819:. For light models, tissue paper is used. For larger models (usually powered and radio controlled) heat-curing or heat shrink covering plastic films or heat-shrinkable synthetic fabrics are applied to the model. Microfilm covering is used for the lightest models and is made by spreading few drops of lacquer out over several square feet of water, and lifting a wire loop through it, which creates a thin plastic film. Flying models can be assembled from kits, built from plans, or made completely from scratch. A kit contains the necessary raw material, typically die- or laser-cut wood parts, some molded parts, plans, assembly instructions and may have been flight tested. Plans are intended for the more experienced modeller, since the builder must make or find the materials themselves. Scratch builders may draw their own plans, and source all the materials themselves. Any method may be labor-intensive, depending on the model in question.
1379:. They are available for both electric and liquid-fuelled engines, although they have become common with recent improvements in electric-flight technology. A model aircraft can now be fitted with four electric ducted fans for less than the cost of a single jet turbine, enabling affordable modelling of multi-engine airplanes. Compared to an unducted propeller, a ducted fan generates more thrust for the same area and speeds of up to 200 mph (320 km/h) have been recorded with electric-powered ducted fan airplanes, largely due to the higher RPMs possible with ducted fan propellers. Ducted fans are popular with scale models of jet aircraft, where they mimic the appearance of jet engines but they are also found on non-scale and sport models, and even lightweight 3D-flyers.
1764:(9.8 ft) string. Each pilot attacks only the other aircraft's streamer, to attempt to cut it with their propeller or wing. Each cut scores 100 points. Each second the model is in the air scores a point and the match runs for 4 minutes from the starter's signal. At the almost 120 mph (200 km/h) speeds of the aircraft, mistakes often lead to crash damage so two aircraft are permitted for each match. The mechanics are prepared for crashes and quickly start the second aircraft and transfer the streamer to the reserve model before launching. The action is so fast that an observer may miss the cuts of the streamers. A second loss eliminates a competitor, and the last pilot still flying wins.
1695:(tilting the engine toward the outside) yaw the model outward. The position where the lines exit the wing can compensate for the tendency of the aerodynamic drag of the lines to yaw the model inboard. Weight on the outside wing, an inside wing that is longer or has more lift than the outside wing (or even no outside wing at all) and the torque of a left rotating propeller (or flying clockwise) tend to roll the model toward the outside. Wing tip weights, propeller torque, and thrust vectoring are more effective when the model is going slowly, while rudder offset and other aerodynamic effects have more influence on a fast moving model.
321:
604:
773:
1890:
307:
1910:. Where two models at different scales are flown with the same Reynolds number, the airflow is similar. Where the Reynolds numbers differ, as for example a small-scale model flying at lower speed than the full-size craft, the airflow characteristics can differ significantly. This can make an exact scale model unflyable, and the model has to be modified in some way. For example, at low Reynolds numbers, a flying scale model usually requires a larger-than-scale propeller.
1223:
1158:
912:
960:
plateauing to a steady output, until the final turns unwind and power drops off completely. Using it efficiently is one of the challenges of competitive free-flight rubber flying, and variable-pitch propellers, differential wing and tailplane incidence and rudder settings, controlled by timers, can help to manage the torque. There are also usually motor weight restrictions in contest classes. Even so, models have achieved flights of nearly 1 hour.
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839:
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1169:, inside ductwork, usually in the fuselage. The fans were generally powered by 2 stroke engines at high RPM. They generally had 0.40 to 0.90 cu in (6.6 to 14.7 cc) displacements, but some were as small as 0.049 cu in (0.80 cc). This fan-in-tube design has been adopted successfully for electric-powered jets while glow engine powered ducted-fan aircraft are now rare. Small
1323:
too heavy, cause undue wear on the powerplant. Model aircraft propellers are usually specified as diameter Ă— pitch, in inches. For example, a 5 x 3 propeller has a diameter of 5 inches (130 mm), and a pitch of 3 inches (76 mm). The pitch is the distance that the propeller would advance if turned through one revolution in a solid medium. Two and three bladed propellers are the most common.
1676:
596:
190:
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36:
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830:(RTF) radio control aircraft are also available, however model building remains integral to the hobby for many. For a more mass market approach, foamies, injection-molded from lightweight foam (sometimes reinforced) have made indoor flight more accessible and many require little more than attaching the wing and landing gear.
623:
require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Today, this takes place mostly in Asia and
Eastern Europe. Smaller runs are possible with copper molds, and some companies use resin or rubber molds, but while the cost is lower for the mold, the durability is also lower and labor costs can be much higher.
1703:
semiannually throughout the world, most recently in 2008 in France, with a limited slate of events – special varieties of Racing (F2C or "Team Race"), combat (F2D), and speed (F2A), all limited to engines displacing 0.15 cu. in (2.5cc), and Stunt (F2b), which is essentially unlimited with regard to design and size.
