761:, a model is a task-driven, purposeful simplification and abstraction of a perception of reality, shaped by physical, legal, and cognitive constraints. It is task-driven because a model is captured with a certain question or task in mind. Simplifications leave all the known and observed entities and their relation out that are not important for the task. Abstraction aggregates information that is important but not needed in the same detail as the object of interest. Both activities, simplification, and abstraction, are done purposefully. However, they are done based on a perception of reality. This perception is already a
61:
33:
824:
in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and form relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. There are two types of system models: 1) discrete in which the variables change instantaneously at separate points in time and, 2) continuous where the state variables change continuously with respect to time.
611:... the sciences do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret, they mainly make models. By a model is meant a mathematical construct which, with the addition of certain verbal interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justification of such a mathematical construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work—that is, correctly to describe phenomena from a reasonably wide area.
670:, that is, simplified reflections of reality that, despite being approximations, can be extremely useful. Building and disputing models is fundamental to the scientific enterprise. Complete and true representation may be impossible, but scientific debate often concerns which is the better model for a given task, e.g., which is the more accurate climate model for seasonal forecasting.
648:
1259:
1255:, generally referred to as "M&S". M&S has a spectrum of applications which range from concept development and analysis, through experimentation, measurement, and verification, to disposal analysis. Projects and programs may use hundreds of different simulations, simulators and model analysis tools.
890:
A model is evaluated first and foremost by its consistency to empirical data; any model inconsistent with reproducible observations must be modified or rejected. One way to modify the model is by restricting the domain over which it is credited with having high validity. A case in point is
Newtonian
823:
is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. In general, a system is a construct or collection of different elements that together can produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated
765:
in itself, as it comes with a physical constraint. There are also constraints on what we are able to legally observe with our current tools and methods, and cognitive constraints that limit what we are able to explain with our current theories. This model comprises the concepts, their behavior, and
1671:
Nowadays there are some 40 magazines about scientific modelling which offer all kinds of international forums. Since the 1960s there is a strongly growing number of books and magazines about specific forms of scientific modelling. There is also a lot of discussion about scientific modelling in the
786:
is a way to implement the model, often employed when the model is too complex for the analytical solution. A steady-state simulation provides information about the system at a specific instant in time (usually at equilibrium, if such a state exists). A dynamic simulation provides information over
832:
Modelling is the process of generating a model as a conceptual representation of some phenomenon. Typically a model will deal with only some aspects of the phenomenon in question, and two models of the same phenomenon may be essentially different—that is to say, that the differences between them
712:
For the scientist, a model is also a way in which the human thought processes can be amplified. For instance, models that are rendered in software allow scientists to leverage computational power to simulate, visualize, manipulate and gain intuition about the entity, phenomenon, or process being
774:. This requires more choices, such as numerical approximations or the use of heuristics. Despite all these epistemological and computational constraints, simulation has been recognized as the third pillar of scientific methods: theory building, simulation, and experimentation.
891:
physics, which is highly useful except for the very small, the very fast, and the very massive phenomena of the universe. However, a fit to empirical data alone is not sufficient for a model to be accepted as valid. Factors important in evaluating a model include:
926:
is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Examples from history include
872:. A model makes accurate predictions when its assumptions are valid, and might well not make accurate predictions when its assumptions do not hold. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the
836:
Such differences may be due to differing requirements of the model's end users, or to conceptual or aesthetic differences among the modelers and to contingent decisions made during the modelling process. Considerations that may influence the
959:, space mapping aligns (maps) a very fast coarse model with its related expensive-to-compute fine model so as to avoid direct expensive optimization of the fine model. The alignment process iteratively refines a "mapped" coarse model (
580:. It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then developing a model to replicate a system with those features. Different types of models may be used for different purposes, such as
802:
is a fundamental and sometimes intangible notion covering the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed
954:
refers to a methodology that employs a "quasi-global" modelling formulation to link companion "coarse" (ideal or low-fidelity) with "fine" (practical or high-fidelity) models of different complexities. In
1262:
Example of the integrated use of
Modelling and Simulation in Defence life cycle management. The modelling and simulation in this image is represented in the center of the image with the three containers.
