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inhibiting growth of the cell wall. Compromise of the wall results in leakage of cell contents, and ultimately cell death. The moenomycins are the only known active site inhibitors of these enzymes, which in lies their promise as human antibiotics given pathogenic bacteria have not yet widely evolved
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The moenomycin family functions as an antibiotic by reversibly binding bacterial transglycosylases, essential enzymes that catalyze the extension of the glycan chain of the cell wall to form a stable peptidoglycan layer. The moenomycins mimic and thus compete with the natural substrate of the enzyme,
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nature of the moenomycins induce hemolytic activity, provide a long half-life in the blood stream, and creates a tendency to aggregate in aqueous solution. Comparison of moenomycins with an abridged isoprene chain of 10-carbons, show that the oligosaccharide can still tightly bind the enzyme active
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The 25-carbon lipid tail confers to the moenomycins a detergent-like property that allows them to become incorporated into the cytoplasmic membrane of the target bacterial cell. This anchoring presents the oligosaccharide portion of the molecule to the transglycosylase where it can tightly and
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control and site-specifically decorating the oligosaccharide with pendant functionality. Understanding that the majority of variation within the moenomycin family derives from differences within the oligosaccharide unit, Kahne and lab has designed an efficient and flexible total synthesis of
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can enhance specificity and binding to the target protein, affording increased activity. With the exception of pholipomycin and AC326-α, the R saccharide unit is usually the deoxysaccharide. Lastly, in the majority of moenomycins the R position is linked to a 2-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dione – a
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In contrast to the lipid portion, the oligosaccharide portion of the moenomycins is relatively well understood. When absent, the chromophore portion can decrease activity by 10-fold, suggesting it is not necessary for recognition but provides additional contacts with the target enzyme.
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moenocinol or diumycinol upon hydrolysis of the lipid tail; these alcohols originate from the L1 or L2 lipid respectively in the figure. These two structures are the only observed lipid tails within the moenomycin family, with AC326-α being the only known for producing diumycinol.
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With regards to the tetrasaccharide portion, stereochemistry and functionality can differ at R and R depending on if this saccharide unit is D-gluco versus D-galacto; there is an axial methyl group in the former case with the exception of moenomycin
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where there is instead an axial hydroxyl. The oligosaccharide motif can be deoxygenated, hydroxylated, or glycosylated at the R position – notable examples of the pentasaccharide motif include moenomycin A and AC326-α. It is believed the additional
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Due to poor pharmacokinetic properties from the 25-carbon lipid chain, the moenomycins are not used in humans. The pharmacophore is well understood however, allowing the moenomycins to serve as the blueprint for future antibacterials.
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the MIC significantly increases since the drug is unable to anchor itself to the cytoplasmic membrane and present its sugar moiety. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal length for favorable pharmacokinetic properties.
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and biosynthesis of novel moenomycin analogues. Early work on the biosynthesis of the moenomycins focused on the 25-carbon lipid tail derived from moenocinol; the tail was of particular interest given that it appears to break the
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Biosynthetic mechanism for the moenocinol lipid tail of moenomycin A. From farnesyl derivative and geranyl pyrophosphate: 1. Cyclization and pyrophosphate elimination 2. Ring expansion 3. Base catalyzed ring
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studies using mice models suggest the antibiotics are powerful prophylactic and therapeutic agents, with subcutaneous injection being the most effective mode of delivery.
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It is the combination of different isoprenoid chains and variously substituted tetrasaccharides that give rise to the diversity of the moenomycin family.
202:. In 2009, the seventeen step biosynthetic pathway was completely characterized, revealing the order of assembly for the molecular scaffold.
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Walker, S., Ostash, B.O., Moenomycin
Biosynthesis-related Compositions and Methods of Use Thereof . U.S. Patent 9115358 B2, Aug 25, 2015.
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selectively bind the enzyme, inhibiting cell wall growth. This property however undermines their use in clinical settings. The
55:. Moenomycin A is the founding member of the antibiotic family with the majority discovered by the end of the late 1970s.