1929:, resisting sudden changes in pitch and yaw. While it may be possible for a pilot to respond quickly enough to control an unstable aircraft, a radio control scale model of the same aircraft would be flyable only with design adjustments such as increased tail surfaces and wing dihedral for stability, or with
1946:
or sweep back generally leads to increasing spiral turn. Too much dihedral or sweepback generally causes Dutch roll. These all depend on the scale, as well as details of the shape and weight distribution. For example, the paper glider shown here is a contest winner when made of a small sheet of paper
1322:
propeller offers greater thrust and acceleration at low airspeed, while a small diameter and higher-pitch propeller sacrifices acceleration for higher maximum speeds. The builder can choose from a selection of propellers to match the model but a mismatched propeller can compromise performance, and if
1745:
The course is 6.2 mi (10 km), with 100 laps. Flying speeds are around 200 km/h (120 mph), which means that the pilots turn one lap in roughly 1.8 seconds. Line pull due to centrifugal force is 19 lbf (85 N). An overtaking model is steered over the heads of the competing
1683:
Also referred to as U-Control in the US, it was pioneered by the late Jim Walker who often, for show, flew three models at a time. Normally the model is flown in a circle and controlled by a pilot in the center holding a handle connected to two thin steel wires. The wires connect through the inboard
1213:
engines to provide a short, under 10 second burst of power. Government restrictions in some countries made rocket-propulsion rare but these were being eased in many places and their use was expanding, however a reclassification from "smoke producing devices" to "fireworks" has made them difficult to
474:
Many of the world's airlines allow their aircraft to be modelled for publicity. Airlines used to order large scale models of their aircraft to supply them to travel agencies as a promotional item. Desktop model airplanes may be given to airport, airline and government officials to promote an airline
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providing artificial stability. Free flight models need to have both static and dynamic stability. Static stability is the resistance to sudden changes in pitch and yaw already described, and is typically provided by the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces respectively, and by a forward center of
1702:
The events originated largely in the United States, and were later adapted for use internationally. The rules for US Competition are available from the
Academy of Model Aeronautics. The international rules are defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). World Championships are held
1173:
engines are now used in hobbyist models that resemble simplified versions of the turbojet engines found on commercial aircraft, but are not scaled-down as
Reynolds numbers come into play. The first hobbyist-developed turbine was developed and flown in the 1980s but recently have commercial examples
1148:
configurations. Variations include engines with multiple-cylinders, spark-ignition gasoline operation, carbureted diesel operation and variable compression-ratio engines. Diesels are preferred for endurance and have higher torque, and for a given capacity, can "swing" a larger propeller than a glow
959:
that is twisted to add tension, prior to flight. It is the most widely used powerplant, found on everything from children's toys to competition models. The elastic offers simplicity and durability, but has a short running time, and the initial high torque of a fully wound motor drops sharply before
1698:
Since its introduction, control line flying has developed into a competition sport. There are contest categories for control line models, including Speed, Aerobatics (AKA Stunt), Racing, Navy
Carrier, Balloon Bust, Scale, and Combat. There are variations on the basic events, including divisions by
1355:
uses gears to reduce shaft rpm, so the motor can spin much faster. The higher the gear ratio, the slower the prop rotates, which also increases torque by roughly the same ratio. This is common on larger models and on those with unusually large propellers. The reduction drive matches the powerplant
1295:
Recent developments have resulted in the use of brushless three-phase motors in model aviation. Brushless motors are more powerful and offer greater torque and efficiency. The design of brushless motors also means less internal friction, as there is no requirement for brushes to be in contact with
1741:
The mechanic stands at a pit area outside the marked flight circle. The engine is started and the model released on the start signal. For refueling, the pilot operates a fuel shutoff by a quick down elevator movement after the planned number of laps so that the model can approach the mechanic at
622:
plastic, formed in steel forms. Plastic pellets are heated into a liquid and forced into the mold under high pressure through trees that hold all the parts, and ensure plastic flows to every part of the mold. This allows a greater degree of automation than other manufacturing processes but molds
556:
skills and these scales compromised between size and detail. After WWII, manufacturers continued with these scales, however kits are also added in other divisions of the imperial system. 1:50th and 1:100th are common in Japan and France, which both use Metric. Promotional models for airlines are
443:
and free-flight research tests and may have components that can be swapped to compare various fittings and configurations, or have features such as controls that can be repositioned to reflect various in flight configurations. They are also often fitted with sensors for spot measurements and are
647:
From World War I through the 1950s, static model airplanes were also built from light weight bamboo or balsa wood and covered with tissue paper in the same manner as with flying models. This was a time-consuming process that mirrored the actual construction of airplanes through the beginning of
470:
to collect data for the design of full scale aircraft. They may be built using any suitable material, which often includes plastic, wood, metal, paper and fiberglass and may be built to a specific scale, so that the size of the original may be compared to that of other aircraft. Models may come
1763:
CLASS F2D - Control Line Combat Model
Aircraft - Two pilots compete, with four mechanics in the pit. The aircraft are light and stubby so as to maneuver quickly in the air. Each has a 8 ft 2 in (2.5 m) crepe paper streamer attached to the rear of the aircraft by a 3 m
1291:
has also become practical for R/C hobbyists, and in June 2005 a record flight of 48 hours and 16 minutes was set in
California. It is now possible to power most models under 20 lb (9.1 kg) with electric power for a cost equivalent to or lower than traditional power sources.
730:
control through a connection to the elevator. Some use a third cable to control a throttle. There are many competition categories. Speed flying is divided into classes based on engine displacement. Class 'D' 60 size speed planes can easily reach speeds well in excess of 150 mph
1742:
optimum speed, of around 31 mph (50 km/h). The mechanic catches the model by the wing, fill the tank from a pressurized can by a hose and finger valve, then restart the engine by flicking the propeller with his finger. A pitstop generally takes less than three seconds.
1684:
wing tip of the plane to a mechanism that translates the handle movement to the aircraft elevator, allowing maneuvers to be performed along the aircraft pitch axis. The pilot turns to follow the model going round, the convention being counterclockwise for upright level flight.
697:, which determines how the air reacts when flowing past the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of control surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring changes to the design.
1737:
Three pilots, plus mechanic teams, compete simultaneously in the same circle, and the object is to finish the determined course as fast as possible. Tank size is limited to 7 cc (0.43 cu in), requiring 2 or 3 refueling pitstops during the race.