1388:(2009) state: "Philosophers are acknowledging the importance of models with increasing attention and are probing the assorted roles that models play in scientific practice". Source: Frigg, Roman and
746:
Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure outcomes. Direct measurement of outcomes under
1781:, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77-100.
1505:
204:
603:
Modelling is an essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines, each of which has its own ideas about specific types of modelling. The following was said by
467:
853:, discrete versus continuous time, etc. In any case, users of a model need to understand the assumptions made that are pertinent to its validity for a given use.
1410:
Namdar, Bahadir; Shen, Ji (2015-02-18). "Modelling-Oriented
Assessment in K-12 Science Education: A synthesis of research from 1980 to 2013 and new directions".
1868:
1125:
1828:
536:
2085:
1573:
Oberkampf, W. L., DeLand, S. M., Rutherford, B. M., Diegert, K. V., & Alvin, K. F. (2002). Error and uncertainty in modelling and simulation.
494:
709:. Predictions or other statements drawn from such a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true.
1996:
477:
164:
1266:
The figure shows how modelling and simulation is used as a central part of an integrated program in a defence capability development process.
2980:
2857:
2032:
1763:
2847:
2790:
2396:
1287:
811:, the concept of structure is an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.
1635:
923:
2975:
1697:
Johannes
Lenhard, GĂĽnter KĂĽppers and Terry Shinn (Eds.) (2006) "Simulation: Pragmatic Constructions of Reality", Springer Berlin.
1197:
1115:
1096:
2401:
1960:
1821:
1784:
472:
1609:
529:
1650:
Fishwick PA. (1995). Simulation Model Design and
Execution: Building Digital Worlds. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2970:
2965:
2109:
499:
152:
1700:
Tom
Ritchey (2012). "Outline for a Morphology of Modelling Methods: Contribution to a General Theory of Modelling". In:
2391:
1929:
1883:
1878:
1845:
1143:
885:
869:
457:
1560:
Tolk, A. (2015). Learning something right from models that are wrong – Epistemology of
Simulation. In Yilmaz, L. (Ed.)
2078:
1873:
1728:
1153:
1120:
1110:
865:
2320:
1986:
1814:
1722:
860:. Assumptions are used in modelling in order to specify the domain of application of the model. For example, the
2144:
1858:
522:
484:
271:
36:
Example scientific modelling. A schematic of chemical and transport processes related to atmospheric composition.
787:
time. A simulation shows how a particular object or phenomenon will behave. Such a simulation can be useful for
2169:
2164:
2129:
2094:
1904:
1305:
1252:
956:
663:
628:
569:
1741:
1659:
Sokolowski, J.A., Banks, C.M.(2009). Principles of
Modelling and Simulation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
1691:
1258:
1227:
1222:
758:
439:
2011:
2740:
2356:
2292:
2179:
2071:
1148:
791:, analysis, or training in those cases where real-world systems or concepts can be represented by models.
686:
585:
314:
261:
2634:
2447:
2371:
2189:
2037:
1981:
1091:
620:
560:
objects, phenomena, and physical processes, to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to
489:
462:
368:
199:
139:
2735:
1549:
1333:
32:
2805:
2629:
2579:
2487:
2472:
2416:
2381:
2277:
2174:
2149:
1991:
1419:
1397:
1281:
1158:
1051:
1007:
987:
932:
850:
593:
169:
127:
2406:
2894:
2649:
2584:
2421:
2376:
2282:
2232:
2227:
1934:
1275:
1207:
1138:
1130:
1046:
1002:
977:
804:
771:
117:
1744:: a platform for simulation and analysis of biochemical networks aimed to laboratory scientists".
