seen, participants were much more likely to plagiarize answers after making a physical judgement as compared to a semantic one.
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Cryptomnesia is a form of misattribution. It involves the unconscious influence of memory that causes current thoughts to be wrongfully attributed as novel. In other words, individuals mistakenly believe that
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of processes are needed to accurately recall the origins of memory representations, and without them, errors of origin can be made. Studies of false recognition in amnesic patients with damage to either the
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Brain-damaged patients have provided useful insights into the underlying biological mechanisms involved in false recognition. Results from studies comparing levels of false recognition between patients with
475:. Currently, researchers have focused on determining the circumstances under which misattribution might occur, and the factors that could increase or decrease these errors, in an eyewitness situation.
143:. In this instance, Ronald Reagan tells a story about a heroic pilot to whom he personally awarded a medal. However, he was actually recalling the story line from a theatrical production entitled "
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one's memories is important to memory processes necessary for every day living. Memories arise both from perceptual experiences and from one's thoughts, feelings, inferences, and imagination.
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generated by others before a self-generated idea. This may be due to the likelihood that people were thinking of their next response, rather than processing the source of the information.
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For example, a person may falsely recall creating an idea, thought, or joke, not intentionally engaging in plagiarism, but nevertheless believing to be the original source of memory.
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plagiarizer regenerating a previously seen idea, but believing the idea to be novel. In the second form, the plagiarizer recalls the ideas of other author's as their own.
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have a reduced level of false recognition, believed to be caused by taking too many trials to create the semantic gist information needed for the attribution error.
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Leippe MR, Romanczyk A, Manion AP (1992). "Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults' and children's memory reports?".
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fundamental mechanism of memory, allowing people to categorize information and generalize across situations, a function associated with higher intelligence.
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Thompson WC, Clarke-Stewart KA, Lepore SJ (1997). "What Did the
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508:(1999) demonstrated how common these errors can become, lending a better understanding to why recognition errors are particularly common in
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Cohen G, Faulkner D (March 1989). "Age differences in source forgetting: effects on reality monitoring and on eyewitness testimony".
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Researchers Henry L. Roediger and
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Some of the most common experimental designs in the study of cryptomnesia involve solving word puzzles. One such study from
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over the cortical outputs, increasingly the likelihood of a false recognition error. Additionally, patients with amnesia or
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is easily able to evoke a memory of that event, even if they did not experience it, thus creating a misattributed memory.
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1364:""You and your best friend Suzy put slime in Ms. Smollett's desk": producing false memories with self-relevant details"
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to be some discrepancy as subjects attempted to scrutinize the out-placed words, but were overcome by powerful
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with the benefits of a functioning and adequate memory system. The misattribution error reflects an
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Johnson MK, Hashtroudi S, Lindsay DS (July 1993). "Source monitoring".
712:
1935:"False recency and false fame of faces in young adulthood and old age"
1804:
Goodman GS, Reed RS (1986). "Age Difference in Eyewitness Testimony".
335:
In one of the earliest studies involving misattribution, the Canadian
155:
942:
796:
46:
1212:"Content-specific source encoding in the human medial temporal lobe"
704:
1850:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1700:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1294:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1264:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1216:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1056:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1019:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1012:"Creating False Memories: Remembering Words Not Presented in Lists"
976:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
653:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
494:
486:
154:
1973:
1969:
276:
and colleagues. Similar to the study by Henry L. Roediger and
1648:"Misattribution, false recognition and the sins of memory"
1537:
Muir-Broaddus J, King T, Downey D, Petersen M (1998).
272:
A follow-up to the previous research was conducted by
1620:
Association for Psychological Science (May 1, 2007).
159:
Frontal and temporal lobe location in the human brain
2880:
2849:
2708:
2701:
2594:
2566:
2498:
2455:
2427:
2387:
2329:
2224:
2130:
2105:
2057:
2050:
2007:
1262:Whittlesea BW (1993). "Illusions of Familiarity".
844:"False Memories: Source Confusion and Suggestion"
317:activation was greater for objects recalled, and
139:additional example of source confusion involves
1933:Bartlett JC, Strater L, Fulton A (March 1991).
1609:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 267–291.
1439:Brown R, Kulik J (1977). "Flashbulb memories".
686:
684:
682:
340:words, this study involved the manipulation of
1985:
1257:
1255:
8:
1745:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1410:(4th ed.). New york: Cengage learning.
774:
772:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
541:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
45:is the misidentification of the origin of a
2116:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1799:
1797:
1693:
1691:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
837:
835:
833:
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
612:
610:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
2705:
2054:
1992:
1978:
1970:
1362:Desjardins T, Scoboria A (December 2007).