552:" brand. 1:72 was popularized in the US during the Second World War by the US War Department after it requested models of commonly encountered single engine aircraft at that scale, and multi-engine aircraft in 1:144th scale. They hoped to improve aircraft
1942:. An aircraft with too large a horizontal tail on a fuselage that is too short may have a phugoid instability with increasing climbs and dives. With free flight models, this usually results in a stall or loop at the end of the initial climb. Insufficient
714:(F/F) model aircraft are uncontrolled other than by control surfaces that must be preset before flight, and must have a high degree of natural stability. Most free flying models are either unpowered gliders or rubber powered. These pre-date manned flight.
1555:(SMAE) approached Lord Wakefield for a new larger silver trophy for international competition. This trophy is the present Wakefield International Cup and was first awarded in 1928. The SMAE organized the international competitions until 1951 when the
1754:
designed for this purpose of up to 2.5 cc (0.15 cu in) are used. At the world championship level it is common for competitors design and build their own engines. Output power approaches 0.8 hp (0.60 kW) at 25,000 rpm.
1917:
is proportional to lever arm length while angular inertia is proportional to the square of the lever arm, so the smaller the scale the more quickly an aircraft or other vehicle turns in response to control inputs or outside forces.
1255:
models, both of which are small and light, where electric-power offers greater efficiency and reliability, less maintenance and mess, quieter flight and near-instantaneous throttle response compared to internal combustion engines.
1103:
and range from 0.01 cu in (0.16 cc) to over 1.0 cu in (16 cc). The smallest engines can spin a 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) propeller to over 30,000 rpm, while the larger engines turn at 10–14,000 rpm.
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444:
usually mounted on a structure that ensures the correct alignment with the airflow, and which provides additional measurements. For wind tunnel research, it is sometimes necessary only to make part of the proposed aircraft.
1749:
After two rounds of elimination heats, the 6, 9 or 12 fastest teams enter two semifinal rounds, and the three fastest teams in the semifinals go to the final, which is run over the double course. Single cylinder two-stroke
755:. Rudimentary flight controllers were first introduced in model helicopters, with standalone electronic gyroscopes used stabilize the tail rotor control. Much like quadcopters, this has now extended to all flight controls.
1356:
and propeller to their respective optimum operating speeds. Geared propellers are rare on internal combustion engines, but are common on electric motors because most electric motors spin extremely fast, but lack torque.
1190:
engines have also been used as they offer more thrust in a smaller package than a traditional glow-engine, but are not widely used due to the extremely high noise levels they produce, and are illegal in some countries.
626:
Resin kits are made in forms similar to those used for limited run plastic kits, but these molds are usually not as durable, which limits them to smaller production runs, and prices for the finished product are higher.
881:, which are columns of warm rising air created by differences of temperature on the ground such as between an asphalt parking lot and a lake. Heated air rises, carrying the glider with it. As with a powered aircraft,
1135:
are more fuel-efficient, but deliver less power than similar two-stroke engines. The power they deliver is more suited to turning larger diameter propellers for lighter weight, higher drag airframes such as with in
857:
and hand-winched against the wind by a line attached to a hook under the fuselage with a ring, so that the line drops when the model is overhead. Other methods include catapult-launching, using an elastic
344:, and is built typically for display, research, or amusement. Model aircraft are divided into two basic groups: flying and non-flying. Non-flying models are also termed static, display, or shelf models.
1729:
The international class of racing is referred to as F2C (F2 = Control-line, C=racing) or Team Race. A pilot and a mechanic compete as a team to fly small 370 g (13 oz) 65 cm (26 in)
447:
Full-scale static engineering models are also constructed for production development, often made of different materials from the proposed design. Again, often only part of the aircraft is modelled.
665:
have become increasingly common in model aircraft kits. In model helicopters, main frames and rotor blades are often made from carbon fiber, along with ribs and spars in fixed-wing aircraft wings.
655:
Ready-made desk-top models include those produced in fiberglass for travel agents and aircraft manufacturers, as well as collectors models made from die-cast metal, mahogany, resin and plastic.
1798:
Pylon racing refers to a class of air racing for radio controlled model aircraft that fly through a course of pylons. The sport is similar to the full-scale Red Bull Air Race World Series.
866:
of wingtip hand-launching has largely supplanted the earlier "javelin" type of launch. Also using ground-based power winches, hand-towing, and towing aloft using a second powered aircraft.
787:
Flying models borrow construction techniques from full-sized aircraft although the use of metal is limited. These might consist of forming a frame using thin planks of a light wood such as
685:, some flying models resemble scaled down versions of full scale aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like real aircraft. There are also models of birds, bats and
540:. For example, 1:48 scale is 1/4" to 1-foot (or 1" to 4 feet) and 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet, while in metric scales such as 1:100th, 1 centimeter equals 1 meter. 1:72 scale was introduced with
885:
is obtained by the action of the wings as the aircraft moves through the air, but in a glider, height is gained by flying through air that is rising faster than the aircraft is sinking.
644:
or card stock. Commercial models are mainly printed by publishers in
Germany or Eastern Europe but can be distributed through the internet, some of which are offered this way for free.
1875:
The FAI Drone Racing World Cup is in the F3U class (Radio
Control Multi-rotor FPV Racing). This is a highly competitive activity, involving mental exertion and big cash prizes.
1267:(NiCad) rechargeable cells that gave flight times of 5 to 10 minutes, while a comparable glow-engine provided double the flight-time. Later electric systems used more-efficient
576:
all have different common scales but there is some crossover. There is a substantial amount of duplication of more famous subjects in different scales, which can be useful for
1080:), which is sold pre-mixed as glow-fuel. Glow-engines require an external starting mechanism; the glow plug must be heated until it is hot enough to ignite fuel to start.
