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leaving ghost towns, and abandoned infrastructure. During the company period, it was common for the
Miskito men to leave their communities and families for up to a year at a time, to work in the various industries. They would send back money as replacement for the subsistence goods that they would have traditionally produced. Without their husbands and male family members, the women were increasingly forced to purchase food (especially meat) on the cash market and hire farm hands to clear and tend agricultural plots. This employment dynamic led to the large-scale introduction of the money-based economy, and the replacement of subsistence goods with relatively inexpensive commissary goods. This shift created a dependency on commercial goods and cash earning employment.
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Catholic leaders in the area. As a result, many
Miskitos view differences in religions as institutionally based rather than theologically based. Churches in the area hold sanctity when occupied by the community, and are not revered as buildings in and of themselves. Further, Miskito experience divinity through dreams and discussions of good, bad, and human spirits. Shamans known as prapit or pasa yapti are the only individuals who physically experience divinity. Thus, Miskito Catholicism departs significantly from traditional Spaniard Catholicism as practiced by the majority of Nicaragua as it contains dimensions of a spiritual realm of divinity which humans can sometimes access.
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goods were in demand
Miskito labor shifted towards commercial activities and subsistence activities were neglected. Upon the decline of the commercial activities, the Miskito fell back on their subsistence skills. However, the rise of the company economy precipitated a fundamental shift in the Miskito economy away from these short term/seasonal economic relationships to more regular long-term employment of contract wage labor and exploitation of communal resources for commercial gain. A major challenge to the Miskito system of meat reciprocity was the commercialization of the green sea turtle, a staple of the Miskito diet
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432:); their territory was called the Miskito Kingdom (the English adopted the Spanish term for the indigenous people). A 1699 written account of the kingdom described it as spread out in various communities along the coast but not including all the territory. It probably did not include the settlements of English traders. The king did not have total power. The 1699 description noted that the kings and governors had no power except in war time, even in matters of justice. Otherwise the people were all equal. Their superior leaders were named by the English as the king, a
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became adept raiders and raiding became a part of their local economy. With the support of the
English and modern firearms, the Miskito expanded out of their cultural hearth near Cabo Gracias a Dios, and settled widely along the Miskito Coast. Following the decline of buccaneering at the end of the 17th century, many of the buccaneers turned to more legal ways of making money including cash crop production, and contraband. Sugar, Dye wood and contraband made up the majority of the local economy and wage labor became more common.
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power. However, as the
Honduran government began to become increasingly assertive in the region, the Miskito lost much of their officially recognized political power to African Creoles on representative governmental bodies. The Creoles would grow increasingly in power, overcoming the Miskito chief, and politically and culturally isolating the chief from the Miskito people at large. By the time of Re-incorporation, Miskito autonomy had already been threatened and substantially deconstructed by increases in Creole power.
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lobster tails alone. In the early days of the boom, lobster tails of 1–2 pound were common whereas by the early 1990s a diver needed 2–3 lobsters to make the same weight. At that time, the average diver brought in, per trip, 150–180 pounds of lobster. By 2011 the estimated average was down to 74 pounds/trip. Following the catch, the boats return the crew members to their communities, and the catch is processed in the Bay
Islands or Puerto Cabezas before being shipped to primarily the United States.
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dive training, and the push to maintain their incomes leads divers to dive too much and stay down too long. In response to activist outcries, several large lobster importers in the United States announced in 2015 that they will no longer purchase dive caught lobster, however, similar efforts by Red
Lobster in 1993 failed to disrupt the industry. In 2009 both Honduras and Nicaragua agreed on regional regulations to prohibit lobster diving. Regional agreement
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253:, came about through frequent contact with the British for trading, as they predominated along this coast from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Many Miskitos are Christians. A 1987 peace agreement afforded them land rights over traditional lands. However, despite significant political struggles throughout their history, today the Miskito face human rights violations over land rights disputes, as recognized by the Inter-American Commission for Human Rights.
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population grew over time, the political structure effectively transformed into autonomous regional chiefdoms with vaguely defined social classes. Leaders at the time would rule over a given number of villages, with their political power bound to their recognized villages. This structure served to limit any single
Miskito king's power over the Miskito as a whole, instead playing up the Miskito king's role in interacting with the British.
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governments of
Honduras and Nicaragua implemented a fishing season – restricting lobster exploitation to between 1 March and 30 July. The goal was to reduce pressure on lobster populations, but the result has also increased pressure on lobster divers. It is not uncommon for divers to make 12–16 dives per day to depths of 100–120 ft. in an effort to maintain their incomes. The result has been an increase in the number of cases of
365:, as the Spanish understood their geography. Karl Offen's analysis of this historic data suggests there were about a half dozen entities, groups who were distinct by their language dialects, who were situated in the river basins. Much of the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Honduras remained free from Spanish authority during the 16th century. The region became a haven for Dutch, English and Welsh privateers (for example
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establishment of missions. In the 20th century, the
Moravian Church furthered its institutional presence through schools and production of religious materials and services in the Miskito native language. They did little to quell hostilities between the Miskito and Spanish Catholics. By the 1960s, the Moravian Church seemed to play a central role in Miskito communities for anthropologists studying the area.
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581:. The Miskito population boomed as the men had more children with their slave women. These raids continued for many years after animosity between Britain and Spain ended at the international level. For a long time, the Miskito considered themselves superior to other indigenous tribes of the area, whom they referred to as "wild". The Miskito commonly adopted European dress and English names.
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movement promoting integration and civil rights. Prior to the notable activist movements of the 1980s, the Miskito prioritized integration into state political structures and civil rights under the liberal Nicaraguan constitution. The movements of the 1960s and 1970s proved largely integrationist and was led by completely separate leaders than those after the Sandinista Revolution.
1178:(love magic), and they believe that it helps attract men and their money. This love magic can also be used to help save one’s marriage. Women have the greatest input in how their households are run, but they are unable to do anything without the money that their husbands provide. Love magic highlights the importance of keeping a man interested within Miskito society.
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1231:(people of Miskut). The tradition states that neighboring tribes found it difficult to pronounce this name, and so shortened it to Miskito. After the death of Miskut, the tribe divided into three groups. One group ascended the Río Coco and became known as the river people. The other two groups moved north and south into present day
596:, which had begun large-scale production of bananas in the Miskito Reserve, supported Nicaragua's takeover of power in the area. The American companies preferred Nicaraguan authority to the Miskito, especially as the Miskito elite was more prepared to protect the rights of small landholders than was the Nicaragua government.
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technical training in medicine and agriculture, as well as increased access to education and more schoolhouses. For the Miskito in Nicaragua, indigenismo represented an opportunity to increase rapport with the government and greater access to previously inaccessible state resources rather than an affront to ethnic identity.
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that their overall orientation was inland and not coastal . Despite a dearth of contact era reports, this theory of seasonal coastal migration is supported by the English buccaneer "M.W." in 1732 who observed inland tribes who seasonally arrived at the coast to make salt before travelling back up river. Anthropologist
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their autonomy has been preserved as a result of their geographic isolation. In 2013, the Honduran granted five Miskito communities land titles to their traditional land, totaling about 6,500 square kilometres (1.6 million acres). 100 villages exist in this area, containing a population of approximately 22,000.
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and other valuable trees, cash cropping of sugar and other products, which had existed in reduced form since the 17th century, expanded into large commercial enterprises. In terms of lumber, companies hired Miskito men to find, cut, and deliver desirable trees or tree products to the coast where they
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Subsistence activities were traditionally divided by gender. Women tended to the agriculture, while the men cleared land, hunted, fished, and worked in wage labor when it was available. As Geographer Bernard Nietschmann highlights, there was a complex system of meat reciprocity which served as a sort
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in nature. Archaeological sites inland show more signs of permanent settlement including house sites, animal/fish bones, hearths, and agricultural plots. It is suggested that these riverine people traveled temporarily to the coast to make salt and subsidize their agricultural diet with shellfish, but
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The Miskito people have maintained the same cultural traits that they acquired during the pre-colonial and colonial era. Contact with the English has created the position of a king who is seen as the figurehead of the tribes; however, the modern king has little power and generally does not affect the
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Beginning with the English arrival in the geographical area, the Miskito kingdom and political structure as a whole reflected the English political structure. The Miskito-English political dynamics would change with time but the two entities would remain operating in conjunction for approximately 250
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where the shaman (known as Sukya) was seen as a healer by the community. The Sukya discovered cures by dreaming about them, and blowing smoke on the affected area. Group traditions included ritual dancing and drinking of a beverage known as mishla. Funeral traditions included a commemorative ceremony
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Prior to the 1859 Wyke-Cruz treaty with Britain, Miskito people inhabited the Cape of Gracias a Dios on the Caribbean coast and Honduran side of the Nicaragua-Honduras border. Despite the Wyke-Cruz treaty giving the Miskito authority over the land, it was ignored by the Honduran authorities. However,
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in 1860, the United Kingdom allowed Nicaragua to have uncontested claim over the Mosquito Coast. The treaty provided for a Miskito Reserve, a self-governing entity that enjoyed semi-sovereign rights. Nicaraguan forces occupied the area in 1894 and took over the state. The British restored the Miskito
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beginning in the 1970s. Lobster, like products of past booms, has become a major source of cash income for the Miskito and the great majority of the population either directly or indirectly depends on lobster income. In 2011, the industry employed around 3500 people on 44 boats in Honduras alone. In
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for the society. If a hunter or fisherman was successful, they would gift some of the catch to their extended family and 'sell' it to their friends with the expectation that the favor would be returned. Traditionally, there was a balance between subsistence and commercial activities. When commercial
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Miskito people were polytheist in the Pre-monarchic era, however there are no records of human sacrifices like the Mayan or Incas in America. Their gods were Lapta (god of the sun), Kati (god of the moon), Slilma (god of the stars), Alwani (god of thunder), Imyula (god of lightning), Dusdawanka (god
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Brooklyn Rivera, one of the Miskito guerrilla leaders, became the director of the INDERA (Nicaraguan Institute of Development of Autonomous Regions), an illegal structure under the 1987 law on autonomy. The government suppressed the INDERA a few years later, allegedly because of conflict between the
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took an interest in the affairs on the Mosquito Coast, as it had trade positions in Belize/British Honduras and Jamaica. In addition, US trading interests began to develop in the region. British governors in Belize began issuing commissions and appointments to Miskito kings and other officials, such
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Overall, the company period was known for its boom and bust economies. Massive hirings during economic upswings were followed by massive layoffs. During boom times, skilled and unskilled workers would flood into town, only to return to their homes after the price of lumber, bananas, or ores dropped