60:
2934:
2594:
2589:
2543:
2533:
2467:
2159:
2134:
2124:
2027:
1924:
1914:
1443:
1101:
1061:
1022:
1017:
982:
873:
861:
747:
589:
395:
319:
132:
2800:
2705:
1478:
2929:
2879:
2852:
2780:
2659:
2639:
2482:
2287:
2184:
1939:
1919:
1899:
1631:
1532:
1435:
1311:
1308: – Interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with presenting scientific data visually
1192:
1177:
1071:
1027:
940:
846:
751:
694:
682:
632:
616:
512:
420:
405:
363:
346:
281:
266:
82:
77:
44:
1359:
von
Neumann, J. (1995), "Method in the physical sciences", in Bródy F., Vámos, T. (editors),
2939:
2924:
2919:
2899:
2750:
2725:
2689:
2684:
2619:
2553:
2457:
2366:
2361:
2351:
2325:
2272:
2199:
2139:
2114:
2052:
2047:
1965:
1679:
Modelling and
Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View
1522:
Outline for a Morphology of Modelling Methods: Contribution to a General Theory of Modelling
1501:
1427:
1389:
1385:
1364:
1217:
992:
912:
767:
690:
604:
581:
383:
351:
341:
309:
122:
87:
2944:
2884:
2795:
2720:
2664:
2614:
2257:
2154:
1955:
1863:
1613:
1299:
1212:
1202:
1056:
1037:
960:
678:
674:
597:
390:
329:
246:
241:
236:
231:
70:
2063:
1423:
2909:
2874:
2815:
2770:
2669:
2654:
2548:
2523:
2477:
2431:
2426:
2262:
2194:
2042:
2006:
1853:
1182:
1032:
943:'s revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
808:
730:
722:
624:
415:
358:
256:
209:
189:
159:
1789:
1348:
Representing and Intervening. Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science
2959:
2869:
2755:
2679:
2644:
2624:
2528:
2492:
2346:
2330:
2315:
2119:
2001:
1909:
1447:
1302: – Process of calculating the causal factors that produced a set of observations
1187:
1066:
1012:
997:
951:
928:
705:
that will not produce theoretical consequences that are contrary to what is found in
702:
573:
561:
410:
400:
1800:
1778:
1769:
1733:
Eric Winsberg (2003). "Simulated Experiments: Methodology for a Virtual World". In:
2904:
2864:
2785:
2765:
2730:
2715:
2609:
2604:
2574:
2452:
1604:
1521:
1076:
251:
1431:
1678:
2889:
2837:
2775:
2745:
2674:
2599:
2569:
2507:
2462:
1493:
1163:
1081:
857:
615:
There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling in fields such as
378:
324:
224:
179:
17:
2760:
2538:
2502:
2497:
2247:
1745:
1168:
788:
783:
655:
577:
565:
557:
432:
336:
304:
276:
194:
184:
174:
1688:
Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method
1439:
2842:
2810:
2411:
2386:
2267:
2252:
1293:
1086:
838:
799:
373:
1498:
The Concept and the Role of the Model in Mathematics and Natural and Social
1727:
Eric Winsberg (2010) "Science in the Age of Computer Simulation" Chicago:
904:
Refutability, enabling estimation of the degree of confidence in the model
2237:
1586:
Ihrig, M. (2012). A New Research Architecture For The Simulation Era. In
936:
842:
299:
97:
92:
52:
2710:
2222:
1806:
706:
1779:
The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences
647:
820:
636:
1676:
Rainer Hegselmann, Ulrich MĂĽller and Klaus Troitzsch (eds.) (1996).
742:
Modelling as a substitute for direct measurement and experimentation
754:) will always be more reliable than modeled estimates of outcomes.
2217:
1278: – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation
1257:
868:. This assumption was contextualized and further explained by the
698:
659:
553:
1758:
1721:
Eric Winsberg (2018) "Philosophy and Climate Science" Cambridge:
911:
People may attempt to quantify the evaluation of a model using a
770:. In order to execute the model, it needs to be implemented as a
1792:
Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
1785:
Research in simulation and modelling of various physical systems
2067:
1810:
1795:
2242:
1716:
Modeling and Simulation. Special Issue of Science in Context
971:
766:
their relations informal form and is often referred to as a
646:
1479:
http://www.ecmwf.int/staff/paco_doblas/abstr/tellus05_1.pdf
841:
of a model might be the modeler's preference for a reduced
1803:. Acta Morphologica Generalis, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
1707:
William Silvert (2001). "Modelling as a Discipline". In:
833:
comprise more than just a simple renaming of components.