1241:. Electrical power began being used on models in the 1970s, but the cost delayed widespread use until the early 1990s, when more efficient battery technologies, and
1556:
1420:
1088:, which is the engine's primary power-output. Some power is lost from converting linear motion to rotary and in lost heat and unburned fuel, so efficiency is low.
1559:
took over, and has since been made the award for the rubber-power category at the FAI World Free Flight
Championships. The FAI free flight (F1) classes include:
747:
in the model to actuate servos that adjust the model's flight controls similarly to a full sized aircraft. Traditionally, the radio signal directly controlled
2103:
2017:
1934:
gravity. Dynamic stability is the ability to return to straight and level flight without any control input. The three dynamic instability modes are pitch (
362:
to highly accurate and detailed models produced for museum display and requiring thousands of hours of work. Many are available in kits, typically made of
915:
Typical rubber powered model having the rubber band (hidden in the fuselage) tightened by turning the propeller backward, here being done with a handcrank
2196:
877:, and radio controlled gliders can remain airborne for as long as the updraft remains. Another means of attaining height in a glider is exploitation of
751:, however, modern examples often use flight control computers to stabilize the model or even to fly it autonomously. This is particularly the case with
1310:
is the most commonly used device. Propellers generate thrust due to lift generated by the wing-like sections of the blades, which forces air backward.
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models for testing aerodynamic properties, for basic research, or for the development of new designs. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modelled.
1544:
1304:
Most powered model-aircraft, including electric, internal-combustion, and rubber-band powered models, generate thrust by spinning an airscrew. The
1205:
are sometimes used to boost gliders and sailplanes. The earliest purpose-built rocket motor dates back to the 1950s, with the introduction of the
2475:
2012:
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Older models often did not conform to an established scale as they were sized to fit the box, and are referred to as being to "Box Scale".
153:
87:
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became available, while the costs of motors, batteries and control systems dropped dramatically. Electric power now predominated with
2170:
1687:
For the conventional control-line system, tension in the lines is required to provide control. Line tension is maintained largely by
2448:
2342:
1174:
become readily available. Turbines require specialized design and precision-manufacturing, and some have been built from car engine
826:(ARF) models that minimize the skills required, and reduce build time to under 4 hours, versus 10–40 or more for a traditional kit.
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and other materials. Some can be large, especially when used to research the flight properties of a proposed full scale aircraft.
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1283:(LiPoly or LiPo) permit electric flight-times to surpass those of glow-engines, while the more rugged and durable, cobalt-free
573:
207:
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The flight behavior of an aircraft depends on the scale to which it is built, the density of the air and the speed of flight.
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1341:. Direct-drive is most common with fuel-powered engines. Rarely, some electric motors are designed with a sufficiently high
1337:
or driveshaft. This arrangement is preferred when the propeller and powerplant both operate near peak efficiency at similar
1178:
units. Owning or operating a turbine-powered aircraft is prohibitively expensive and many national clubs (as with the USA's
320:
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is another common alternative but requires more skill, and details must be supplied by the modeller. There is a handful of
226:
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of a vintage full-size aircraft, or, on larger (usually powered) models where weight is less of a factor, sheets of wood,
2002:
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827:
777:
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motor, which used solid fuel pellets, ignited by a wick fuse, in a reusable casing. Flyers can now also use single-use
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in the environment. A hill or slope often produces updrafts of air that sustain the flight of a glider. This is called
784:
Flying models construction may differ from that of static models as both weight and strength are major considerations.
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984:. These engines can incorporate speed controls and multiple cylinders, and are capable of powering lightweight scale
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are multi-blade propellers encased in a cylindrical duct or tube that may look like and fit in the same space as
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1034:-like flappers instead of a propeller. He speculated that the fuel might be too dangerous for manned aircraft.
722:(C/L) model aircraft use strings or wires to tether the model to a central pivot, either held by hand or to a
1050:
radio control flying model powered with four internal combustion engines. A crew of five fly and maintain it.
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in
England. There were contests in 1912, 1913 and 1914. No contests were held again until 1927, when the
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semi-scale racing models over a tarmac or concrete surface. Lines are 15.92 m (52.2 ft) long.
1238:
1140:. Four-stroke engines are now popular as they are quieter than two-stroke engines, and are available in
1112:
976:), can power simple models in a manner similar to filling a balloon and then releasing it. Compressed CO
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726:. The aircraft then flies in circles around that point, secured by one cable, while a second provides
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finished, or may require painting or assembly, with glue, screws, or by clipping together, or both.
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rather than the crankshaft of a four stroke engine, which runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.
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Some manufacturers made 1:18th scale aircraft to go with cars of the same scale. Aircraft models,
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521:. Die-cast metal models (pre-assembled and factory painted) are available in scales ranging from
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1543:
The Wakefield Gold Challenge Cup is an international modelling competition named for the donor,
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140:
may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
1691:. To increase line tension, models may be built or adjusted in various ways. Rudder offset and
1614:– Model aircraft with extensible (rubber band) motors « Coupe d’hiver » (provisional)
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metal kits that allow a high level of detail and they are unable to replicate compound curves.
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1626:– Power model aircraft (provisional) (combustion powered 1.0 cc (0.061 cu in))
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and low enough speed and can utilize direct-drive as well. These motors are typically called
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2357:, by Jerry Mander, George Dippel and Howard Gossage, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1967.
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CIAM (FAI Aeromodelling Commission) designed this classes for F2 Control Line category:
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1975:
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Maneuverability depends on scale, with stability also becoming more important. Control
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A built-in 2:1 gear reduction ratio can be obtained by attaching the propeller to the
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1030:-fueled model aircraft engines in 1807, 1819, and 1850. These had no crank, working
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produced by the pilot following in close proximity. In other words, the glider is
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built both steam- and internal-combustion-powered models that made long flights.