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exports at Bilwi were down to 99,685 racimos and by 1960 the number was down to 9,753. Gold-mining and pine lumbering also began in the late 1800s and persisted with periodic booms and busts through the 1960s. Seafood, including shrimp and lobster, has been the most recent boom market in the region
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on the Miskito Coast opened up the region for foreign business interests and the introduction of wage labor. The period between the turn of the 20th century and the 1960s became known as the company period, and was defined by large foreign enterprises, company run communities, and wage labor in the
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and feeding banks as they surfaced for air. After being harpooned, the turtle was capable of pulling a canoe along at high speeds until eventually tiring. The hunters could then pull the turtle alongside the canoe and kill it. Once killed, the turtle was returned to the community where the meat was
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Men are considered the breadwinners of a household and contribute the majority of a family’s income, but women have the ability to make all economic decisions. Some women do housekeeping or sell small crafts to make extra money, but it is not enough by itself to support a family. Girls inherit the
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that sometimes kidnap children. According to researchers Ken Decker and Andy Keener, the Miskito share poems and stories, but do not have largely disseminated pieces of literature nor has anything been published. Media that appears in the area is largely in Spanish, with some programming in English
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Despite the 1987 peace agreement affording the Miskito people substantial territory, conflict over land rights remains. Increasing waves of settlers have relocated to ancestral Miskito lands as a result of drought and attraction to gold and timber. Illegal purchases of indigenous lands afforded the
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and decompression related deaths. Around 2013, Honduras had the highest number of decompression related deaths and sickness in the world. Estimates at that time put the number of injured somewhere over 2000, while over 300 others have died since the 1970s. The divers almost universally lack formal
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and other agricultural tools have been found in these coastal sites, however there is little evidence of permanent settlement, in-situ agriculture, nor specialized tools that would suggest adaptation to the marine environment. Furthermore, the lowland coastal soils are of poor agricultural quality
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As early as the 1950s, Miskitos worked to confront the large and small injustices their community faced. By integrating into the Nicaraguan state via land titles, the Miskito were able to participate in the larger economy of the country and hold the state accountable to their local interests. This
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The British ultimately largely failed in attempts to create fully functioning centralized political structures for the Miskito largely as a result of the heterogeneity within the Miskito population. However, their establishment of a singular political leader did allow that individual to gain favor
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Officially, the British government claimed political oversight of Miskito territory from 1740 to 1786—however, the British colonists inhabiting Miskito territory maintained the power dynamics established by the government even after their official evacuation. From 1860 to 1894, the Miskito Reserve
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converts existed in the Miskito region as early as the 1930s. Because of poor resources to send properly trained parsons and pastors, Miskito Catholics practice several "innovations" specific to the Miskito Coast. The lack of institutional Catholic presence led to many Moravian practices shared by
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As a result of the ethnic heterogeneity present in the Miskito people, various ethnic subgroups exist within the larger Miskito identity. A major ethnic distinction exists between the Miskitos; Mam, Tawira and Wangki. The Miskito Wangki constitute a large ethnic representation in the nation in the
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documented the persecution of the Miskito at the hands of the Nicaraguan government. The film features interviews with Miskito Indian people and some non-Miskito clergy who lived among them; they recounted actions of the government against them, including bombing of villages, shootings, and forced
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techniques were introduced around 1980 to enable the Miskito to expand their area for harvesting into deeper waters. Declining returns have forced divers to dive more often, deeper, and for longer, using pressurized tanks to maintain their income. In response to declining lobster populations, the
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At the beginning of a fishing trip, the lobster boats travel the coast picking up recruited dive teams and boat hands. They then search for lobster at known lobster banks between Honduras and Colombia, often illegally and usually over the course of 12–16 days. The divers are paid by the pound for
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basin had been decimated by the mid-1800s, and villagers were confronted with rising social tensions due to increased dependence on a scarce resource. In the present day, sea turtle populations have recovered to a point, but the Miskito now balance a desire for turtle products with the forces of
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and collapse when the world market busts leaving little long-term development. As such, there has always been a commercial component to the economy, however, due to the inevitability of economic busts and their isolation from national powers, the Miskito have maintained their subsistence culture
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which allowed representatives from the Miskito community to freely adhere to Nicaraguan laws and authorities while also granting Miskito people self-governance rights at the village level among other rights. This decree allowed previously marginalized Miskito to reclaim rights denied them by the
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of the 17th century. The buccaneers adopted Miskito communities as their bases and employed the Miskito in their cause. The buccaneers regularly employed local Miskito men to accompany them on their voyages as fishermen, hunters, navigators, and fighters. Through these experiences, the Miskito
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According to Meringer, Miskito people enjoyed peak levels of autonomy in the nineteenth century after British colonists were forced out of the Mosquito Coast. The Miskito people themselves rose to power in the absence of the British, enjoying ethnic preeminence and little to no threats to their
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community which later failed. The Moravian Church represents a small branch of Protestantism that emphasizes community unity and simple living. By 1894, the Moravian Church had become a major interest group in the Atlantic coast area during the Nicaraguan reincorporation of the area through the
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one year after death called Sikro. Only one leading shaman, known as Supreme Sukya or Okuli, could exist at a time and was revered by neighboring tribes as well. The Okuli exists as a representative to evil spirits, called Lasas. In the 1980s, shamans and group ceremonies took place in private.
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has acknowledged that Miskito land claims are legitimate, and any land sales were not legal. The government arrested various public notaries for the authorization of illegal land sales, and created a special commission over the issue under the prosecutor general. However, the government has not
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was signed by the nations of Central America on 21 May 2009 and was to prohibit tank assisted lobster diving within two years. These regulations, however, have not been enforced, partly because of political pressure from the fishing industry and a lack of viable economic alternatives in on the
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began developing the community into their base of operation and main export port. The companies together outfitted the community with a lumber mill, pier and port facilities, and a regional railroad system for the extraction of lumber and bananas. By 1926 Bragman’s Bluff Lumber was the largest
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The gender roles within the Miskito culture are affected more by the "boom and bust" of the local economy than by any ruler. When there are few job opportunities men rely on agricultural work and they spend time within their respective communities. There is evidence that the society followed a
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policies adopted throughout Latin America in the twentieth century, the Miskito people organized through activism to advocate for policies promoting political, social, and cultural assimilation. Specifically for the Miskito people, the activism in response to indigenismo policies encompassed a
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by attacking Spanish colonies to draw off their forces. It gained several victories alongside the British. But, at the conclusion of the peace in 1783, Britain had to cede control over the coast to Spain. The British withdrawal was completed at the end of June 1787. To compensate their Miskito
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In general, no more turtles were hunted than could satisfy the community's meat needs. However, increased demand from international markets during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries led to changes in hunting methods. The activities became market-focused instead of subsistence-focused. Foreign
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patriarchal setup during these "bust" times; however, when the economy is "booming", men generally get jobs that force them to travel. Since the 1990s men have been traveling as a result of an increase in job opportunities, and they spend significant amounts of time away from their villages.
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Regarding indigenismo, Nicaraguan officials viewed these policies as an opportunity to become more involved with the Mosquito Coast, which had previously been largely left alone. Miskito people were able to claim benefits at a larger governmental level that previously did not exist including
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Despite the presence of the British political ideology of centralized power, the political structure in the Miskito kingdom proved more tribal in nature. Late seventeenth century accounts of the Miskito describe them as an "egalitarian society" that was "sparsely populated." As the Miskito
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period maintained centralized rule under a pro-British Miskito chief. Importantly, the Nicaraguan government recognized this leader as Hereditary Chief but granted him authority over land separate from Miskito-inhabited land. Thus, through the Miskito Reserve the Miskito people were granted
2031:(Paris, 1898), pp. 57–58 Garret y Arlovi had gotten his information from missionaries near Segovia and Chontales, who reported what the indigenous people said. In addition, he interviewed Juan Ramón, an ancient African (negro). By these sources, Garret y Arlovi dated the shipwreck to 1641.
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The English regularly traded with the proto-Miskito for turtle shells, meat, lumber, hides, and other items in return, for beads, rum, clothing, food, livestock, and firearms. Many of these items were acquired by the coastal tribes through barter with inland tribes. As time passed, the
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In addition to the area's geographic isolation, the Miskito military capacity and British support allowed the people to retain their independence when Spain controlled the Pacific side of Central America. The Miskito Coast remained independent throughout much of the period of the
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in 1630, which precipitated the formation of settlements around 1633 on the Miskito Coast at Cabo Gracias a Dios, and further south at present day Bluefields, Nicaragua. The first known proto-Miskito contact with the English occurred around 1634 at the Cabo trading post.
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of trees and plants), Lidawanka (god of ocean, lakes and rivers), Rayakadawanka (god of living creatures), Sinslakadawanka (god of wisdom), Disangdawanka (god of fertility) Rakidawan (god of healing), Lasadawanka (god of dead souls) and Pruradawanka (god of death).
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family. Some villages also speak Sumu, a closely related language within these ethnic groups. In addition, many Miskitos have adopted figures of speech from English and Spanish largely resulting from increased instances of bilingualism. The Caribbean areas of
782:. This declaration has not been met with any formal response from the government of Nicaragua nor has it been recognised by any other state. The independence movement is led by Hector Williams, who is described as the leader of the Miskito and uses the title
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companies established commercial enterprises and hired Miskito turtlemen to facilitate intensive harvesting of green turtles to support sugar plantation labor, but also European palates. Exploitation was so intense that sea turtle populations in the greater
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Cwik Christian, "The Africanization of Amerindians in the Greater Caribbean: The Wayuu and Miskito, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries". In: Franklin Knight and Ruth Iyob (eds.), Dimensions of Diaspora. (Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2014)
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Miskito Coast. In a 2011 census of Honduran lobster divers, 36% of injured divers continued to dive after their first accident and 50% of divers had considered quitting due to the risks, but continued, because of the lack of viable economic alternatives.
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were then exported to Europe or the United States. By the end of the 1800s, lumber and rubber were major employers of male Miskito labor and foreign investment was high. The effects of this influx of money could be seen in the Miskito community of Bilwi.
555:. The United States involvement in war with Mexico prevented it from enforcing the doctrine. As Britain gradually became less interested in its commissioning of Miskito nobility, the Miskito effectively began to operate as an independent state. Due to
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settling farmers void land rights. Violence between settlers and Miskito, Rama, and Ulwa people have led to the burning of villages, rape of women, kidnappings and the death of at least 30. Approximately 600 indigenous people have fled to Honduras.