598:
596:
594:
592:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
1950:
1861:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1711:
1671:
1646:Schacter DL, Dodson CS (September 2001).
1554:
1379:
1287:
1285:
1235:
1171:
1030:
924:"Inadvertent Plagiarism in Everyday Life"
631:. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company.
552:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1087:
1085:
534:
532:
528:
241:Neurological basis of false recognition
1519:
1509:
970:Marsh RL, Landau JD, Hicks JL (1997).
1401:
1399:
1357:
1355:
729:Loftus EF, Pickrell JE (1995-12-01).
423:False memories and flashbulb memories
308:functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
724:
722:
223:of the subsequent memory increases.
65:. It was originally noted as one of
1776:Journal of Developmental Psychology
1094:Learning and Individual Differences
812:Learning and Individual Differences
1010:Roediger HL, McDermott HB (1995).
200:Gist-based similarity, the robust
25:
2397:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
1543:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1368:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
731:"The Formation of False Memories"
460:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
391:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
381:Deese—Roediger—McDermott Paradigm
2942:
2930:
1210:Awipi T, Davachi L (July 2008).
445:Eyewitness testimony in children
389:. This procedure, known as the
297:Source confusion and FMRI scans
2607:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
2480:Memory and social interactions
1334:Journal of Memory and Language
779:Henkel LA, Coffman KJ (2004).
693:American Journal of Psychology
483:Source confusion in later life
466:Eyewitness testimony in adults
1:
1480:Affect and Accuracy in Recall
1173:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80158-0
1106:10.1016/S1041-6080(97)90002-9
824:10.1016/s1041-6080(01)00035-8
747:10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-07
2316:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1488:10.1017/cbo9780511664069.003
1474:Neisser U, Harsch N (1992).
1453:10.1016/0010-0277(77)90018-X
931:Applied Cognitive Psychology
861:Mikkelson D (5 March 2009).
785:Applied Cognitive Psychology
268:False memories and PET scans
77:Components of misattribution
1770:Poole DA, White LE (1991).
1276:10.1037/0278-7393.19.6.1235
1121:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Psychologie
313:The researchers found that
3001:
2654:Levels of Processing model
2579:World Memory Championships
2412:Lost in the mall technique
2259:dissociative (psychogenic)
1788:10.1037/0012-1649.27.6.975
1757:10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.181
1722:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.934
1306:10.1037/0278-7393.26.2.321
1228:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.769
1133:10.1027/0044-3409.215.1.12
1068:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.941
1041:10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
988:10.1037/0278-7393.23.4.886
665:10.1037/0278-7393.19.3.673
563:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
356:
172:
122:
107:
85:
26:
2925:
901:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
406:Implanting a false memory
49:by the person making the
2692:The Seven Sins of Memory
2637:Intermediate-term memory
2442:Indirect tests of memory
2419:Recovered-memory therapy
2369:Misattribution of memory
1912:10.1037/0882-7974.4.1.10
1872:10.1037/0278-7393.25.1.3
629:The Seven Sins of Memory
215:, an opposing theory to
192:Causes of false memories
132:Source monitoring theory
39:misattribution of memory
2379:Source-monitoring error
1584:10.1023/A:1024859219764
848:The Strangest Situation
499:PET Alzheimer's disease
217:source monitoring error
181:source-monitoring error
2786:George Armitage Miller
2746:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
1939:Memory & Cognition
1806:Law and Human Behavior
1664:10.1098/rstb.2001.0938
1572:Law and Human Behavior
1346:10.1006/jmla.1996.0006
889:Psychological Bulletin
500:
492:
337:cognitive psychologist
319:parahippocampal cortex
169:Causes of cryptomnesia
160:
2949:Philosophy portal
2937:Psychology portal
2801:Henry L. Roediger III
2402:False memory syndrome
2374:Misinformation effect
2354:Imagination inflation
1406:Goldstein EB (2015).
498:
490:
326:Experimental research
158:
43:source misattribution
18:Source misattribution
2306:Motivated forgetting
1900:Psychology and Aging
922:Defeldre AC (2005).
842:Laura (2011-02-02).
627:Schacter DL (2001).
456:semantic relatedness
253:medial temporal lobe
71:seven sins of memory
2816:Arthur P. Shimamura
2716:Richard C. Atkinson
2533:Effects of exercise
2407:Memory implantation
2291:Interference theory
2207:Selective retention
2187:Meaningful learning
1658:(1413): 1385–1393.