1251:
One application of scientific modelling is the field of
901:
Cost of use, especially in combination with other models
1562:
Concepts and Methodologies in Modelling and Simulation.
1371:, edited by L. Leary (1955), pp. 157-164, and also in
886:
Models of scientific inquiry § Choice of a theory
639:
about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling.
2828:
2698:
2562:
2516:
2440:
2339:
2308:
2301:
2208:
2102:
2020:
1974:
1948:
1892:
1844:
876:works in non-inertial reference frames as well).
1714:Sergio Sismondo and Snait Gissis (eds.) (1999).
658:objects, phenomena, and physical processes in a
1672:philosophy-of-science literature. A selection:
1396:(Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), (
609:
701:. The aim of these attempts is to construct a
2079:
1822:
1460:Box, George E.P. & Draper, N.R. (1987).
530:
8:
1588:European Council on Modelling and Simulation
1375:, edited by A. Taub, Volume VI, pp. 491-498.
689:to model reality, in the same way logicians
584:to better understand, operational models to
1616:Defense Acquisition University Press, 2003.
1575:Reliability Engineering & System Safety
2305:
2086:
2072:
2064:
1829:
1815:
1807:
1412:International Journal of Science Education
537:
523:
59:
39:
1630:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
27:Scientific activity that produces models
1539:, New York: Dell Publishing, 1968, p. 61
468:Library and information science software
31:
1394:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1324:
717:. Other types of scientific models are
51:
1997:Construction and management simulation
1600:
1598:
1596:
1496:(1961). "Formal study of models". In:
898:Ability to predict future observations
713:represented. Such computer models are
654:A scientific model seeks to represent
463:Geographic information system software
1740:Tomáš Helikar, Jim A Rogers (2009). "
1290: – Visual representation of data
1223:System-level modelling and simulation
7:
2033:List of computer simulation software
907:Simplicity, or even aesthetic appeal
895:Ability to explain past observations
1774:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1764:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
631:. There is a growing collection of
1367:, p. 628; previously published in
1314: – Type of mathematical model
1288:Data and information visualization
25:
1801:A Morphology of Modelling Methods
1606:Systems Engineering Fundamentals.
1373:John von Neumann Collected Works
1198:Stochastic modelling (insurance)
1961:Integrated assessment modelling
1296: – Problem-solving method
1284: – Aphorism in statistics
1:
2110:Biological data visualization
1704:, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
1681:. Theory and Decision Library
1432:10.1080/09500693.2015.1012185
552:is an activity that produces
1930:Hydrological transport model
1884:Protein structure prediction
1879:Modelling biological systems
1350:. Cambridge University Press
1121:Modelling biological systems
874:general theory of relativity
870:general theory of relativity
862:special theory of relativity
2981:Interpretation (philosophy)
1874:Metabolic network modelling
1729:University of Chicago Press
1702:Acta Morphologica Generalis
1564:Springer–Verlag. pp. 87–106
1334:How the Laws of Physics Lie
1154:Predictive intake modelling
1111:Metabolic network modelling
866:inertial frame of reference
600:to visualize the subject.
2997:
2150:Mathematical visualization
1987:Business process modelling
1796:Ecotoxicology & Models
1723:Cambridge University Press
1149:Phenomenological modelling
883:
856:Building a model requires
2145:Information visualization
2130:Educational visualization
1859:Chemical process modeling
1337:. Oxford University Press
1331:Cartwright, Nancy. 1983.
1126:Modelling in epidemiology
490:Qualitative data analysis
2321:Charles-René de Fourcroy
2170:Scientific visualization
2097:of technical information
1905:Chemical transport model
1869:Infectious disease model
1709:Int. J. General Systems.
1548:Griffiths, E. C. (2010)
1306:Scientific visualization
1253:modelling and simulation
1247:Modelling and simulation
1135:Multicomputational model
957:engineering optimization
845:, preferences regarding
721:(living models, such as
2976:Epistemology of science
1692:Oxford University Press
1686:Paul Humphreys (2004).