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as King Robert Charles Frederick, crowned in Belize in 1825. British officials regularly officially recognized the various Miskito offices; it worked to protect Miskito interests against the Central American republics and against the United States.
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larger political participation fed into the Miskito locales, affording local representatives more power regarding territorial disputes in general, allowing for increased political involvement from Miskitos not directly tied to political processes.
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called kisi for entertainment. Kisi often include tales of a trickster rabbit named Tibang or Bangbang as well as kings, overall serving themes of authority and human nature and general. Some stories include myths of Duhindu, creatures similar to
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Both sides acknowledge that the Nicaraguan government has not worked to ameliorate this conflict. The Inter-American Commission for Human Rights repeatedly called for action in order to protect the Miskitos, to no governmental response. President
1455:, using complex mental maps and systems of navigation to locate the turtles. A hunting party consisted of two men: a "strikerman" in the bow, and the "captain" in the stern. The hunters intercepted the turtles in the area between their sleeping
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employer in Nicaragua, with over 2000 workers. Pine lumbering persisted with periodic booms and busts through the 1960s. Bragman’s Lumber recorded its largest shipment of lumber at Bilwi in 1960 with just over 28.4 million linear board feet.
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Nicaragua, it has been estimated that commercial lobster diving employs over 5,000 people and affects the livelihoods of 50,000 men, women and children. Many of these people work as divers, using scuba equipment to dive and catch lobster.
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dialect of Miskito. According to Meringer, historical records reference the Tawira as "pure Indians". In order to counter their subjugation by the Zambo Miskito, the Tawira Miskito would seek out Spanish allies in the eighteenth century.
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as president of Nicaragua. Many of them had fought as Contras against him during the Nicaraguan Civil War and still opposed him. Thus, many Miskito who supported the independence movement were those who had suffered greatly economically.
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as part of their traditional subsistence economy since at least the contact era. Much of the Miskito subsistence system, and settlement patterns were based around the seasonal appearance of the green sea turtle. In the 17th century, the
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The Miskito political structure has been profoundly shaped via its interactions with other cultures including Hispanicized Nicaragua as well as the British, acting on their perception of colonial power dynamics at any given time.
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are generally adopted by women within the child's matrilocal group and taken care of by an aunt or grandmother. As women become older they also gain status within their community. In each society women who are respected elders,
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Thus, during Re-incorporation, Nicaraguan government officials targeted Creole rulers rather than Miskito Indians. Later, Miskito took this opportunity to further Miskito autonomy and political authority in the region through a
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In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Miskitos began a series of raids attacking Spanish-held territories and the still independent indigenous groups in the area. Miskito raiders reached as far north as the
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Once the Central American republics became independent in the early to mid-nineteenth century, they had less power in relation to other nations than did Spain, and struggled to protect their own territorial interests against
652:, both sides tried to enlist the Miskito in providing food and transport. In 1926, many Miskito in the Jinotega region joined Augusto Sandino and his troops. The Miskito of Jinotega had closer ties with Sandino and the
1588:; a diver apprentices who follows the diver in a canoe allowing the diver to offload his catch. In addition to 18–20 dive teams, a boat employs additional support staff to cook, clean, and manage the diving equipment.
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Prior to European contact, Miskitos were scattered along the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, inhabiting interior mountainous areas with numerous rivers and forests. The central point of Miskito territory is known as the
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examines the individuals and communities involved in this fishing industry. The film features testimony from divers who have been injured, boat owners and captains who are responsible for the divers' safety, and a
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The Miskito culture and economy is a product of intermixing between coastal indigenous tribes, European buccaneers, traders, and settlers and escaped slaves. The Moskito Coast, since colonial times, has been an
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years. Miskito kings were crowned by some of the first English settlers. Those recognized as kings by the British maintained the political structure as contact between mainland British and Miskitos increased.
1262:. These early colonists, explorers and buccaneers described the Miskito as skilled maritime people adept a seafaring, fishing, and the hunting of turtle, manatee, as well as land animals such as deer.
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Women usually begin forming relationships at age 15, and most become mothers by 18. Most women have six to eight children with their husband, but since men are not around that often there are high
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1518:. The banana boom, with its plantation employment, lasted from the 1890s −1930s – peaking in the 1931. At the port of Bilwi, Standard Fruit recorded it all-time high production of 6.1 million
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507:. Despite their official withdrawal, Britain maintained an unofficial protectorate over the kingdom. They often intervened to protect Miskito interests against Spanish encroachments.
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or Great Judge. They cited as reasons for their renewed desire for independence the serious economic problems damaging their traditional fishing industry and the recent election of
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as their primary source of income. In the early years of the lobster boom, large and plentiful lobster were found close to shore in shallow waters, and could be accessed easily by
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Miskito oral tradition states that many centuries ago a tribe emigrated from northern South America and settled on the coast at a site called Sitawala – possibly near present-day
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settlements. They sometimes rescued enslaved Miskito before they could transported beyond their reach. They also enslaved women from other tribes for use as sexual partners.
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share linguistic commonalities with the Miskito Coast population, likely stemming from the mixture of native languages, African languages, as well as colonial languages.
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supporters, the British re-settled 537 Zambo Africans often misnamed Miskitos, together with their 1,677 Native American slaves, from Mosquitia to the Bay settlement in
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native-held land for nationalization. During these decades, the mainstream of Nicaraguan national politics recognized the Miskito only when asking them to vote for the
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249:. Spanish is the language of education and government, but some families educate their children in English, German, or Miskito. Miskito Coast Creole, an English-based
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456:. Many of their captives were sold into slavery to European slave traders (even as the Zambo were originally slaves themselves), and many of them ended up working on
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and likely would not have supported permanent settlements. According to Magnus and others working in Honduran sites on the Río Tinto, these peoples were most likely
444:. Historical information on kings is often obscure as many of the kings were semi-mythical. These "kings" were not recognized by the Native American Tawira Miskito.
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Herlihy, P. H. and L. Hobson-Herlihy. 1992. La Herencia Cultural de la Reserva de la Biósfera del Río Plátano: Un Area De Confluencias Étnicas En La Mosquitia. In
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and traditional songs, as well as theatrical pieces including the symbol of the Miskito king. Regarding decorative arts, funeral ceremonies involve wooden masks.
823:
353:
Before the arrival of Europeans in the region in the early 16th century, the area was divided into numerous small egalitarian native American groups speaking old
4657:
3945:
855:
Historically, the Miskito were not recognized as a singular "people" until their population grew in the area beyond being categorized as "sparsely populated".
3647:
5256:
918:
2284:
Gilles Bataillon, " Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000) ",
4701:
4546:
4084:
3871:
Herlihy, L.H. 2012. The Mermaid and the Lobster Diver: Gender, Sexuality, and Money on the Miskito Coast. University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, NM.
1951:
544:
404:
was their transliteration of Miskito). Those living in the southern (Nicaraguan) region were less racially mixed. Modern scholars have classified them as
5048:
4742:
4406:
4401:
4708:
3655:
2721:"A Report on the English-Lexifier Creole of Nicaragua, also known as Miskito Coast Creole, with special reference to Bluefields and the Corn Islands"
818:, the Miskito Coast experienced the landfall of two major hurricanes within two weeks, breaking several Atlantic and Nicaraguan records. Slow-moving
5453:
5133:
3938:
1649:
specialist who treats injured divers. The film includes footage from aboard a commercial lobster diving vessel and from the remote Miskito Keys (or
1291:
argue that the coastal orientation of the modern Miskito was precipitated by contact and subsequent social, economic and political involvement with
2623:
2305:
4896:
626:
537:
339:
295:
290:
897:
Today, around 150,000 Miskito people live in Nicaragua. They are distributed among over 300 communities in 23 territories throughout Nicaragua’s
740:
In 1990 the Sandinistas were defeated in national elections. The Miskito signed an agreement with the newly appointed Minister of the Interior,
4974:
3904:
775:
732:
In September 1987, the Nicaraguan legislature passed a statute providing autonomy to the Miskito. This essentially defused Miskito resistance.
1163:
Most men work on fishing boats diving for lobsters. Since men spend eight months out of the year away from their families, communities have a
744:, to create "security zones," prepare the return of the national police forces to the region, and integrate 50 Miskito into the police force.
5443:
4796:
4532:
4428:
3681:
649:
5248:
4814:
4806:
4667:
4662:
653:
3881:
Nietschmann, B. 1973. Between Land and Water: The subsistence ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Seminar Press: New York.
5433:
5216:
5113:
4786:
4755:
4687:
4542:
4366:
4050:
2349:
1419:
1174:
It is extremely difficult for women to find jobs, and most rely on men and their incomes to support their children. Many women practice
525:
2875:
2154:
1502:
was little more than a small fishing village, but starting in this year a consortium of business from the United States, including the
4947:
4781:
4527:
4467:
4459:
4356:
4107:
4020:
3886:
3876:
2508:
1983:
Karl Offen, "The Sambu and Tawira Miskitu: The Colonial Origins of Intra-Miskitu Differentiation in Eastern Nicaragua and Honduras,"
864:
Cabo Gracias a Dios area. The Miskito Wangki would go on to form strong relationships with the British. The Wangki Miskito speak the
4989:
4384:
3866:
3846:
3623:
2928:
2599:
2545:
2272:
2008:
1929:
480:
3563:
2589:
691:
attacks against the revolutionary government. On 25 February 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of the counter-revolutionary leaders, took
1600:
5428:
5379:
4846:
4477:
2562:
2766:
Jamieson, Mark (1 January 2010). "A journey into symbolic disorder: Miskitu reactions to Mestizo Catholic ritual in Nicaragua".
838:
landed on November 16 only 25 km south of Eta's landing, and continued west through northern Nicaragua in the direction of
5369:
5298:
5058:
5043:
4871:
4851:
4610:
4555:
4517:
4497:
4177:
1273:
suggests that pre-contact coastal settlements were most likely temporary shellfish collection and salt manufacturing stations.
766:
addressed the violence. The public officials implicated in illegal land sales were Sandinistas, members of Ortega's own party.
408:. Rivalries between these two groups and competition for territory often led to wars, which were divisive in the 18th century.
4045:
4015:
1503:
4937:
4891:
4735:
4672:
4600:
4590:
4575:
4502:
4343:
3413:
Pineda, B. 2006. Shipwrecked Identities: Navigating race on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast. Rutgers University Press: New Jersey.