863:"Wing and a Prayer"
510:Alzheimer's disease
506:New York University
365:Stanford University
262:Alzheimer's disease
236:Neurological causes
2913:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2736:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2642:Involuntary memory
2543:Memory improvement
2528:Effects of alcohol
2490:Transactive memory
2468:Politics of memory
2437:Exceptional memory
1952:10.3758/BF03197115
1818:10.1007/BF01047344
1556:10.3758/BF03208821
1381:10.3758/BF03193096
735:Psychiatric Annals
501:
493:
342:processing fluency
278:Kathleen McDermott
274:Daniel L. Schacter
213:Fuzzy-trace theory
179:Cryptomnesia is a
161:
2957:
2956:
2921:
2920:
2908:Cosmos Rossellius
2756:Marcia K. Johnson
2627:Exosomatic memory
2612:Context-dependent
2602:Absent-mindedness
2485:Memory conformity
2463:Collective memory
2364:Memory conformity
2301:Memory inhibition
2220:
2219:
2212:Tip of the tongue
1417:978-1-285-76388-0
315:perirhinal cortex
145:Wing and a Prayer
16:(Redirected from
2992:
2985:Memory disorders
2947:
2946:
2945:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2888:Jonathan Hancock
2841:Robert Stickgold
2811:Richard Shiffrin
2766:Elizabeth Loftus
2706:
2622:Childhood memory
2429:Research methods
2311:Repressed memory
2286:Forgetting curve
2274:transient global
2145:Autobiographical
2055:
1994:
1987:
1980:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1895:
1884:
1883:
1865:
1845:
1830:
1829:
1801:
1792:
1791:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1715:
1695:
1686:
1685:
1675:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1403:
1394:
1393:
1383:
1374:(6): 1090–1095.
1359:
1350:
1349:
1329:
1318:
1317:
1289:
1280:
1279:
1270:(6): 1235–1253.
1259:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1207:
1194:
1193:
1175:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1034:
1016:
1007:
992:
991:
967:
961:
960:
958:
957:
951:
945:. Archived from
943:10.1002/acp.1129
928:
919:
913:
912:
884:
878:
877:
875:
873:
858:
852:
851:
839:
828:
827:
807:
801:
800:
797:10.1002/acp.1026
776:
767:
766:
726:
717:
716:
688:
677:
676:
648:
633:
632:
624:
575:
574:
556:
536:
491:PET Normal brain
164:Cognitive causes
119:Source confusion
63:source confusion
21:
3000:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2960:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2943:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2917:
2898:Dominic O'Brien
2876:
2845:
2826:Susumu Tonegawa
2806:Daniel Schacter
2781:Eleanor Maguire
2771:Geoffrey Loftus
2726:Stephen J. Ceci
2721:Robert A. Bjork
2697:
2616:state-dependent
2590:
2562:
2494:
2475:Cultural memory
2451:
2447:Memory disorder
2423:
2383:
2325:
2216:
2126:
2101:
2046:
2003:
1998:
1968:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1897:
1896:
1887:
1863:10.1.1.475.3783
1847:
1846:
1833:
1803:
1802:
1795:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1713:10.1.1.596.9002
1697:
1696:
1689:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1518:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1418:
1405:
1404:
1397:
1361:
1360:
1353:
1331:
1330:
1321:
1291:
1290:
1283:
1261:
1260:
1253:
1209:
1208:
1197:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1014:
1009:
1008:
995:
969:
968:
964:
955:
953:
949:
926:
921:
920:
916:
886:
885:
881:
871:
869:
860:
859:
855:
841:
840:
831:
809:
808:
804:
778:
777:
770:
741:(12): 720–725.
728:
727:
720:
705:10.2307/1422937
690:
689:
680:
650:
649:
636:
626:
625:
578:
554:10.1.1.392.4775
538:
537:
530:
526:
485:
468:
447:
442:
425:
408:
383:
378:
361:
355:
333:
328:
299:
291:memory illusion
270:
243:
238:
229:adaptive memory
194:
177:
171:
166:
153:
127:
121:
112:
106:
98:
90:
84:
79:
67:Daniel Schacter
31:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2998:
2996:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2962:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2939:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2893:Paul R. McHugh
2890:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2751:Ivan Izquierdo
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2609:
2604:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2518:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2433:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2349:Hindsight bias
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2296:Memory erasure
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2254:post-traumatic
2251:
2246:
2241:
2230:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2192:Personal-event
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2122:Working memory
2119:
2111:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2092:Motor learning
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2061:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2008:Basic concepts
2005:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1974:
1967:
1966:
1945:(2): 177–188.
1925:
1885:
1831:
1812:(4): 317–332.
1793:
1782:(6): 975–986.
1762:
1751:(2): 181–197.
1735:
1706:(4): 934–945.
1687:
1638:
1612:
1597:
1578:(4): 405–426.
1562:
1549:(3): 454–458.
