519:. Smalley believed that such assemblers were not physically possible and introduced scientific objections to them. His two principal technical objections were termed the "fat fingers problem" and the "sticky fingers problem". He believed these would exclude the possibility of "molecular assemblers" that worked by precision picking and placing of individual atoms. Drexler and coworkers responded to these two issues in a 2001 publication.
493:
computer and the assemblers is broken, or when that computer is unplugged, the assemblers stop replicating. Such a "broadcast architecture" is one of the safety features recommended by the "Foresight
Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology", and a map of the 137-dimensional replicator design space recently published by Freitas and Merkle provides numerous practical methods by which replicators can be safely controlled by good design.
1714:
643:
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472:, constructing many copies of itself. This would allow an exponential rate of production. Then, after sufficient quantities of the molecular assemblers were available, they would then be re-programmed for production of the desired product. However, if self-replication of molecular assemblers were not restrained then it might lead to competition with naturally occurring organisms. This has been called
1726:
657:
143:
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1701:
572:, and in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analysis can be considered definitive regarding several questions of potential system performance, and that optimal paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot be predicted with confidence. It recommends funding for experimental research to produce experimental demonstrations in this area:
25:
468:"Molecular assemblers" have been confused with self-replicating machines. To produce a practical quantity of a desired product, the nanoscale size of a typical science fiction universal molecular assembler requires an extremely large number of such devices. However, a single such theoretical molecular assembler might be programmed to
537:
Speculation on the power of systems that have been called "molecular assemblers" has sparked a wider political discussion on the implication of nanotechnology. This is in part due to the fact that nanotechnology is a very broad term and could include "molecular assemblers". Discussion of the possible
285:
Because synthetic molecular assemblers have never been constructed and because of the confusion regarding the meaning of the term, there has been much controversy as to whether "molecular assemblers" are possible or simply science fiction. Confusion and controversy also stem from their classification
435:
In 2005, an animated short film of the nanofactory concept was produced by John Burch, in collaboration with
Drexler. Such visions have been the subject of much debate, on several intellectual levels. No one has discovered an insurmountable problem with the underlying theories and no one has proved
579:
of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Thus, the eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted with confidence. Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to
483:
One method of building molecular assemblers is to mimic evolutionary processes employed by biological systems. Biological evolution proceeds by random variation combined with culling of the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants. Production of complex molecular
253:
has explored a range of atomically precise fabrication technologies, including both early-generation and longer-term prospects for programmable molecular assembly; the report was released in
December, 2007. In 2008, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council provided funding of £1.5
522:
Smalley also believed that
Drexler's speculations about apocalyptic dangers of self-replicating machines that have been equated with "molecular assemblers" would threaten the public support for development of nanotechnology. To address the debate between Drexler and Smalley regarding molecular
363:
of a molecular product by using a nanomechanical robotic arm to move a molecular substrate between different reactive sites of an artificial molecular machine. An accompanying News and Views article, titled 'A molecular assembler', outlined the operation of the molecular robot as effectively a
269:
to refer to a wide range of fantastic atom-manipulating nanomachines. Much of the controversy regarding "molecular assemblers" results from the confusion in the use of the name for both technical concepts and popular fantasies. In 1992, Drexler introduced the related but better-understood term
492:
Most assembler designs keep the "source code" external to the physical assembler. At each step of a manufacturing process, that step is read from an ordinary computer file and "broadcast" to all the assemblers. If any assembler gets out of range of that computer, or when the link between that
488:
that works is invariably found to have evolved from a simple system that worked. . . . A complex system designed from scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it work. You have to start over, beginning with a system that works." However, most published safety guidelines include
584:
and other capabilities of biological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Research funding that is based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve this goal."
307:
in a sequence-specific manner by using an artificial molecular machine that is guided by a molecular strand. This functions in the same way as a ribosome building proteins by assembling amino acids according to a messenger RNA blueprint. The structure of the machine is based on a
423:
and Ralph Merkle. The
Nanofactory Collaboration, founded by Freitas and Merkle in 2000, is a focused, ongoing effort involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations and 4 countries that is developing a practical research agenda specifically aimed at positionally-controlled
551:
also commissioned a report entitled "Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties" regarding the larger social and ecological implications of nanotechnology. This report does not discuss the threat posed by potential so-called "molecular assemblers".