3251:
Helms, M.W. 1978. Coastal Adaptations and Contact Phenomena among the Miskito and Cuna Indians of Lower Central America. In:
3200:
2645:
815:
1451:. The harpoon was eight to ten feet in length and attached to a strong line. the turtle hunters traveled in small, seagoing
1250:
during the late 1600s-early 1700s. These early accounts claim that Miskito tribes ranged along the Caribbean coast from the
5181:
5082:
5053:
5038:
4969:
4776:
4605:
4580:
4560:
4507:
4035:
3598:
1691:
1443:
wrote that the Moskito Indians were "esteemed and coveted by all privateers" because of their skill at hunting turtle and
3218:
Magnus, R.W. 1978. The Prehistoric and Modern Subsistence Patterns of the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua: A Comparison. In:
1584:
in coastal communities to organize crews of dive teams, as well as other boat hands. A dive team consists of a diver and
1015:
attempted to proselytize the Miskito beginning in 1849, after attempting to provide a religious institution for a nearby
5186:
5176:
4959:
4881:
4861:
4585:
4565:
4522:
4512:
4472:
3990:
1580:
boat owners based in the Bay Islands of Honduras and Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua. These owners employ local recruiters or
633:
as a result of Spanish colonial influence, were not allied with the British, and often traded with the Spanish-speaking
3393:
Nietschmann, B. (1997). "Subsistence and Market: When the Turtle Collapses", in James Spradley and David McCurdy (eds)
664:
472:, as they were effective trackers. The Zambos were one of the primary drivers of slave-based depopulation of the area.
4886:
4876:
4841:
4630:
4570:
4319:
4263:
4136:
1774:
1742:
1481:
The Bilwi pier was originally constructed by the Bragman's Bluff Company to facilitate shipment of lumber and bananas.
2029:
Costa Rica y Costa de Mosquitos. Documentos para la historia de la jurisdicción territorial de Costa Rica y Colombia
1345:
and adopting European tools, food, clothing, and firearms – becoming the contact culture known today as the Miskito.
3264:
Hall, C., & H. P. Brignoli. 2003. Historical Atlas of Central America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.
3233:
Archaeology of the Mosquito Coast: A reconnaissance of the Pre-Columbian and Historic Settlement along the Río Tinto
4595:
4066:
4005:
1796:
1722:
495:
211:
3558:
2396:
5286:
5223:
5103:
5025:
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1383:
1321:
741:
425:
393:
285:
4030:
4000:
3910:
5156:
5015:
4952:
4922:
4258:
3861:
Helms, M.W. Helms. 1971. Culture Contact in a Miskito Community. University of Florida Press: Gainesville, FL.
1317:
1292:
476:
469:
389:
3985:
2147:
Wolfgang Gabbert, "In the Shadow of Empire – The Emergence of Afro-Creole Societies in Belize and Nicaragua,"
641:
3161:
Nietschmann, Bernard (1995). "Conservación, autodeterminación y el Area Protegida Costa Miskita, Nicaragua".
5418:
5171:
5098:
4964:
4942:
4677:
4273:
4205:
2024:
1861:
1728:
1477:
1349:
1259:
510:
5384:
5118:
5108:
5068:
4984:
4932:
4829:
3855:
Central America; Describing Each of the States of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica
3430:
Centero, A.N.; Cuthbert, D.W. (2004). "Notas para una historia económica de municipio de Puerto Cabezas".
2397:
Observations finales du Comité pour l'élimination de la discrimination raciale : Nicaragua. 22/09/95.
1881:
1822:
1759:
1625:
1523:
1507:
1414:
The Miskito subsistence economy was based primarily on hunting, fishing, and some limited agriculture and
1251:
1171:
right to settle on their mother’s land, and although men clear farmland, women have full ownership of it.
957:
726:
716:
319:
Post-Monarchic (20th century): The end of the Miskito Kingdom, and invasion of the Miskito territories by
223:
3815:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras".
3104:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras".
3085:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras".
3066:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras".
3047:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras".
2095:
Mary Helms, "Miskito Slaving and Culture Contact: Ethnicity and Opportunity in an Expanding Population,"
1288:
1236:
629:, were much different from the Miskito who lived along the Caribbean coast. The Miskito in Jinotega were
5161:
5128:
4979:
4910:
4682:
4361:
4268:
3592:
2742:
1811:
1556:
917:
Victor Trapp Manuel represents the Misquito people in Honduras in a congress at the National Autonomous
533:
464:. In addition, from 1720 onwards, the Jamaican colonial authorities commissioned the Miskito to capture
5030:
4156:
2479:
1447:, "for one or two of them in a ship will maintain 100 men". The traditional method of capture was the
1363:
1270:
3473:
Lobster in the Rain Forest: The Political Ecology of Miskito Wage Labor and Agricultural Deforestation
1766:
1392:
811:, Nicaragua. Damage and death toll estimates are around 100 at this time but are likely to be higher.
483:
in 1740. The British appointed John Hodgson as Superintendent of the Shore. The British established a
313:
Pre-Monarchic (from the origin of Miskito people until the 16th century): the era of the Miskito Gods.
5209:
5143:
5063:
5020:
5003:
4819:
4763:
4640:
4635:
4351:
4146:
1866:
1164:
944:
688:
593:
396:
and intermarried with the indigenous people. The Spanish referred to these mixed-race descendants as
234:
129:
3707:
1900:
1788:
1715:
428:
made informal alliances with the Miskito. These English began to crown Miskito leaders as kings (or
5354:
5123:
2360:
1646:
1406:
1284:
1224:
1124:
ascendance of Creole elites earlier in the nineteenth century and allowed the population to unify.
961:
622:
330:
Modern (21st century): the current Miskito Nation, on the Atlantic coast of Honduras and Nicaragua.
3924:
2480:"Nicaraguan Indians sought refuge in canoes from Category 5 hurricane, others sucked out of homes"
1734:
416:
5232:
5166:
5151:
4856:
4645:
4438:
3961:
3347:
2832:
2791:
2783:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1334:
1194:
1182:
898:
708:
584:
From the middle of the nineteenth century, British interest in the region began to wane. At the
3930:
2375:
1748:
1215:
1093:" but remained under the influence of a British political system through the designated chief.
5374:
4771:
4492:
4376:
4126:
3882:
3872:
3862:
3842:
3715:
3619:
3572:
3236:
3196:
2924:
2595:
2541:
2425:
2268:
2181:
2054:
2004:
1959:
1925:
1803:
1619:. Lobster production peaked, however, around 1985, and these resources were quickly depleted.
808:
656:, which organized agricultural cooperatives and built schools and health centers in the area.
585:
570:
After Nicaragua declared independence in 1821, combined Miskito-Zambo raiders began to attack
457:
148:
3559:"Diving methods and decompression sickness incidence of Miskito Indian underwater harvesters"
1919:
589:
Reserve in July, but Nicaraguan forces reoccupied in August 1894 and ended its independence.
5423:
5398:
5364:
5349:
5237:
4650:
4324:
3788:
3339:
2957:
2822:
2775:
2149:
1998:
1828:
1342:
1338:
940:
699:
along with 3000 Miskito. Meanwhile, the Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of the
560:
500:
354:
242:
238:
230:
168:
118:
2720:
2380:
4329:
3918:
1825:(born 1959), lawyer, environmentalist, and Native American rights activist from Nicaragua.
1440:
1424:
1371:
1167:
arrangement. Typically men over age 13 are rarely present during daily life in a village.
1028:
1016:
1012:
804:
800:
687:. In response, several Miskito groups formed counter-revolutionary squads, who carried on
660:
630:
552:
465:
374:
370:
250:
246:
199:
178:
163:
3193:
Between land and Water: The subsistence ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua
871:
The Tawira Miskito, in contrast, have greater native ethnic representation and speak the
683:
In the 1980s, the Sandinista government extended their influence over the region via its
203:
2453:
803:
heavily damaged coastal regions where the Miskito live. On 4 September 2007, Category 5
5311:
4791:
4299:
4289:
4220:
2310:
1876:
1569:
1531:
1499:
1395:’. A purchase society is a power dynamic in which the indigenous are not subjugated as
1388:
1379:
1330:
1255:
835:
556:
488:
405:
381:
348:
316:
Monarchic (16th – 19th centuries): the era of the Miskito kings and European influence.
300:
226:. Their population was estimated in 2024 as 535,225, with 456,000 living in Nicaragua.
219:
183:
3802:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
3142:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
3123:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
3028:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
2996:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
2977:
Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast".
2850:
2616:"Miskito Indians of Honduras Finally Granted Over 1 Million Acres of Traditional Land"
913:
5412:
5359:
4866:
4801:
4294:
4235:
4121:
4076:
3613:
2795:
1871:
1670:
1577:
1565:
1527:
1279:
819:
787:
762:
645:
397:
3471:
3253:
Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The economy and ecology of maritime Middle America.
2079:
Michael Olien, "General, Governor and Admiral: Three Miskito Lines of Succession,"
4487:
4225:
4215:
4210:
3220:
Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The economy and ecology of maritime Middle America
1851:
1834:
1781:
1650:
1620:
1564:
Increasing demand in the United States led to a boom in commercial exploitation of
1535:
1432:
1415:
1308:
1266:
1202:, are considered local experts and enforcers of correct behavior in their village.
1190:
1186:
484:
429:
366:
280:
3793:
3776:
2962:
2945:
2827:
2810:
3841:
Austin: University of Texas Press. Reprinted 1989; published originally in 1895.
3378:
5326:
5321:
5316:
2876:"Miskito facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Miskito"
1846:
1633:
Reglamento para el Ordenamiento Regional de la Pesquería de Langonsta del Caribe
1400:
1189:. Men often feel no moral obligation to take care of children because of a high
1134:
1059:
839:
609:
265:("people of Miskut"). Miskut was a legendary Miskito patriarch or great leader.
144:
894:
or Wangks River, which also serves as a border between Nicaragua and Honduras.
670:
4230:
4200:
1756:
1616:
1375:
891:
704:
461:
453:
449:
385:
358:
274:
3719:
2779:
2429:
1963:
5290:
4751:
3969:
1685:
1465:
1437:
1247:
1097:
with the British and allow for continued contact between the two societies.
999:
831:
362:
324:
215:
91:
3576:
1227:. They were led by a warrior chief named Miskut, and called themselves the
49:
3899:
3318:
Caribbean Edge: The Coming of Modern Times to Isolated People and Wildlife
2691:
2666:
2418:"Lush heartlands of Nicaragua's Miskito people spark deadly land disputes"
2345:
2291:
2182:"Nicaragua's green lobby is leaving rainforest people 'utterly destitute'"
388:
in the mid-17th century. These people, along with escaped slaves from the
5333:
4482:
3240:
1676:
1491:
1486:
1243:
1232:
1090:
1041:
905:
is a major population centre and historical site for the Miskito people.