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utilized for structural analysis. For the nosokomycin subfamily, this position forms a carboxamide or carboxylic acid.
217:, inhibiting cell wall formation, leading to cell death. In general, the antibiotics are particularly potent against
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Due to the structural complexity of the moenomycins, total synthesis has proved difficult, with only one
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Based on degradation experiments, the defining mark of a moenomycin is the presence of the 25-carbon
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Huber G. In: Antibiotics. Hahn FE, editor. Springer-Verlag; Berlin/Heidelberg: 1979. pp. 135–153.
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HE, HAIYIN; SHEN, BO; KORSHALLA, JOSEPH; SIEGEL, MARSHALL M.; CARTER, GUY T. (25 February 2000).
225:(MIC) between 1–100 (ng/ml). At higher concentrations the moenomycins are also effective against
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reported so far. Some of the largest challenges include fashioning the glycosidic linkages with
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moenomycin A that gives access to analogues as well as other members of the moenomycin family.
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340:"Isolation and Structural Elucidation of AC326-.ALPHA., A New Member of the Moenomycin Group"
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More recently, the biosynthetic gene cluster for moenomycin A was first described in 2007 in
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National Center for
Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database; CID=53385491,
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240:(Flavomycin), a veterinary antibiotic used solely in poultry, swine, and cattle feed.
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182:. Feeding studies revealed the moenocinol lipid tail originates from a 15-carbon
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chain connected by an ether linkage to the C2-position of 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
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Anikin, A., et al. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 1999 Dec 16; 38(24):3703-3707.
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Wallhausser, K.H., et al. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother. 1965. P. 734-736.
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Kahne, D.E., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006, 128 (47), pp 15084–15085
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Structures of notable members of the moenomycin family of antibiotics
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Adachi, M., et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006, 128 (43), pp 14012–14013
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of the moenomycin family has been conducted to better inform the
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Schacht U, Huber G J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1969 Dec; 22(12):597-602.
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Moenomycins A and C are commercially used in the formulation of
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The moenomycins can be reduced to three key structural features
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Volke, F. Chemistry and
Physics of Lipids 85 (1997) 115–123.
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Arigoni, D., et al. Tetrahedron
Letters, 2001, 42, 3835–37
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Ostash, B.; Walker, S. Nat. Prod. Rep., 2010, 27, 1594-1617
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Gampe, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135 (10), pp 3776–3779
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T. Ru¨hl et al. / Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11 (2003) 2965–2981
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Walsh, C.T., The
Journal of Antibiotics (2014) 67, 7–22
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435:Ostash, B., et al. Biochemistry 2009, 48, 8830–41.
378:Yuan, Y. ACS Chem. Biol., 2008, 3 (7), pp 429–436
426:Ostash B., et al. Chem Biol. 2007, 14, 257-67.
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319:Welzel, P. Chem. Rev. 2005, 105, 4610−4660
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229:with an MIC between 0.3–150 (μg/ml).
49:, metabolites of the bacterial genus
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97:linkage to 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
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210:The moenomycins target bacterial
266:Structure-activity relationships
223:minimum inhibitory concentration
165:Extensive exploration into the
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38:First described in 1965, the
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357:10.7164/antibiotics.53.191
344:The Journal of Antibiotics
186:precursor and a 10-carbon
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227:gram-negative bacteria
219:gram-positive bacteria
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77:3-phosphoglyceric acid
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178:at C8, containing a
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34:Moenomycin A
519:Antibiotics
273:amphiphilic
129:chromophore
127:convenient
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40:moenomycins
289:References
276:site, but
260:resistance
91:saccharide
84:isoprenoid
75:A central
44:glycolipid
18:Moenomycin
79:backbone.
59:Structure
513:Category
366:10805581
184:farnesyl
278:in vivo
253:General
231:In vivo
221:with a
188:geranyl
161:opening
106:alcohol
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124:glycan
117:and C
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352:doi
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