1392:, "Models in Science",
1228:Water quality modelling
759:modeling and simulation
729:(in glassware, such as
629:knowledge visualization
2741:Christopher R. Johnson
2293:Technical illustration
2180:Software visualization
1626:Pullan, Wendy (2000).
1369:The Unity of Knowledge
1361:The Neumann Compendium
1263:
1102:Mathematical modelling
651:
635:, techniques and meta-
613:
369:Inferential statistics
315:Descriptive statistics
262:Human subject research
37:
2635:Lawrence J. Rosenblum
2448:Edward Walter Maunder
2372:Charles Joseph Minard
2190:User interface design
2165:Product visualization
2038:Mathematical modeling
1982:Biopsychosocial model
1735:Philosophy of Science
1504:. Springer. pp. 8–9 (
1261:
1092:Informative modelling
988:Catastrophe modelling
807:of the properties of
748:controlled conditions
650:
621:philosophy of science
153:Philosophical schools
35:
2971:Conceptual modelling
2966:Scientific modelling
2915:Scientific modelling
2890:Information graphics
2630:Clifford A. Pickover
2580:William S. Cleveland
2488:Henry Norris Russell
2473:Howard G. Funkhouser
2417:Florence Nightingale
2382:Francis Amasa Walker
2278:Statistical graphics
2200:Volume visualization
2175:Social visualization
1992:Catastrophe modeling
1838:Scientific modelling
1711:Vol. 30(3), pp. 261.
1683:. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
1537:The Systems Approach
1520:Ritchey, T. (2012)
1346:Hacking, Ian. 1983.
1282:All models are wrong
1159:Predictive modelling
1139:Multiscale modelling
1116:Microscale modelling
1097:Macroscale modelling
1087:Hydrologic modelling
1052:Enterprise modelling
1008:Continuous modelling
978:Analogical modelling
933:Egyptian hieroglyphs
851:deterministic models
666:way. All models are
594:computational models
550:Scientific modelling
478:Reference management
428:Scientific modelling
170:Critical rationalism
2895:Information science
2858:in computer science
2650:Sheelagh Carpendale
2585:George G. Robertson
2422:Karl Wilhelm Pohlke
2357:André-Michel Guerry
2233:Graph of a function
2228:Engineering drawing
1935:Modular Ocean Model
1424:2015IJSEd..37..993N
1276:Abductive reasoning
1208:System architecture
1131:Molecular modelling
1047:Empirical modelling
1003:Computational model
805:scientific analysis
772:computer simulation
590:mathematical models
458:Argument technology
2935:Volume cartography
2699:Early 21st century
2595:Catherine Plaisant
2590:Bruce H. McCormick
2544:Mary Eleanor Spear
2534:Arthur H. Robinson
2468:Arthur Lyon Bowley
2441:Early 20th century
2288:Technical drawings
2160:Molecular graphics
2135:Flow visualization
2125:Data visualization
2028:Data visualization
2012:Input–output model
1925:Hydrological model
1915:Geologic modelling
1612:2007-09-27 at the
1264:
1178:Software modelling
1072:Homology modelling
1062:Geologic modelling
1023:Document modelling
1018:Discrete modelling
983:Assembly modelling
880:Evaluating a model
847:statistical models
828:Generating a model
683:empirical sciences
652:
452:Tools and software
396:Secondary research
320:Discourse analysis
38:
2953:
2952:
2930:Visual perception
2880:Graphic organizer
2853:Computer graphics
2824:
2823:
2806:Martin Wattenberg
2781:Hanspeter Pfister
2736:Martin Krzywinski
2660:Jock D. Mackinlay
2640:Thomas A. DeFanti
2563:Late 20th century
2483:Ejnar Hertzsprung
2185:Technical drawing
2061:
2060:
1940:Wildfire modeling
1920:Groundwater model
1900:Atmospheric model
1770:Models in Science
1533:C. West Churchman
1390:Hartmann, Stephan
1312:Statistical model
1238:
1237:
1218:Systems modelling
1193:Statistical model
1028:Econometric model
941:Leonardo da Vinci
752:Scientific method
617:science education
596:to simulate, and
582:conceptual models
547:
546:
513:Philosophy portal
421:Systematic review
406:Literature review
364:Historical method
347:Social experiment
282:Scientific method
267:Narrative inquiry
118:Interdisciplinary
112:Research strategy
83:Research question
78:Research proposal
16:(Redirected from
2988:
2940:Volume rendering
2925:Visual analytics
2920:Spatial analysis
2900:Misleading graph
2751:David McCandless
2726:Gordon Kindlmann
2690:Alfred Inselberg
2685:Leland Wilkinson
2620:Michael Friendly
2554:Howard T. Fisher
2517:Mid 20th century