902:
827:
696:
578:
571:
433:
320:
207:
173:
103:
3752:
2787:
2324:
2238:
1329:
proto-Miskito, in contrast to the inland peoples, mixed openly with the
17:
4809:
3351:
2509:"An Overview of the Miskito Natives | A Journey Through Nicaragua 2015"
2239:"Jinotega's Miskitos and Sumus: Little Noted Victims of the Contra War"
1682:
1612:
1609:
1448:
1444:
1396:
1374:
economies where markets develop to exploit specific resources, such as
949:
700:
692:
634:
441:
437:
59:
3503:
La Reserva de la Biósfera del Río Plátano: Herencia de Nuestro Pasado.
2836:
1348:
In addition to periodic trade, the Miskito were involved with English
4720:
3316:
Nietschmann, B. 1979. When the Turtle Collapses, The World Ends. In:
2110:
Las sociedades del Atlántico de Nicaragua en los siglos XVII y XVIII,
2000:
Shipwrecked Identities: Navigating Race on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast
1654:
1515:
1367:
1274:
953:
564:
504:
3615:
Endangered peoples of Latin America: struggles to survive and thrive
3343:
1921:
Endangered peoples of Latin America: struggles to survive and thrive
3854:
1952:"Nicaragua Dispute Over Indigenous Land Erupts in Wave of Killings"
3965:
2851:"Miskito Legends, Myths, and Traditional Indian Stories (Miskitu)"
2400:
1856:
1802:
1787:
1765:
1747:
1733:
1599:
1555:
1476:
1456:
1452:
1405:
1307:
1214:
1046:
912:
669:
603:
509:
415:
338:
55:
3739:
3539:
1608:
Since the 1960s, the Miskito have used free-diving techniques to
3557:
Dunford RG, Mejia EB, Salbador GW, Gerth WA, Hampson NB (2002).
2364:
1490:
extraction of natural resources. During this time, lumbering of
807:
with peak sustained winds of 160 mph struck the coast near
5252:
4724:
4080:
3934:
3682:"Empresas de EE UU ya no comprarán langosta extraída por buceo"
2921:
MISKITU TAKAIA: MISKITO IDENTITY AND TRANSFORMATION 1600 – 1979
2538:
MISKITU TAKAIA: MISKITO IDENTITY AND TRANSFORMATION 1600 – 1979
2027:
to King of Spain, 30 November 1711, in Manuel de Peralta, ed.,
721:
removal of people from their homes. The film was shown on some
3827:
Merrill, Tim L., ed. Honduras: a country study. 3rd ed., 1995.
1320:
was established off the coast on present day Nicaragua by the
722:
3708:"A Doctor Devoted to Keeping Honduras's Lobster Divers Alive"
3330:
Helms, M (1969). "The Cultural Ecology of a Colonial Tribe".
3235:. Center of Latin American Studies: University of Cambridge.
3222:. Eds. B.L. Stark and B. Voorhies. Academic Press: New York.
1312:
Cabo Gracias a Dios and the estuary of the Río Coco (Wanks)
822:
landed on November 3 just south of the region's major city
540:, which took an increasing strategic interest in the area.
3395:
Conformity and Conflict: Readings in Cultural Anthropology
2743:"Music of the Miskito Indians of Honduras & Nicaragua"
2563:"INDIGENOUS TERRITORIES IN NICARAGUA FACE VIOLENT ATTACKS"
1924:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 91–94.
1576:
The vast majority of fishing operations are controlled by
1485:
The establishment of European control, and later American
851:
Applicability of the term "ethnic group" to Miskito people
2594:. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 294.
2325:"How to Read the Reagan Administration: The Miskito Case"
842:. Both hurricanes were strong Category 4s upon landfall.
3255:
Eds: B.L Stark and B. Voorhies. Academic Press: New York
528:, but Nicaragua finally absorbed the territory in 1894.
3320:. Pp. 173–189. The Bobbs-Merril Company Inc.: New York.
2809:
Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1 January 1984).
1469:
local, national, and international conservation goals.
1242:
The earliest European accounts of the Miskito are from
711:
in the Río Coco zone, which was maintained until 1988.
3364:
Gold, J.N. 2009. Indigenous Honduras (Chapter 2). In:
2138:. The University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, NM.
2053:
M. W. "The Mosqueto Indian and His Golden River," in
998:
Prior to contact, Miskito people practiced a type of
3839:
Tangweera: Life and Adventures among Gentle Savages.
5342:
5297:
5142:
5081:
5002:
4909:
4828:
4762:
4623:
4541:
4458:
4449:
4419:
4375:
4342:
4312:
4282:
4251:
4244:
4193:
4164:
4114:
1534:, the banana economy quickly busted. By the end of
1514:The other major boom market for this period was in
1403:via trade – retaining their autonomy and identity.
659:During the 1960s and the 1970s, Nicaragua began to
592:Various major American fruit companies such as the
559:economic interest in Central America (particularly
154:
138:
109:
77:
67:
40:
826:, and after one day turned west-northwest towards
551:The latter contested British influence as per the
296:South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua
291:North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua
3911:The Miskito Indians, described by William Dampier
1391:– what anthropologist Mary Helms refers to as a ‘
1239:. These people became known as the beach people.
3231:Clark, C.M., F.G. Dawson, and J.C. Drake. 1982.
4787:Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1838)
3552:
3550:
3294:. University of Florida Press: Gainesville, FL.
1357:Balancing commercial and subsistence activities
674:Miskito family outside their house in Nicaragua
2646:"Honduras's gift to indigenous Miskito people"
1058:The Miskito have musical traditions including
981:Polytheism (Katidawanka, laptadawanka, etc.).
5264:
4736:
4092:
3946:
3775:Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1984).
3579:. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013
3465:
2944:Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1984).
1101:18th century self-rule in the Miskito kingdom
494:The Miskito kingdom aided Britain during the
8:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
1807:Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation
1792:Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation
1770:Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation
1752:Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation
1219:1894 photograph of a group of Miskito people
939:The majority of Miskitos speak their native
608:A family of Miskito people living along the
35:
2411:
2409:
2061:(6 vols., London, 1728) vol. 6 pp. 285–290.
707:zone. In 1983, the government proclaimed a
567:), they regularly traded with the Miskito.
237:. Most also speak other languages, such as
54:Miskito people changing a bus tire between
5271:
5257:
5249:
5091:
5087:
5008:
4915:
4834:
4743:
4729:
4721:
4455:
4372:
4248:
4190:
4099:
4085:
4077:
3978:
3953:
3939:
3931:
3523:. Centro de Estudios Marinos: Tegucigalpa.
3521:Censo de Buzos de Gracias a Dios, Honduras
3505:Ed. Vicente Murphy, Pp. 9–13. Tegucigalpa.
1387:without being absorbed into the full-time
1110:Re-incorporation in the nineteenth century
487:over the Miskito Nation, often called the
48:
34:
3792:
3656:U.S. Agency for International Development
2961:
2826:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
1246:colonists in 1633 and English and French
640:During the conflict in 1927–1933 between
4067:Indigenous peoples by geographic regions
3927:, National Museum of the American Indian
3646:Best, Barbara (September–October 2013).
2454:"Nicaragua's Miskitos seek independence"
2136:The Anglo-Spanish Struggle for Mosquitia
1504:Bragman’s Bluff Lumber and Fruit Company
943:. The Miskito language is a part of the
774:In April 2009 a group of Miskito elders
491:(related to the original Spanish name).
5439:North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region
3384:A Project Gutenberg of Australia eBook.
2923:. Ann Arbor: Arizona State University.
2540:. Ann Arbor: Arizona State University.
2287:Journal de la Société des Américanistes
2228:Gabbert, "Shadow of Empire," pp. 52–53.
1892:
1418:. The nature of the economy was one of
814:Towards the end of the record-breaking
627:North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region
424:English privateers working through the
3706:Malkin, Elisabeth (9 September 2011).
3590:
3544:Nomading Films and Fall Line Pictures.
3497:
3495:
3493:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3292:Culture Contact in a Miskito Community
2914:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2761:
2759:
2714:
2712:
2531:
2529:
2503:
2501:
2448:
2446:
5449:Indigenous peoples of Central America
3676:
3674:
3672:
3641:
3639:
3637:
3635:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3214:
3212:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2091:
2089:
1945:
1943:
1941:
650:United States occupation of Nicaragua
7:
4797:United States occupation (1912–1933)
3858:. London: Trelawney Saunders (1850).
3432:Wani Revista del Caribe Nicaragüense
2350:Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting
2346:Public TV Tilts Toward Conservatives
901:and the Mosquito Coast. The town of
654:Sandinista National Liberation Front
78:Regions with significant populations
27:Indigenous people of Central America
3618:. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
2622:. 24 September 2013. Archived from
2245:. Central American University – UCA
2097:Journal of Anthropological Research
2059:A Collection of Voyages and Travels
1950:Robles, Frances (16 October 2016).
1901:"People Name: Miskito of Nicaragua"
1547:The lobster economy and controversy
1522:(clusters) in 1931. As a result of
526:Federal Republic of Central America
514:Shield of the Misquito royal house.
380:Some African people arrived at the
357:. The Spanish listed 30 nations in
4108:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
3564:Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine
2180:Carroll, Rory (26 November 2006).
1460:divided among family and friends.
1304:Early trade and English buccaneers
25:
5459:African–Native American relations
3648:"Lobsters, Reefs and Livelihoods"
2561:Miranda, Wilfredo (5 June 2020).
1657:-hunting grounds of the Miskito.
1500:Bilwi (Puerto Cabezas), Nicaragua
1322:English Providence Island Company
665:Nicaraguan National Liberal Party
481:Treaty of Friendship and Alliance
475:The Zambo Miskito leader and the
377:) during the early 17th century.
5280:
4155:
4044:
4029:
4014:
3999:
3984:
3898:
3652:FrontLines (2012–2017.usaid.gov)
3368:. Green Wood Press, Westport, CT
2217:Adventures on the Mosquito Shore
1498:Prior to 1921, the community of
748:Miskito and other native groups
420:Drawing of a Miskito King (1869)
261:“Miskito” derives from the term
96:
84:
5454:Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua
3917:, Vol.1, no.2 (1681 account by
3366:Culture and Customs of Honduras
2919:Meringer, Eric Rodrigo (2007).
2728:Summer Institute of Linguistics
2536:Meringer, Eric Rodrigo (2007).