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any rotating parts. This increase in efficiency results in longer flight times.
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engine. Home manufacture of model aircraft engines is a hobby in its own right.
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501:. Plastic model kits requiring assembly and painting are primarily available in
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1578:– Power model aircraft (combustion powered 2.5 cc (0.15 cu in))
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652:. Many model makers would create models from drawings of the actual aircraft.
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Steam is even older than rubber power, and like rubber, contributed much to
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Flying model aircraft are generally controlled through one of three methods
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any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
2291:
489:
Static model aircraft are primarily available commercially in a variety of
428:
2349:
532:
Scales are not random, but are generally based on divisions of either the
2854:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2422:
2389:
2160:
Testing Commercial Rubber – R.J. North, Model Aircraft magazine, Feb 1961
1930:
1731:
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1187:
1065:
940:
796:
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341:
2435:
2430:, by Charles Hampson Grant, Jay Publishing Corporation, New York, 1941.
2121:
1572:– Model Aircraft with extensible (rubber band) motors – Wakefield Trophy
815:
may be employed. It is then given a smooth sealed surface, usually with
764:
599:
Parts for a plastic model airplane still on their injection molding tree
544:
wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932 and were followed closely by
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2518:
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1947:
but goes from side to side in Dutch roll when scaled up even slightly.
1935:
1399:
the motion of the wing structure imitates the flapping-wings of living
1137:
1012:
878:
581:
359:
2402:
2260:"The Rotating Cylinder Valve 4-stroke Engine (SAE Paper 2002-32-1828)"
1906:
At subsonic speeds the relationship between these is expressed by the
1198:
A Vietnamese pilot prepares his model jet (Bien Hoa Air Base, Vietnam)
996:, like rubber, is known as "cold" power because it generates no heat.
2443:, by Mike Kelly, Limerick Writers' Centre Publishing, Ireland, 2020.
1921:
One consequence of this is that models in general require additional
1914:
1404:
1276:
792:
768:
Extremely light F1D-class indoor-flight model with microfilm covering
393:
2377:, by Martin Simons, Swanley: Nexus Special Interests, 1999. 4th ed.
943:, compressed gas, and tension-loaded (twisted) rubber band devices.
673:
1502:– Electric Motor Glider – Multi Task (held in alternate years only)
955:'s elastic motor (or extensible motor) of 1871, essentially a long
923:, a mechanism powering propulsion of the aircraft through the air.
2453:
1888:
1674:
1400:
1381:
1221:
1206:
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For larger and heavier models, the most popular powerplant is the
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910:
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sticks, plastic, (including both molded or sheet polystyrene, and
337:
325:
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305:
86:
may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s
2337:, by Carlos Reyes, RCadvisor.com, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 2009.
2234:"MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Anything"
1699:
engine size and type, skill categories, and age of model design.
27:
Physical model of an aircraft for display, research, or amusement
2781:
1865:
RC Semi-Scale Pylon Racing with Controlled Technology Aeroplanes
1046:"Giant scale" 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) wingspan
931:
are the most common propulsion systems, but other types include
870:
514:
466:
cannot fly, and are used for display, education and are used in
2457:
1275:(NiMh) batteries, yielding considerably improved flight times.
1165:
Early "jet" style model aircraft used a multi-blade propeller
183:
124:
70:
29:
1333:
systems have the propeller attached directly to the engine's
2104:"Airline world's tiny secret: infatuation with model planes"
1326:
Three methods are used to transfer energy to the propeller:
1115:
of all glow-engines, but are noisy and require substantial
2397:, by Keith Laumer, Harper, New York, 1960. 2nd ed., 1970.
822:
To increase the hobby's accessibility, some vendors offer
2305:
980:
may also be used to power an expansion engine to turn a
1182:) require members to be certified to safely use them.
1111:. These engines are inexpensive, and offer the highest
1064:. Glow engines are fueled by a mixture of slow burning
324:
Group of students with their wooden model airplanes in
94:
2102:
Scott Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer (18 March 2015).
951:
The oldest method of powering free flight models is
2805:
2610:
2579:
2491:
869:Gliders sustain flight through exploitation of the
459:
Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor model on display
214:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1026:built, and flew, internal and external combustion
557:produced in scales ranging from 1:200 to 1:1200.
548:, which used the same scale from 1936 with their "
2408:The Middle Ages of the Internal-Combustion Engine
1602:– Power model aircraft (combustion powered 1.0cc)
1386:Small ornithopter, made to resemble a hummingbird
988:. Gasparin and Modela are two recent makers of CO
1654:– Indoor model aircraft “Micro 35” (provisional)
615:The most common form of manufacture for kits is
1237:powered by a source of electricity - usually a
842:model glider showing typical internal structure
354:Static models range from mass-produced toys in
2395:How to Design and Build Flying Model Airplanes
1642:– Indoor zone EZB model aircraft (provisional)
1226:Small electric powered model of a pre-WW1 era
97:to make improvements to the overall structure.
2469:
1853:RC Pylon Racing Limited Technology Aeroplanes
1547:. The event was first held on 5 July 1911 at
899:in the updraft of the moving pilot (see also
891:are lightweight model airplanes flown in the
8:
475:or celebrate a new route or an achievement.