2458:W. E. B. Du Bois
2362:William Playfair
2352:Adolphe Quetelet
2326:Joseph Priestley
2309:Pre-19th century
2306:
2273:Skeletal formula
2140:Geovisualization
2115:Chemical imaging
2088:
2081:
2074:
2065:
2053:Visual analytics
2048:Systems thinking
1966:Population model
1831:
1824:
1817:
1808:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1623:
1617:
1602:
1591:
1584:
1578:
1571:
1565:
1558:
1552:
1550:What is a model?
1546:
1540:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1502:Hans Freudenthal
1491:
1485:
1471:
1465:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1407:
1401:
1382:
1376:
1365:World Scientific
1357:
1351:
1344:
1338:
1329:
993:Choice modelling
972:
913:utility function
768:conceptual model
605:John von Neumann
598:graphical models
539:
532:
525:
485:Science software
384:Cultural mapping
352:Quasi-experiment
342:Field experiment
310:Content analysis
205:Critical realism
123:Multimethodology
63:
40:
21:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2945:Information art
2885:Imaging science
2830:
2820:
2801:Fernanda Viégas
2796:Moritz Stefaner
2721:Jessica Hullman
2694:
2665:Alan MacEachren
2615:Ben Shneiderman
2558:
2512:
2436:
2335:
2297:
2210:
2204:
2155:Medical imaging
2098:
2092:
2062:
2057:
2016:
1970:
1956:Energy modeling
1944:
1888:
1864:Ecosystem model
1840:
1835:
1772:. Entry in the
1761:. Entry in the
1755:
1669:
1667:Further reading
1664:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1614:Wayback Machine
1603:
1594:
1585:
1581:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1492:
1488:
1472:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1418:(7): 993–1023.
1409:
1408:
1404:
1383:
1379:
1358:
1354:
1345:
1341:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1300:Inverse problem
1272:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1213:System dynamics
1203:Surrogate model
1183:Solid modelling
1164:Scale modelling
1057:Futures studies
1038:Ecosystem model
969:
961:surrogate model
949:
921:
888:
882:
830:
817:
809:magnetic fields
797:
780:
744:
739:
723:laboratory rats
645:
543:
507:
506:
453:
445:
444:
391:Phenomenography
330:Autoethnography
295:
287:
286:
247:Grounded theory
242:Critical theory
237:Art methodology
232:Action research
227:
217:
216:
155:
145:
144:
113:
105:
104:
73:
71:Research design
28:
23:
22:
18:Model (science)
15:
12:
11:
5:
2994:
2992:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2958:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2910:Patent drawing
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2875:Graphic design
2872:
2867:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2816:Hadley Wickham
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2771:Tamara Munzner
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2670:David Goodsell
2667:
2662:
2657:
2655:Cynthia Brewer
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2549:Edgar Anderson
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2524:Jacques Bertin
2520:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2478:John B. Peddle
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2432:Francis Galton
2429:
2427:Toussaint Loua
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2407:Georg von Mayr
2404:
2399:
2397:Matthew Sankey
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2263:Sankey diagram
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2195:Visual culture
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2068:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2043:Systems theory
2040:
2035:
2030:
2024:
2022:
2021:Related topics
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2007:Economic model
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1949:Sustainability
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1854:Cellular model
1850:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1819:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1798:
1793:
1787:
1782:
1776:
1767:
1754:
1753:External links
1751:
1750:
1749:
1746:BioMed Central
1738:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1695:
1684:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1652:
1643:
1636:
1618:
1592:
1590:. pp. 715–20).