2416:Galanova, Mira (1 March 2017).
2306:ON 13, SANDINISTAS VS. MISKITOS
1211:Pre-contact subsistence economy
679:Political conflict in the 1980s
202:. Their territory extends from
4820:Post-Sandinista period (1990–)
3519:Bonilla, S. and S. Box. 2012.
2741:Blair Stiffler, David (1981).
2591:The Miskitu People of Awastara
2070:M. W. "Mosketo Indian" p. 293.
1997:Pineda, Baron (5 April 2006).
1269:in Nicaragua by archaeologist
1128:Twentieth century mobilization
816:2020 Atlantic hurricane season
778:from Nicaragua under the name
1:
4815:Sandinista period (1979–1990)
3794:10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060
2963:10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060
2828:10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060
2569:. Latin America News Dispatch
2376:"Il y a Miskitos et Miskitos"
1814:, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu
1799:, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu
1784:, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu
1777:, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu
1762:, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu
830:and then north back into the
685:Comités de Defensa Sandinista
621:The Miskito who lived in the
269:Important Miskito communities
229:The Miskito people speak the
5444:African diaspora in Honduras
3777:"Kingship among the Miskito"
3380:A New Voyage Round the World
3191:Nietchmann, Bernard (1973).
2946:"Kingship among the Miskito"
2811:"Kingship among the Miskito"
2361:Sundance Film Festival: 1986
2219:(New York, 1891) pp. 346–52.
2003:. Rutgers University Press.
1420:subsistence and reciprocity.
1399:, but still interact with a
780:Community Nation of Moskitia
496:American War of Independence
5134:Water supply and sanitation
3195:. New York: Seminar Press.
2112:(Managua, 1995), pp. 165–66
1775:George William Albert Hendy
1743:George Augustus Frederic II
1738:King of the Mosquito Nation
1318:colony of Providence Island
1050:and in regional languages.
795:Impact of recent hurricanes
770:Declaration of independence
5475:
5434:Ethnic groups in Nicaragua
3612:Stonich, Susan C. (2001).
2588:Dennis, Philip A. (2010).
2265:Nicaragua: Those Passed By
1918:Stonich, Susan C. (2001).
1797:Jonathan Charles Frederick
1723:George Frederic Augustus I
1640:The 2012 documentary film
1333:and adopted some of their
1299:Post-contact mixed economy
1121:Decree of Re-incorporation
975:Moravian and Catholicism.
714:A 1986 documentary called
346:
5395:
5203:
5094:
5090:
5011:
4918:
4837:
4802:Somoza Family (1936–1979)
4696:
4153:
4063:
3976:
3597:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3016:Honduras: a country study
1604:Free-diving lobster diver
725:stations and at the 1986
426:Providence Island Company
301:Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua
159:
143:
114:
82:
72:
47:
4923:Administrative divisions
4782:Mexican rule (1822–1823)
2855:www.native-languages.org
2780:10.1177/1466138110370415
2042:Sambu and Tawira Miskitu
1818:Other important figures
1431:The Miskito have hunted
637:from the Pacific coast.
538:United States government
412:British-Miskito alliance
390:Providence Island colony
343:Miskito hut in Nicaragua
286:Gracias a Dios, Honduras
5429:Circum-Caribbean tribes
3470:Dodds, David J (1998).
2750:Ethnic Folkways Records
2620:First Peoples Worldwide
1862:La Mosquitia (Honduras)
1729:Robert Charles Frederic
1401:merchant or elite class
1254:, south of present-day
1235:and around present day
281:Corn Islands, Nicaragua
212:Río Grande de Matagalpa
198:are a native people in
5287:Ancestry and ethnicity
3754:My Village, My Lobster
3741:My Village, My Lobster
3541:MY VILLAGE, MY LOBSTER
2168:Anglo-Spanish Struggle
2108:Gérman Romero Vargas,
2025:Benito Garret y Arlovi
1882:Nicaragua Was Our Home
1823:Lottie Cunningham Wren
1808:
1793:
1771:
1760:William Henry Clarence
1753:
1739:
1642:My Village, My Lobster
1626:decompression sickness
1605:
1561:
1482:
1425:social security system
1411:
1313:
1265:Work conducted around
1260:Cabo Camarón, Honduras
1220:
978:Old Miskito religion:
922:
919:University of Honduras
727:Sundance Film Festival
717:Nicaragua Was Our Home
675:
613:
577:Their society allowed
515:
452:, and as far south as
440:and, by the 1750s, an
421:
344:
303:(current capital city)
224:Western Caribbean zone
4429:European colonization
2083:45/2 (1998): 278–318.
1812:Robert Henry Clarence
1806:
1791:
1769:
1751:
1737:
1603:
1559:
1480:
1409:
1311:
1218:
916:
776:declared independence
673:
642:Augusto César Sandino
607:
513:
419:
342:
275:Bluefields, Nicaragua
155:Related ethnic groups
4990:Territorial disputes
4147:Solutrean hypothesis
3907:at Wikimedia Commons
3781:American Ethnologist
2950:American Ethnologist
2880:www.encyclopedia.com
2815:American Ethnologist
2719:Decker, Ken (1998).
2099:39/2 (1983): 179–97.
1867:Matrilocal residence
1532:soil fungus outbreak
1237:Sandy Bay, Nicaragua
962:Providence, Colombia
868:dialect of Miskito.
594:United Fruit Company
277:(first capital city)
235:Miskito Coast Creole
130:Miskito Coast Creole
4528:Trinidad and Tobago
3377:Dampier, W. (1697)
2513:sites.dartmouth.edu
2384:, 27 February 1992
1987:49/2 (2002) 328-33.
1647:hyperbaric medicine
1524:economic depression
1378:, precious lumber,
1289:Bernard Nietschmann
1225:Cabo Gracias a Dios
1132:In response to the
1071:Political structure
945:Misumalpan language
623:Jinotega Department
479:concluded a formal
394:Cape Gracias a Dios
42:Miskitu Uplica Nani
37:
5059:Telecommunications
4688:In popular culture
4439:Columbian exchange
4434:Population history
4165:Mythology/Religion
3962:Indigenous peoples
3712:The New York Times
2486:. 7 September 2007
2215:E. George Squier,
2186:Guardian Unlimited
2134:Floyd, T.S. 1967.
1956:The New York Times
1809:
1794:
1772:
1754:
1740:
1710:George II Frederic
1606:
1562:
1483:
1473:The company period
1412:
1314:
1229:Miskut uplika nani
1221:
1195:Abandoned children
1156:different tribes.
1040:The Miskito share
923:
899:Caribbean Lowlands
709:state of emergency
676:
617:Early 20th century
614:
612:river in Nicaragua
516:
422:
345:
5406:
5405:
5246:
5245:
5199:
5198:
5195:
5194:
5077:
5076:
4998:
4997:
4975:Political parties
4970:National Assembly
4938:Foreign relations
4905:
4904:
4718:
4717:
4619:
4618:
4415:
4414:
4338:
4337:
4308:
4307:
4127:Pre-Columbian era
4074:
4073:
4058:
4057:
3903:Media related to
3837:Bell, C. Napier;
3686:Diario El Heraldo
3018:, page 100, 1995.
3014:Merrill, Tim L.,
2567:Latindispatch.com
2290:, 2001, tome 87,
2055:Awnsham Churchill
1539:since the 1970s.
1366:characterized by
1364:economic frontier
1271:Richard W. Magnus
1080:English influence
809:Punta Gorda River
586:Treaty of Managua
392:, settled around
192:
191:
149:Roman Catholicism
16:(Redirected from
5466:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5273:
5266:
5259:
5250:
5226:
5219:
5212:
5182:National symbols
5092:
5088:
5039:Economic history
5034:
5009:
4916:
4835:
4777:Spanish conquest
4745:
4738:
4731:
4722:
4456:
4373:
4249:
4191:
4159:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4078:
4048:
4033:
4018:
4003:
3988:
3979:
3955:
3948:
3941:
3932:
3902:
3824:
3811:
3798:
3796:
3759:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3678:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3643:
3630:
3629:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3596:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3554:
3545:
3537:
3524:
3517:
3506:
3499:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3478:
3467:
3440:
3439:
3427:
3414:
3411:
3398:
3391:
3385:
3375:
3369:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3327:
3321:
3314:
3295:
3290:Helms, M. 1971.
3288:
3265:
3262:
3256:
3249:
3243:
3229:
3223:
3216:
3207:
3206:
3188:
3167:
3166:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3025:
3019:
3012:
3006:
3005:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2916:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2830:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2763:
2754:
2753:
2747:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2725:
2716:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2626:on 10 April 2017
2612:
2606:
2605:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2533:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2505:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2450:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2413:
2404:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2373:
2367:
2358:
2352:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2321:
2315:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2282:
2276:
2263:*Asleson, Vern,
2261:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2220:
2213:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2177:
2171:
2164:
2158:
2145:
2139:
2132:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2093:
2084:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2051:
2045:
2038:
2032:
2021:
2015:
2014:
1994:
1988:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1947:
1936:
1935:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1905:peoplegroups.org
1897:
1829:Myrna Cunningham
1669:c. 1650–c. 1687
1661:Notable Miskitos
1410:Green sea turtle
1393:purchase society
1343:their vocabulary
1337:, incorporating
1256:Bilwi, Nicaragua
1151:Gender relations
941:Miskito language
561:British Honduras
519:Independence era
501:British Honduras
398:"Mosquito Zambo"
355:Miskito language
263:Miskut uplikanan
231:Miskito language
102:
100:
99:
90:
88:
87:
68:Total population
52:
38:
21:
5474:
5473:
5469:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5464:
5463:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5402:
5391:
5338:
5293:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5247:
5242:
5229:
5222:
5215:
5208:
5191:
5187:Public holidays
5138:
5073:
5049:Nicaragua Canal
5032:
4994:
4960:Law enforcement
4901:
4897:Water resources
4882:Protected areas
4824:
4758:
4749:
4719:
4714:
4692:
4615:
4537:
4451:
4445:
4421:
4411:
4371:
4334:
4304:
4278:
4240:
4189:
4178:List of deities
4160:
4151:
4110:
4105:
4075:
4070:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4039:
4034:
4024:
4019:
4009:
4004:
3994:
3989:
3972:
3959:
3925:Miskito artwork
3919:William Dampier
3895:
3834:
3832:Further reading
3814:
3801:
3774:
3767:
3762:
3751:
3747:
3738:
3734:
3724:
3722:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3690:
3688:
3680:
3679:
3670:
3660:
3658:
3645:
3644:
3633:
3626:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3589:
3582:
3580:
3556:
3555:
3548:
3538:
3527:
3518:
3509:
3500:
3491:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3469:
3468:
3443:
3429:
3428:
3417:
3412:
3401:
3392:
3388:
3376:
3372:
3363:
3359:
3344:10.2307/3772938
3329:
3328:
3324:
3315:
3298:
3289:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3250:
3246:
3230:
3226:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3190:
3189:
3170:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3013:
3009:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2931:
2918:
2917:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2859:
2857:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2765:
2764:
2757:
2745:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2710:
2700:
2698:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2675:
2673:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2629:
2627:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2572:
2570:
2560:
2559:
2555:
2548:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2517:
2515:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2489:
2487:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2463:
2461:
2460:. 3 August 2009
2452:
2451:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2374:
2370:
2359:
2355:
2344:
2340:
2330:
2328:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2283:
2279:
2262:
2258:
2248:
2246:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2214:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2165:
2161:
2153:24 (2007): 49 (
2146:
2142:
2133:
2116:
2107:
2103:
2094:
2087:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2011:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1966:
1949:
1948:
1939:
1932:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1843:
1810:1891–1908 H.E.