347:Aircraft manufacturers and researchers make
2355:The Great International Paper Airplane Book
2335:RCadvisor′s Model Airplane Design Made Easy
1660:– Small electric power model aircraft “E36”
853:. Larger outdoor model gliders are usually
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2476:
2462:
2454:
2428:Model Airplane Design and Theory of Flight
1514:– Electric Motor Glider – Thermal Duration
435:model of a Loire-Nieuport LN-10 floatplane
292:Learn how and when to remove this message
274:Learn how and when to remove this message
172:Learn how and when to remove this message
113:Learn how and when to remove this message
2018:International Plastic Modellers' Society
1419:World competitions are organized by the
693:). The reduced size affects the model's
2094:
1553:Society of Model Aeronautical Engineers
2294:. FAI Aeromodelling Commission (CIAM).
2195:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2188:
2013:International Miniature Aerobatic Club
1421:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
780:with foam flying surfaces, from a kit.
2410:, by Horst O. Hardenberg, SAE, 1999.
2035:List of scale model kit manufacturers
1648:– Indoor model aircraft (provisional)
1287:batteries are also becoming popular.
1084:cylinders apply torque to a rotating
7:
2122:"Building a 1948 Model Airplane Kit"
2024:List of model aircraft manufacturers
1454:– Radio Control Soaring (Multi-task)
372:Flying models range from simple toy
212:adding citations to reliable sources
1752:Diesel compression ignition engines
1003:, but is now rarely used. In 1848,
640:Scale models can also be made from
1829:RC Freestyle Aerobatic Helicopters
1478:– Radio Control Soaring (Duration)
1107:The simplest glow-engines use the
919:Powered models contain an onboard
677:A free-flight hand-launched glider
154:Knowledge (XXG)'s inclusion policy
25:
2306:"National Miniature Pylon Racing"
1590:– Gliders with automatic steering
1496:– Radio Control Indoor Aerobatics
1436:– Free Flight (A,B,C,D,E,G,H,P,Q)
968:Stored compressed gas, typically
739:have a controller who operates a
424:Aerodynamic research and mock-ups
45:This article has multiple issues.
2882:
2881:
1841:RC Soaring Cross Country Gliders
1490:– Large Radio Control Aerobatics
1423:(FAI) in the following classes:
681:Generally known collectively as
188:
129:
75:
34:
1608:– Electric power model aircraft
1472:– Radio Control Soaring (Slope)
1259:The first electric models used
1233:Electric-powered models use an
1007:flew a steam-powered model, in
199:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
2077:Simple Plastic Airplane Design
1893:A contest-winning paper glider
1:
2704:Standard gauge railway scales
2029:List of model airplane fields
1679:F2C class control line models
778:Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a
2003:Free flight (model aircraft)
1835:RC Indoor Aerobatic Aircraft
1768:Radio Controlled Flight (F3)
1596:– Indoor hand-launch gliders
1180:Academy of Model Aeronautics
1127:glow engines, whether using
2766:Narrow gauge railway scales
2375:Model Aircraft Aerodynamics
1823:RC Large Aerobatic Aircraft
1811:RC Thermal Duration Gliders
1460:– Radio Control Helicopters
929:internal combustion engines
340:of an existing or imagined
2924:
2212:"AMA Documents – Turbines"
1938:) oscillation, spiral and
1896:
1877:
1794:RC Pylon Racing Aeroplanes
1668:
1448:– Radio Control Aerobatics
1442:– Control Line (A,B,C,D,E)
1142:horizontally opposed twins
1053:
901:Controllable slope soaring
482:
412:, and skinned with either
2877:
2067:Radio-controlled aircraft
1871:RC Multi-rotor FPV Racing
1859:RC Jet Aerobatic Aircraft
1746:pilots of slower models.
1534:– unmanned aerial vehicle
1318:A large diameter and low-
1281:lithium polymer batteries
986:radio-controlled aircraft
736:Radio-controlled aircraft
485:List of scale model sizes
376:made of sheets of paper,
1805:RC Slope Soaring Gliders
1788:RC Aerobatic Helicopters
1632:– Model aircraft with CO
855:radio-controlled gliders
849:do not have an attached
743:that sends signals to a
2441:Pulling Back the Clouds
2140:"Model Flying Machines"
1620:– Gliders (provisional)
1584:– Indoor model aircraft
1508:– Electric Pylon Racing
1119:mufflers, which may be
1048:Lockheed C-130 Hercules
1017:Samuel Pierpont Langley
404:, either alone or with
2072:Radio-controlled model
1960:also called U-Control
1894:
1817:RC Hand Launch Gliders
1680:
1387:
1285:lithium iron phosphate
1230:
1199:
1162:
1096:
1095:Model Aircraft Engines
1051:
916:
843:
781:
776:Flying model of a WW1
769:
678:
612:
600:
460:
436:
329:
317:
1964:Round-the-pole flying
1927:directional stability
1892:
1782:RC Multi-Task Gliders
1776:RC Aerobatic Aircraft
1678:
1484:– Hand Launch Gliders
1385:
1225:
1197:
1161:Miniature jet turbine
1160:
1113:power-to-weight ratio
1094:
1045:
914:
841:
775:
767:
676:
606:
598:
464:Static model aircraft
458:
451:Static display models
431:
392:built up from balsa,
323:
309:
1636:motors (provisional)
1520:– Drone Racing (F3U)
1273:nickel metal hydride
1271:and higher-capacity
809:expanded polystyrene
439:Models are made for
400:), metal, synthetic
208:improve this article
2292:"F2 - Control Line"
2272:on 12 November 2011
2150:on 28 October 2009.