1529:
1520:|website=
1496:
1466:
1431:
1416:
1395:
1351:
1319:
1300:(2): 321–335.
1281:
1251:
1222:(4): 769–779.
1195:
1166:(2): 267–274.
1146:
1111:
1081:
1062:(4): 941–947.
1046:
1032:10.1.1.495.353
1025:(4): 803–814.
993:
982:(4): 886–887.
962:
914:
879:
853:
829:
818:(2): 145–161.
802:
791:(5): 567–588.
768:
718:
699:(4): 475–490.
678:
659:(3): 673–688.
634:
576:
547:(3): 277–293.
527:
525:
522:
484:
481:
473:suggestibility
467:
464:
446:
443:
441:
438:
424:
421:
407:
404:
382:
379:
377:
376:False memories
374:
357:Main article:
354:
351:
332:
331:Misattribution
329:
327:
324:
298:
295:
269:
266:
242:
239:
237:
234:
193:
190:
173:Main article:
170:
167:
165:
162:
152:
149:
125:Sleeper effect
120:
117:
108:Main article:
105:
102:
95:
86:Main article:
83:
80:
78:
75:
59:false memories
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2997:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2980:Memory biases
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2950:
2940:
2938:
2928:
2927:
2924:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2872:Clive Wearing
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2836:Endel Tulving
2834:
2832:
2831:Anne Treisman
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2791:Brenda Milner
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2776:James McGaugh
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Sigmund Freud
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2685:retrospective
2682:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2664:Muscle memory
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2511:Art of memory
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
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51:memory recall
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2903:Ben Pridmore
2821:Larry Squire
2731:Susan Clancy
2690:
2574:Memory sport
2499:Other topics
2389:False memory
2368:
2344:Cryptomnesia
2321:Weapon focus
2281:Decay theory
2042:Neuroanatomy
2001:Human memory
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1906:(1): 10–17.
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1626:ScienceDaily
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353:Cryptomnesia
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248:frontal lobe
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175:Cryptomnesia
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110:False memory
104:False memory
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88:Cryptomnesia
82:Cryptomnesia
55:cryptomnesia
42:
38:
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29:False memory
2761:Eric Kandel
2709:Researchers
2681:Prospective
2632:Free recall
2586:Shas Pollak
2239:anterograde
2155:Declarative
1856:(1): 3–22.
895:(1): 3–28.
387:James Deese
2964:Categories
2796:Lynn Nadel
2674:intertrial
2659:Metamemory
2647:flashbacks
2567:In society
2264:retrograde
2226:Forgetting
2197:Procedural
2107:Short-term
2077:Eyewitness
1503:2020-03-31
956:2016-07-10
937:(8): 1–8.
867:Snopes.com
524:References
306:task in a
123:See also:
35:psychology
27:See also:
2548:Nutrition
2456:In groups
2269:selective
2244:childhood
2172:Flashbulb
2132:Long-term
2032:Attention
1858:CiteSeerX
1826:143732060
1708:CiteSeerX
1631:March 11,
1592:144734478
1522:ignored (
1512:cite book
1447:: 73–99.
1441:Cognition
1426:885178247
1141:144688520
1027:CiteSeerX
755:0048-5713
549:CiteSeerX
255:or other
2850:Patients
2521:mnemonic
2516:chunking
2182:Implicit
2165:Semantic
2160:Episodic
2150:Explicit
2015:Encoding
1682:11571030
1461:53195074
1390:18229480
1314:10764099
1246:18605867
1076:11486927
763:59286093
571:16248714
304:encoding
206:semantic
202:encoding
2669:Priming
2595:Related
2538:Emotion
2234:Amnesia
2072:Eidetic
2059:Sensory
2020:Storage
1961:2017041
1920:2803602
1880:9949705
1730:8064252
1673:1088522
1237:2938959
1190:9262181
1182:8780650
909:8346328
713:1422937
673:8501434
2975:Memory
2702:People
2687:memory
2618:memory
2558:Trauma
2097:Visual
2087:Iconic
2082:Haptic
2067:Echoic
2025:Recall
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221:recall
151:Causes
61:, and
47:memory
37:, the
2970:Error
2881:Other
2553:Sleep
2506:Aging
2051:Types
1822:S2CID
1588:S2CID
1457:S2CID
1186:S2CID
1137:S2CID
1015:(PDF)
950:(PDF)
927:(PDF)
872:8 May
759:S2CID
709:JSTOR
2683:and
2614:and
1957:PMID
1916:PMID
1876:PMID
1726:PMID
1678:PMID
1633:2011
1524:help
1492:ISBN
1422:OCLC
1412:ISBN
1386:PMID
1310:PMID
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905:PMID
874:2020
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