1795:1889–1890 H.E.
1780:1888–1889 H.E.
1773:1879–1888 H.E.
1741:1842–1864 H.M.
1727:1825–1842 H.M.
1721:1816–1824 H.M.
1714:1800–1816 H.M.
1708:1777–1800 H.M.
1702:1755–1776 H.M.
1696:1739–1755 H.M.
1690:1729–1739 H.M.
1663:
1631:OSP-02-2009 –
1598:
1554:
1549:
1475:
1441:William Dampier
1382:, bananas, and
1359:
1335:cultural traits
1306:
1301:
1287:and Geographer
1213:
1208:
1153:
1130:
1112:
1103:
1082:
1073:
1068:
1056:
1038:
1026:
1013:Moravian Church
1009:
1007:Moravian Church
996:
987:
970:
937:
932:
911:
887:
882:
861:
853:
848:
805:Hurricane Felix
801:Hurricane Mitch
797:
772:
754:
738:
681:
619:
602:
553:Monroe Doctrine
521:
414:
375:William Dampier
371:Daniel Montbars
351:
337:
310:
271:
259:
251:creole language
200:Central America
188:
184:Afro-Caribbeans
134:
97:
95:
94:
85:
83:
73:700,000–800,000
63:
43:
33:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5472:
5470:
5462:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5419:Miskito people
5411:
5410:
5404:
5403:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5389:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5346:
5344:
5343:Non-Indigenous
5340:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5303:
5301:
5295:
5294:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5268:
5261:
5253:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5240:
5235:
5228:
5227:
5220:
5213:
5205:
5204:
5201:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5148:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5137:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5095:
5085:
5079:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5072:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5054:Stock Exchange
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5006:
5000:
4999:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4956:
4955:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4919:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4877:Municipalities
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4842:Climate change
4838:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4792:Mosquito Coast
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4768:
4766:
4760:
4759:
4750:
4748:
4747:
4740:
4733:
4725:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4705:
4697:
4694:
4693:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4627:
4625:
4624:Related topics
4621:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4370:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4348:
4346:
4340:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4255:
4253:
4246:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4221:Medicine wheel
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4197:
4195:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4161:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4132:Classification
4129:
4124:
4118:
4116:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4104:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4072:
4071:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4055:
4042:
4040:
4027:
4025:
4012:
4010:
3997:
3995:
3982:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3950:
3943:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3922:
3908:
3905:Miskito people
3894:
3893:External links
3891:
3890:
3889:
3887:978-0128802502
3879:
3877:978-0826350930
3869:
3859:
3850:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3825:
3812:
3799:
3787:(4): 718–737.
3772:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3745:
3732:
3698:
3668:
3631:
3624:
3604:
3546:
3525:
3507:
3489:
3441:
3415:
3399:
3386:
3370:
3357:
3322:
3296:
3266:
3257:
3244:
3224:
3208:
3201:
3168:
3153:
3134:
3115:
3096:
3077:
3058:
3039:
3020:
3007:
2988:
2969:
2936:
2929:
2892:
2867:
2842:
2821:(4): 718–737.
2801:
2774:(3): 409–424.
2755:
2733:
2708:
2683:
2658:
2637:
2607:
2600:
2580:
2553:
2546:
2525:
2497:
2471:
2442:
2405:
2389:
2368:
2353:
2338:
2327:. Envio.org.ni
2316:
2314:, 29 July 1986
2311:New York Times
2298:
2277:
2267:, Galde Press
2256:
2230:
2221:
2199:
2172:
2170:, pp. 119–140.
2159:
2140:
2114:
2101:
2085:
2072:
2063:
2046:
2040:Offen (2002),
2033:
2016:
2009:
1989:
1976:
1937:
1930:
1910:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1877:Mosquito Coast
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1816:
1815:
1800:
1785:
1778:
1763:
1745:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1716:Prince Stephen
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1679:
1673:
1665:Miskito Kings
1662:
1659:
1597:
1594:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1508:Standard Fruit
1474:
1471:
1389:market economy
1358:
1355:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1152:
1149:
1129:
1126:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1055:
1052:
1037:
1034:
1025:
1022:
1008:
1005:
995:
992:
986:
983:
972:Christianity:
969:
966:
936:
933:
931:
928:
910:
907:
886:
883:
881:
878:
860:
857:
852:
849:
847:
846:Classification
844:
836:Hurricane Iota
796:
793:
771:
768:
753:
750:
742:Carlos Hurtado
737:
734:
680:
677:
625:, west of the
618:
615:
601:
598:
545:United Kingdom
520:
517:
503:, present-day
489:Mosquito Coast
470:Blue Mountains
413:
410:
406:Tawira Miskito
382:Mosquito Coast
349:Mosquito Coast
347:Main article:
336:
333:
332:
331:
328:
317:
314:
309:
306:
305:
304:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
270:
267:
258:
255:
220:Mosquito Coast
190:
189:
187:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
160:
157:
156:
152:
151:
141:
140:
136:
135:
133:
132:
127:
124:
121:
115:
112:
111:
107:
106:
80:
79:
75:
74:
70:
69:
65:
64:
53:
45:
44:
41:
31:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5471:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5416:
5414:
5401:
5400:
5394:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5335:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5302:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5274:
5269:
5267:
5262:
5260:
5255:
5254:
5251:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5214:
5211:
5207:
5206:
5202:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5149:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5114:Ethnic groups
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5080:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5001:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4908:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4827:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4746:
4741:
4739:
4734:
4732:
4727:
4726:
4723:
4711:
4710:
4706:
4704:
4703:
4699:
4698:
4695:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4543:South America
4540:
4534:
4533:United States
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4460:North America
4457:
4454:
4450:Modern groups
4448:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4418:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4345:
4341:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4313:South America
4311:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4250:
4247:
4243:
4237:
4236:Turtle Island
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4196:
4194:North America
4192:
4186:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4158:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4122:Paleo-Indians
4120:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4095:
4090:
4088:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4069:
4068:
4062:
4053:
4052:
4051:South America
4047:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4021:North America
4017:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3956:
3951:
3949:
3944:
3942:
3937:
3936:
3933:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3916:
3915:Athena Review
3912:
3909:
3906:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3868:
3867:0-8130-0298-2
3864:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3852:Baily, John.
3851:
3848:
3847:0-292-78066-4
3844:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3831:
3826:
3823:(2): 143–159.
3822:
3818:
3813:
3810:(2): 133–149.
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3755:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3736:
3733:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3699:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3625:0-313-30856-X
3621:
3617:
3616:
3608:
3605:
3600:
3594:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3542:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3475:
3474:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3228:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3135:
3131:(2): 139–140.
3130:
3126:
3119:
3116:
3112:(2): 143–159.
3111:
3107:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3008:
3004:(2): 133–149.
3003:
2999:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2970:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2940:
2937:
2932:
2930:9780549309680
2926:
2922:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2905:
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2601:9780292789449
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2547:9780549309680
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2273:1-931942-16-1
2270:
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2243:Revista Envío
2240:
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2119:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2044:, pp. 337–40.
2043:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2010:9780813539430
2006:
2002:
2001:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1977:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1931:0-313-30856-X
1927:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1872:Miskito Sambu
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1831:, politician.
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1798:
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1764:
1761:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1744:
1736:
1732:
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1726:
1724:
1720:
1718:(King Regent)
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1678:
1675:c. 1687–1720
1674:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1653:), the noted
1652:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1602:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1570:Moskito Coast
1567:
1566:spiny lobster
1560:Spiny Lobster
1558:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:United States
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1493:
1488:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1467:
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1454:
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1446:
1442:
1439:
1434:
1433:green turtles
1429:
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1417:
1408:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
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1340:
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1326:
1323:
1319:
1310:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1293:Great Britain
1290:
1286:
1285:Mary W. Helms
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:divorce rates
1184:
1179:
1177:
1176:magia amorosa
1172:
1168:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1148:
1144:
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1127:
1125:
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984:
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979:
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965:
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946:
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906:
904:
900:
895:
893:
884:
879:
877:
874:
869:
867:
858:
856:
850:
845:
843:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
820:Hurricane Eta
817:
812:
810:
806:
802:
794:
792:
789:
788:Daniel Ortega
785:
781:
777:
769:
767:
764:
763:Daniel Ortega
758:
751:
749:
745:
743:
735:
733:
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728:
724:
719:
718:
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
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672:
668:
666:
662:
657:
655:
651:
647:
646:United States
643:
638:
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632:
628:
624:
616:
611:
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582:
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541:
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431:
427:
418:
411:
409:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
384:from wrecked
383:
378:
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368:
364:
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350:
341:
334:
329:
326:
322:
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209:
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197:
185:
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137:
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108:
105:
93:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
57:
51:
46:
39:
30:
19:
5397:
5306:
5224:Bibliography
5104:Demographics
5026:Central Bank
4965:Armed Forces
4948:Human rights
4928:Constitution
4707:
4700:
4422:colonization
4226:The red road
4216:Medicine man
4211:Great Spirit
4065:
4043:
4028:
4013:
3998:
3983:
3914:
3853:
3838:
3820:
3816:
3807:
3803:
3784:
3780:
3765:Bibliography
3753:
3748:
3740:
3735:
3723:. Retrieved
3711:
3701:
3689:. Retrieved
3685:
3659:. Retrieved
3651:
3614:
3607:
3593:cite journal
3581:. Retrieved
3571:(2): 74–85.