2046:Model Airplane News
2008:History of aviation
1847:RC Aero-Tow Gliders
1269:brushless DC motors
1101:engine displacement
1099:These are rated by
1038:Internal combustion
824:Almost Ready to Fly
316:scale display model
95:editing the article
2126:www.jitterbuzz.com
1895:
1885:Model aerodynamics
1681:
1549:The Crystal Palace
1388:
1231:
1200:
1163:
1097:
1052:
917:
844:
782:
770:
679:
613:
601:
578:forced perspective
461:
437:
330:
318:
311:Singapore Airlines
2895:
2894:
2861:Diecast Collector
2040:Micro air vehicle
1689:centrifugal force
1665:Control Line (F2)
1430:– model aircraft
1403:, producing both
1261:brushed DC motors
1125:four-stroke cycle
1117:expansion chamber
1072:, and lubricant (
1005:John Stringfellow
889:Walkalong gliders
791:to duplicate the
562:military vehicles
493:from as large as
302:
301:
294:
284:
283:
276:
258:
182:
181:
174:
123:
122:
115:
88:layout guidelines
68:
16:(Redirected from
2915:
2885:
2884:
2868:Meccano Magazine
2478:
2471:
2464:
2455:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2271:
2265:. Archived from
2264:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2194:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2173:. Archived from
2167:
2161:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2146:. Archived from
2136:
2130:
2129:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2099:
2082:Walkalong glider
1981:Cox model engine
1693:thrust vectoring
1539:Free flight (F1)
1300:Propulsion types
1243:brushless motors
1153:Jets and rockets
1109:two-stroke cycle
1062:glow plug engine
1001:aviation history
964:Compressed gases
731:(240 km/h).
617:injection molded
364:injection-molded
297:
290:
279:
272:
268:
265:
259:
257:
223:"Model aircraft"
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21:
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2891:
2873:
2845:Miniature model
2801:
2606:
2575:
2487:
2485:Scale modelling
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2313:
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2240:
2238:fab.cba.mit.edu
2232:
2231:
2227:
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2215:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2187:
2180:
2178:
2177:on 29 June 2008
2171:"Archived copy"
2169:
2168:
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2159:
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2133:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2086:
1953:
1908:Reynolds number
1901:
1899:Flight dynamics
1887:
1882:
1770:
1761:
1759:F2D – CL Combat
1673:
1667:
1635:
1541:
1417:
1393:
1370:
1353:Reduction drive
1316:
1302:
1220:
1184:V-1 flying bomb
1155:
1131:or more rarely
1058:
1040:
1009:Chard, Somerset
995:
991:
979:
975:
966:
953:Alphonse PĂ©naud
949:
925:Electric motors
909:
836:
762:
703:
695:Reynolds number
671:
607:Paper model of
593:
534:Imperial system
497:to as small as
487:
481:
453:
426:
328:, Serbia, 1936.
298:
287:
286:
285:
280:
269:
263:
260:
217:
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205:
193:
178:
167:
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158:
144:Please help by
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102:
99:
93:Please help by
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80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2921:
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2908:Model aircraft
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2813:List of brands
2809:
2807:
2806:Related topics
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2015:
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1988:
1983:
1976:Model building
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1968:
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1878:Main article:
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1727:
1726:
1725:CL Team racing
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1669:Main article:
1666:
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1655:
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1627:
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1567:
1545:Lord Wakefield
1540:
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1523:
1522:
1521:
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1467:
1466:– Pylon Racing
1461:
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1350:
1315:
1312:
1301:
1298:
1265:nickel cadmium
1235:electric motor
1219:
1218:Electric power
1216:
1214:obtain again.
1203:Rocket engines
1154:
1151:
1054:Main article:
1039:
1036:
993:
989:
977:
973:
970:carbon dioxide
965:
962:
948:
945:
908:
905:
864:"discus" style
835:
832:
761:
758:
757:
756:
732:
715:
702:
699:
670:
667:
631:Vacuum forming
592:
589:
480:
477:
452:
449:
425:
422:
338:physical model
334:model aircraft
314:Boeing 747-400
300:
299:
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196:
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180:
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137:
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128:
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83:
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69:
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26:
24:
18:Model-airplane
14:
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2:
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2840:Miniature art
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2504:Architectural
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2449:9781916065383
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1082:Reciprocating
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1078:synthetic oil
1075:
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817:aircraft dope
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683:aeromodelling
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197:This article
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2628:1:18 diecast
2514:Construction
2498:
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2407:
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2374:
2354:
2334:
2314:. Retrieved
2309:
2300:
2286:
2274:. Retrieved
2267:the original
2253:
2241:. Retrieved
2237:
2228:
2216:. Retrieved
2205:
2179:. Retrieved
2175:the original
2165:
2156:
2148:the original
2143:
2134:
2125:
2116:
2107:
2097:
2044:
1998:Die-cast toy
1991:O.S. Engines
1971:Model engine
1958:Control line
1923:longitudinal
1920:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1880:Drone racing
1874:
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1671:Control line
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1415:Competitions
1397:ornithopters
1394:
1371:
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1331:Direct-drive
1330:
1325:
1317:
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1211:model rocket
1201:
1176:turbocharger
1164:
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1098:
1070:nitromethane
1059:
1056:Model engine
1022:Baronet Sir
1021:
998:
967:
950:
920:
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887:
868:
862:. The newer
845:
828:Ready To Fly
821:
813:wood veneers
786:
783:
760:Construction
734:
719:Control line
717:
709:
704:
691:ornithopters
682:
680:
657:
654:
650:World War II
646:
639:
635:photo etched
629:
625:
614:
586:
559:
550:Frog Penguin
531:
499:1:1250 scale
488:
473:
468:wind tunnels
463:
462:
446:
438:
414:tissue paper
406:carbon fiber
390:scale models
371:
353:
346:
333:
331:
303:
288:
270:
261:
251:
244:
237:
230:
218:
206:Please help
201:verification
198:
168:
162:January 2020
159:
146:spinning off
139:
109:
103:January 2020
100:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2062:Paper plane
1373:Ducted fans
1368:Ducted fans
1289:Solar power
1171:jet turbine
1032:ornithopter
992:engines. CO
957:rubber band
860:bungee cord
753:quadcopters
741:transmitter
711:Free flight
620:polystyrene
611:flying boat
554:recognition
441:wind tunnel
433:Wind tunnel
388:to powered
386:polystyrene
367:polystyrene
356:white metal
349:wind tunnel
2850:Port Revel
2835:Kitbashing
2597:Matchstick
2416:0768003911
2383:1854861905
2363:0671289918
2329:References
2243:21 January
2181:23 October
2057:Model ship
2031:in the USA
1940:Dutch roll
1897:See also:
1377:jet engine
1347:outrunners
1335:crankshaft
1314:Propellers
1247:park-flyer
1228:Bleriot XI
1167:ducted fan
1086:crankshaft
1074:castor oil
921:powerplant
893:ridge lift
851:powerplant
687:pterosaurs
663:fiberglass
519:1:24 scale
495:1:18 scale
483:See also:
410:fiberglass
382:card stock
369:or resin.