1579:
1577:75(3): 333–57.
1566:
1553:
1541:
1525:
1513:
1486:
1466:
1453:
1402:
1377:
1352:
1339:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1271:
1268:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1033:Economic model
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1013:Data modelling
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
970:
968:
965:
948:
945:
929:cave paintings
920:
917:
909:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
881:
878:
829:
826:
816:
813:
796:
793:
779:
776:
743:
740:
738:
735:
731:tissue culture
687:interpretation
644:
641:
625:systems theory
586:operationalize
545:
544:
542:
541:
534:
527:
519:
516:
515:
509:
508:
505:
504:
503:
502:
497:
492:
482:
481:
480:
475:
465:
460:
454:
451:
450:
447:
446:
443:
442:
437:
436:
435:
425:
424:
423:
418:
416:Scoping review
413:
408:
403:
393:
388:
387:
386:
376:
371:
366:
361:
359:Field research
356:
355:
354:
349:
344:
334:
333:
332:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
296:
293:
292:
289:
288:
285:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
257:Historiography
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
228:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
213:
212:
210:Subtle realism
207:
197:
192:
190:Postpositivism
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
165:Constructivism
162:
160:Antipositivism
156:
151:
150:
147:
146:
143:
142:
137:
136:
135:
125:
120:
114:
111:
110:
107:
106:
103:
102:
101:
100:
95:
85:
80:
74:
69:
68:
65:
64:
56:
55:
49:
48:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2993:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2870:Graph drawing
2868:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2791:Claudio Silva
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2756:Mauro Martino
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2680:Michael Maltz
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2645:George Furnas
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2625:Howard Wainer
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2529:Rudolf Modley
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2493:Max O. Lorenz
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2402:Charles Booth
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2377:Luigi Perozzo
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2367:August Kekulé
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2347:Charles Dupin
2345:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2331:Gaspard Monge
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2316:Edmond Halley
2314:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2120:Crime mapping
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2095:Visualization
2089:
2084:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2002:Crime mapping
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Climate model
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:Environmental
1891:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1827:
1825:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1666:
1656:
1653:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1637:0-521-78258-9
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:Hagedorn, R.
1470:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1318:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1260:
1256:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1188:Space mapping
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1144:NLP modelling
1142:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1067:Goal modeling
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
998:Climate model
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
975:
974:
973:
966:
964:
962:
958:
953:
952:Space mapping
947:Space mapping
946:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
924:Visualization
919:Visualization
918:
916:
914:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
893:
892:
887:
879:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
834:
827:
825:
822:
814:
812:
810:
806:
801:
794:
792:
790:
785:
777:
775:
773:
769:
764:
760:
755:
753:
749:
741:
736:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
710:
708:
704:
703:formal system
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
649:
642:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
612:
608:
606:
601:
599:
595:
592:to quantify,
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
556:representing
555:
551:
540:
535:
533:
528:
526:
521:
520:
518:
517:
514:
511:
510:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
487:
486:
483:
479:
476:
474:
473:Bibliometrics
471:
470:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
455:
449:
448:
441:
438:
434:
431:
430:
429:
426:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
411:Meta-analysis
409:
407:
404:
402:
401:Bibliometrics
399:
398:
397:
394:
392:
389:
385:
382:
381:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
339:
338:
335:
331:
328:
327:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
297:
291:
290:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
272:Phenomenology
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
229:
226:
221:
220:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
157:
154:
149:
148:
141:
138:
134:
131:
130:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
115:
109:
108:
99:
96:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
75:
72:
67:
66:
62:
58:
57:
54:
50:
46:
42:
41:
34:
30:
19:
2914:
2905:Neuroimaging
2865:CPK coloring
2848:Color coding
2786:Hans Rosling
2766:Miriah Meyer
2731:Aaron Koblin
2716:Jeffrey Heer
2610:Edward Tufte
2605:Pat Hanrahan
2575:Nigel Holmes
2453:Otto Neurath
2392:Oliver Byrne
2340:19th century
1837:
1773:
1762:
1737:70: 105–125.