3568:
3562:
3540:
3520:
3502:
3480:. Retrieved
3472:
3435:
3431:
3394:
3389:
3379:
3373:
3365:
3360:
3338:(1): 76–84.
3335:
3331:
3325:
3317:
3291:
3260:
3252:
3247:
3232:
3227:
3219:
3192:
3162:
3156:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3128:
3124:
3118:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3015:
3010:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2920:
2883:. Retrieved
2879:
2870:
2858:. Retrieved
2854:
2845:
2818:
2814:
2804:
2771:
2767:
2749:
2736:
2727:
2699:. Retrieved
2695:
2686:
2674:. Retrieved
2670:
2661:
2649:. Retrieved
2640:
2628:. Retrieved
2624:the original
2619:
2610:
2590:
2583:
2571:. Retrieved
2566:
2556:
2537:
2516:. Retrieved
2512:
2488:. Retrieved
2484:Toronto Star
2483:
2474:
2462:. Retrieved
2457:
2433:. Retrieved
2422:The Guardian
2421:
2392:
2379:
2371:
2356:
2341:
2329:. Retrieved
2319:
2309:
2301:
2295:(in Spanish)
2285:
2280:
2264:
2259:
2247:. Retrieved
2242:
2233:
2224:
2216:
2190:. Retrieved
2185:
2175:
2167:
2162:
2148:
2143:
2135:
2109:
2104:
2096:
2081:Ethnohistory
2080:
2075:
2066:
2058:
2049:
2041:
2036:
2028:
2019:
1999:
1992:
1985:Ethnohistory
1984:
1979:
1967:. Retrieved
1955:
1920:
1913:
1904:
1895:
1852:Grisi siknis
1835:Rudel Calero
1817:
1782:Andrew Hendy
1664:
1651:Miskito Cays
1641:
1639:
1632:
1621:Scuba diving
1607:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1563:
1552:The industry
1541:
1519:
1513:
1497:
1484:
1462:
1430:
1416:silviculture
1413:
1360:
1347:
1327:
1315:
1267:Pearl Lagoon
1264:
1241:
1228:
1222:
1199:
1191:illegitimacy
1180:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1131:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1104:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1074:
1066:Institutions
1060:round dances
1057:
1039:
1027:
1010:
997:
988:
985:Miskito Gods
980:
977:
974:
971:
938:
924:
896:
888:
872:
870:
865:
862:
854:
813:
798:
783:
779:
773:
759:
755:
752:21st century
746:
739:
731:
715:
713:
684:
682:
658:
639:
620:
600:20th century
591:
583:
576:
569:
550:
542:
530:
522:
493:
485:protectorate
474:
446:
423:
401:
379:
367:Henry Morgan
352:
308:Miskito Eras
262:
260:
228:
218:, along the
204:Cape Camarón
195:
193:
32:Ethnic group
29:
5385:Palestinian
5327:Awas Tingni
5016:Agriculture
4953:LGBT rights
4847:Earthquakes
4807:Sandinistas
4631:Ethnobotany
4488:El Salvador
4390:Visual arts
4259:Cosmovision
4245:Mesoamerica
4206:Fifth World
4172:Mythologies
4137:Archaeology
4115:Pre-history
3725:20 November
3691:20 November
3163:Mesoamérica
2768:Ethnography
2573:19 February
2490:7 September
2386:(in French)
2249:7 September
2192:7 September
1617:free-diving
1596:Controversy
1341:words into
1183:abandonment
1135:indigenismo
1024:Catholicism
840:El Salvador
784:Wihta Tara,
661:expropriate
610:Prinzapolka
534:filibusters
462:plantations
386:slave ships
145:Moravianism
62:, Nicaragua
5413:Categories
5299:Indigenous
5172:Mass media
5162:Literature
5099:Corruption
5033:(currency)
4943:Government
4852:Ecoregions
4810:v. Contras
4673:Philosophy
4478:Costa Rica
4452:by country
4283:Variations
4274:World tree
4231:Totem pole
4201:Arborglyph
3202:0128802502
2956:(4): 718.
2696:Ethnologue
2671:Ethnologue
2381:L'Humanité
2023:Letter of
1888:References
1755:1865–1879
1681:1720–1728
1568:along the
1350:buccaneers
1252:Wawa River
1248:buccaneers
1165:matrilocal
1036:Literature
958:San Andrés
892:Coco River
866:Wanki Bila
705:Coco River
454:Costa Rica
359:Taguzgalpa
5291:Nicaragua
5119:Languages
5109:Education
5069:Transport
4985:President
4933:Elections
4892:Volcanoes
4872:Mountains
4830:Geography
4752:Nicaragua
4668:Movements
4663:Languages
4611:Venezuela
4556:Argentina
4518:Nicaragua
4498:Guatemala
4493:Greenland
4185:Religions
3970:continent
3817:Ethnology
3804:Ethnology
3720:0362-4331
3583:2 January
3482:2 January
3332:Ethnology
3150:(2): 135.
3144:Ethnology
3125:Ethnology
3106:Ethnology
3093:(2): 154.
3087:Ethnology
3074:(2): 145.
3068:Ethnology
3055:(2): 144.
3049:Ethnology
3036:(2): 136.
3030:Ethnology
2998:Ethnology
2985:(2): 133.
2979:Ethnology
2796:145000854
2692:"Mískito"
2667:"Mískito"
2430:0261-3077
1964:0362-4331
1686:Jeremy II
1586:cayuquero
1582:sacabuzos
1466:Caribbean
1438:buccaneer
1372:boom/bust
1042:folktales
1000:Shamanism
994:Shamanism
885:Nicaragua
880:Geography
873:Kabo Bila
859:Subgroups
832:Caribbean
799:In 1998,
689:terrorist
648:over the
363:Tologalpa
325:Nicaragua
257:Etymology
222:, in the
216:Nicaragua
169:Cacaopera
110:Languages
92:Nicaragua
5334:Garifuna
5233:Category
5129:Religion
5031:Córdoba
4980:Politics
4911:Politics
4756:articles
4702:Category
4658:Identity
4641:Iroquois
4636:Cherokee
4601:Suriname
4591:Paraguay
4576:Colombia
4503:Honduras
4483:Dominica
4420:European
4395:Painting
4357:Colombia
4269:Religion
4264:Creation
4142:Genetics
3771:298–329.
3661:22 April
3577:12508972
3438:: 39–46.
3241:12551097
2788:24047985
2458:BBC News
2435:22 March
2188:. London
1969:22 March
1847:Garífuna
1841:See also
1704:George I
1698:Edward I
1677:Jeremy I
1613:lobsters
1530:, and a
1492:mahogany
1487:hegemony
1397:peasants
1280:riparian
1233:Honduras
1091:autonomy
1029:Catholic
968:Religion
935:Language
909:Honduras
903:Awastara
828:Honduras
697:Honduras
644:and the
635:mestizos
631:Catholic
579:polygamy
572:Honduran
536:and the
458:Jamaican
434:governor
402:Mosquito
321:Honduras
208:Honduras
196:Miskitos
174:Garifuna
164:Mayangna
139:Religion
104:Honduras
18:Miskitos
5424:Miskito
5370:English
5355:Chinese
5350:African
5312:Nicarao
5307:Miskito
5210:Outline
5177:Museums
5152:Cuisine
5144:Culture
5083:Society
5064:Tourism
5021:Banking
5004:Economy
4862:Islands
4772:Nicarao
4764:History
4678:Studies
4606:Uruguay
4581:Ecuador
4561:Bolivia
4508:Jamaica
4407:Writers
4402:Artists
4362:Ecuador
4344:Culture
4325:Mapuche
4036:Oceania
4006:Eurasia
3964:of the
3756:(2012).
3352:3772938
2885:9 April
2860:9 April
2701:3 April
2676:9 April
2651:9 April
2630:9 April
2518:3 April
2331:13 July
2292:On line
2166:Floyd,
2150:Indiana
1907:. 2024.
1692:Peter I
1610:harvest
1526:in the
1520:racimos
1516:bananas
1449:harpoon
1445:manatee
1384:logwood
1376:turtles
1339:English
1331:English
1275:Metates
1244:Puritan
1206:Economy
950:Jamaica
930:Culture
703:in the
701:Contras
557:British
477:British
468:in the
466:Maroons
450:Yucatán
442:admiral
438:general
335:History
243:English
239:Spanish
179:Maroons
126:English
123:Spanish
119:Miskito
60:Krukira
36:Miskito
5399:Portal
5380:Jewish
5375:German
5238:Portal
5124:Health
5044:Energy
4887:Rivers
4754:
4709:Portal
4646:Navajo
4586:Guyana
4566:Brazil
4523:Panama
4513:Mexico
4473:Canada
4468:Belize
4330:Muisca
4252:Common
3991:Africa
3885:
3875:
3865:
3845:
3718:
3622:
3575:
3350:
3239:
3199:
2927:
2837:644402
2835:
2794:
2786:
2598:
2544:
2464:12 May
2428:
2403:, 1995
2275:, 2004
2271:
2155:online
2007:
1962:
1928:
1671:Oldman
1655:turtle
1578:ladino
1506:, and
1457:shoals
1453:canoes
1380:rubber
1368:barter
1193:rate.
1047:gnomes
1017:German
960:, and
954:Belize
693:refuge
565:Belize
563:, now
505:Belize
460:sugar
430:chiefs
247:German
245:, and
101:
89:
5365:White
5217:Index
5167:Music
4867:Lakes
4857:Fauna
4683:Trade
4571:Chile
4385:Music
4352:Andes
4300:Olmec
4290:Aztec
3966:world
3758:IMDb.
3477:(PDF)
3348:JSTOR
3165:(29).
2833:JSTOR
2792:S2CID
2784:JSTOR
2746:(PDF)
2724:(PDF)
2401:UNHCR
2378:, in
1857:KISAN
1258:, to
1200:kukas
824:Bilwi
736:1990s
210:, to
56:Bilwi
5360:Roma
5322:Sumo
5317:Rama
5157:Film
4651:Zuni
4596:Peru
4547:list
4367:Peru
4320:Inca
4295:Maya
3883:ISBN
3873:ISBN
3863:ISBN
3843:ISBN
3727:2019
3716:ISSN
3693:2019
3663:2018
3620:ISBN
3599:link
3585:2012
3573:PMID
3484:2012
3237:OCLC
3197:ISBN
2925:ISBN
2887:2017
2862:2017
2703:2017
2678:2017
2653:2017
2632:2017
2596:ISBN
2575:2024
2542:ISBN
2520:2017
2492:2007
2466:2010
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