264:April 2021
234:newspapers
150:relocating
50:improve it
2777:H0m scale
2772:H0e scale
2740:Protofour
2580:Materials
2571:Wargaming
2524:Dollhouse
2350:361461928
2310:nmpra.net
2276:3 January
2218:5 October
2108:USA TODAY
2089:Footnotes
1566:– Gliders
1307:propeller
1028:gunpowder
982:propeller
797:longerons
689:(usually
609:Dornier X
591:Materials
536:, or the
398:styrofoam
56:talk page
2902:Category
2887:Category
2855:Room box
2818:Aircraft
2735:OO scale
2730:HO scale
2725:TT scale
2546:Military
2499:Aircraft
2492:Products
2423:40632327
2390:43634314
2191:cite web
1951:See also
1944:dihedral
1931:avionics
1732:wingspan
1713:CL Speed
1361:camshaft
1252:3D-flyer
1188:Pulsejet
1138:biplanes
1066:methanol
941:pulsejet
935:, small
879:thermals
745:receiver
582:dioramas
542:Skybirds
384:or foam
342:aircraft
2797:V scale
2760:1 scale
2755:O scale
2750:G scale
2745:S scale
2720:N scale
2715:Z scale
2710:T gauge
2602:Plastic
2592:Diecast
2566:Railway
2519:Diorama
2436:1336984
2312:. NMPRA
1936:phugoid
1532:Class U
1526:Class S
1428:Class F
1239:battery
1013:England
937:turbine
847:Gliders
834:Gliders
793:formers
701:Control
566:figures
374:gliders
360:plastic
248:scholar
2830:Gundam
2611:Scales
2556:Rocket
2534:Action
2529:Figure
2447:
2434:
2421:
2414:
2401:
2388:
2381:
2370:437094
2368:
2361:
2348:
2341:
2316:6 July
2020:(IPMS)
1915:torque
1405:thrust
1343:torque
1277:Cobalt
947:Rubber
933:rocket
811:, and
803:, and
749:servos
574:trains
572:, and
517:, and
491:scales
394:bamboo
250:
243:
236:
229:
221:
2792:16 mm
2698:1:700
2693:1:500
2688:1:350
2683:1:285
2678:1:200
2673:1:144
2587:Brass
2551:Robot
2541:Horse
2403:95315
2270:(PDF)
2263:(PDF)
2214:. AMA
2210:AMA.
1440:F2(x)
1434:F1(x)
1401:birds
1395:With
1391:Other
1320:pitch
1207:Jetex
1186:type
1121:tuned
801:spars
789:balsa
728:pitch
642:paper
527:1:600
503:1:144
479:Scale
418:mylar
402:resin
378:balsa
336:is a
326:Sonta
255:JSTOR
241:books
2823:Cars
2782:Gn15
2668:1:72
2663:1:64
2658:1:50
2653:1:48
2648:1:43
2643:1:35
2638:1:32
2633:1:24
2623:1:18
2618:1:12
2561:Ship
2509:Cars
2445:ISBN
2432:OCLC
2419:OCLC
2412:ISBN
2399:OCLC
2386:OCLC
2379:ISBN
2366:OCLC
2359:ISBN
2346:OCLC
2339:ISBN
2318:2015
2278:2012
2245:2022
2220:2012
2197:link
2183:2007
1925:and
1409:lift
1407:and
1339:rpms
1279:and
1263:and
1249:and
1144:and
927:and
883:lift
871:wind
805:ribs
724:pole
661:and
580:box
570:cars
546:Frog
523:1:48
515:1:32
511:1:48
507:1:72
227:news
2787:On2
1868:F3U
1862:F3T
1856:F3S
1850:F3R
1844:F3Q
1838:F3H
1832:F3P
1826:F3N
1820:F3M
1814:F3K
1808:F3J
1802:F3F
1791:F3D
1785:F3C
1779:F3B
1773:F3A
1722:F2C
1716:F2B
1710:F2A
1658:F1S
1652:F1R
1646:F1M
1640:F1L
1630:F1K
1624:F1J
1618:F1H
1612:F1G
1606:F1Q
1600:F1P
1594:F1N
1588:F1E
1582:F1D
1576:F1C
1570:F1B
1564:F1A
1557:FAI
1518:FAI
1512:F5J
1506:F5D
1500:F5B
1494:F3P
1488:F3M
1482:F3K
1476:F3J
1470:F3F
1464:F3D
1458:F3C
1452:F3B
1446:F3A
1076:or
972:(CO
903:).
525:to
408:or
358:or
210:by
148:or
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