1734:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1687:
1677:
1670:
1655:
1646:
1627:
1621:
1605:
1587:
1582:
1574:
1569:
1561:
1556:
1544:
1536:
1528:
1516:
1509:
1500:. Edited by
1497:
1489:
1481:
1474:
1469:
1461:
1456:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1393:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1360:
1355:
1347:
1342:
1332:
1327:
1265:
1250:
1242:Applications
1232:
1077:Hydrogeology
950:
922:
910:
889:
855:
835:
831:
818:
798:
781:
762:
756:
745:
726:
718:
714:
711:
673:Attempts to
672:
668:in simulacra
667:
653:
614:
610:
602:
549:
548:
427:
252:Hermeneutics
140:Quantitative
29:
2838:Cartography
2776:Ade Olufeko
2746:Manuel Lima
2675:Kwan-Liu Ma
2600:Stuart Card
2570:Borden Dent
2508:Erwin Raisz
2463:Henry Gantt
1494:Leo Apostel
1082:Hydrography
864:assumes an
858:abstraction
325:Ethnography
225:Methodology
180:Fallibilism
128:Qualitative
98:Referencing
2960:Categories
2761:John Maeda
2539:John Tukey
2503:Harry Beck
2498:Fritz Kahn
2248:Photograph
1846:Biological
1742:ChemChains
1690:. Oxford:
1484:57A:219–33
1384:Frigg and
1319:References
1169:Simulation
884:See also:
784:simulation
778:Simulation
695:principles
691:axiomatize
679:principles
562:understand
500:Statistics
495:Simulation
433:Simulation
374:Interviews
337:Experiment
305:Case study
277:Pragmatism
195:Pragmatism
185:Positivism
175:Empiricism
2843:Chartjunk
2811:Bang Wong
2706:Polo Chau
2412:John Snow
2387:John Venn
2268:Schematic
2253:Pictogram
1790:Modelling
1628:Structure
1448:143865553
1440:0950-0693
1294:Heuristic
839:structure
800:Structure
795:Structure
715:in silico
675:formalize
664:objective
656:empirical
574:visualize
558:empirical
133:Art-based
2829:Related
2238:Ideogram
1610:Archived
1464:. p. 424
1386:Hartmann
1270:See also
937:geometry
935:, Greek
843:ontology
727:in vitro
643:Overview
578:simulate
570:quantify
300:Analysis
93:Argument
53:Research
45:a series
43:Part of
2711:Ben Fry
2223:Diagram
1477:(2005)
1420:Bibcode
849:versus
815:Systems
789:testing
757:Within
719:in vivo
707:reality
685:use an
681:of the
660:logical
633:methods
379:Mapping
294:Methods
200:Realism
88:Writing
2831:topics
2302:People
2209:Image
2103:Fields
1975:Social
1759:Models
1634:
1506:Source
1482:Tellus
1475:et al.
1446:
1438:
1398:source
1233:
939:, and
821:system
737:Basics
725:) and
637:theory
627:, and
566:define
554:models
440:Survey
2283:Table
2218:Chart
2211:types
1462:Wiley
1444:S2CID
967:Types
763:model
750:(see
699:logic
576:, or
2258:Plot
1632:ISBN
1436:ISSN
693:the
677:the
662:and
2243:Map
1718:12.
1428:doi
963:).
733:).
697:of
2962::
1595:^
1535:,
1508:)]
1442:.
1434:.
1426:.
1416:37
1414:.
1363:,
931:,
915:.
819:A
782:A
623:,
619:,
607:.
588:,
572:,
568:,
564:,
47:on
2087:e
2080:t
2073:v
1830:e
1823:t
1816:v
1748:.
1694:.
1640:.
1510:,
1450:.
1430::
1422::
1400:)
538:e
531:t
524:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