538:
implications of fantastic molecular assemblers has prompted calls for regulation of current and future nanotechnology. There are very real concerns with the potential health and ecological impact of nanotechnology that is being integrated in manufactured products.
316:
group, which removes amino acids in sequence from the axle, transferring them to a peptide assembly site. In 2018, the same group published a more advanced version of this concept in which the molecular ring shuttles along a polymeric track to assemble an
542:
for instance commissioned a report concerning nanotechnology in which they express concern into the toxicity of nanomaterials that have been introduced in the environment. However, it makes only passing references to "assembler" technology. The UK
290:, which is an active area of laboratory research which has already been applied to the production of real products; however, there had been, until recently, no research efforts into the actual construction of "molecular assemblers".
447:
would be one of many possible negative impacts, though it could be argued that this disruption would have little negative effect, if everyone had such nanofactories. Great benefits also would be anticipated. Various works of
415:, and a top-level systems design for a 'primitive nanofactory' by Chris Phoenix (director of research at the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology). All of these nanofactory designs (and more) are summarized in Chapter 4 of
281:
abilities, mobility, ability to consume food, and so forth. These are quite different from devices that merely (as defined above) "guide chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision".
903:
1027:
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to build larger atomically precise parts. These, in turn, would be assembled by positioning mechanisms of assorted sizes to build macroscopic (visible) but still atomically-precise products.
836:
Lewandowski, Bartosz; De Bo, Guillaume; Ward, John W.; Papmeyer, Marcus; Kuschel, Sonja; Aldegunde, María J.; Gramlich, Philipp M. E.; Heckmann, Dominik; Goldup, Stephen M. (2013-01-11).
250:
502:
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Council, National
Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering Physical; Board, National Materials Advisory; Initiative, Committee to Review the National Nanotechnology (2006).
277:
This article mostly discusses "molecular assemblers" in the popular sense. These include hypothetical machines that manipulate individual atoms and machines with organism-like
1333:
free open-source multi-scale modeling and simulation program for nano-composites with special support for structural DNA nanotechnology (originally
Nanoengineer-1 by Nanorex)
1260:
Nanotechnology, Artificial
Intelligence and Robotics; A technical, political and institutional map of emerging technologies. A report for the Greenpeace Environmental Trust
575: "Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and
238:
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and 'grey goo' scenarios, like synthetic molecular assemblers, are based upon still-hypothetical technologies that have not yet been demonstrated experimentally.
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Li, J.; Ballmer, S. G.; Gillis, E. P.; Fujii, S.; Schmidt, M. J.; Palazzolo, A. M. E.; Lehmann, J. W.; Morehouse, G. F.; Burke, M. D. (2015).
1312:
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245:-like molecular assemblers. Clearly, molecular assemblers are possible in this limited sense. A technology roadmap project, led by the
1876:
1417:
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1189:
159:
1988:
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399:". During the 1990s, others have extended the nanofactory concept, including an analysis of nanofactory convergent assembly by
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which consumes carbon to continue its replication. If unchecked, such mechanical replication could potentially consume whole
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have explored these and similar concepts. The potential for such devices was part of the mandate of a major UK study led by
2178:
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that the theories can be translated into practice. However, the debate continues, with some of it being summarized in the
902:
De Bo, Guillaume; Gall, Malcolm A. Y.; Kuschel, Sonja; Winter, Julien De; Gerbaux, Pascal; Leigh, David A. (2018-04-02).
1522:
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released the report of a study of molecular manufacturing (not molecular assemblers per se) as part of a longer report,
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One potential scenario that has been envisioned is out-of-control self-replicating molecular assemblers in the form of
2205:
1618:
246:
1388:— online technical book: first comprehensive survey of molecular assemblers (2004) by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle
489:"recommendations against developing ... replicator designs which permit surviving mutation or undergoing evolution".
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of complex structures by mechanically positioning reactive molecules, not by manipulating individual atoms".
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A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the
National Nanotechnology Initiative - The National Academies Press
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million over six years (£1,942,235.57, $ 2,693,808.00 in 2021) for research working towards mechanized
218:
molecules. However, the term "molecular assembler" usually refers to theoretical human-made devices.
2080:
2043:
2023:
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978:
915:
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408:
359:'s group reported a molecular robot that could be programmed to construct any one of four different
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380:(resembling molecular assemblers, or industrial robot arms) would combine reactive molecules via
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published a point-counterpoint consisting of an exchange of letters that addressed the issues.
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by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision". A molecular assembler is a kind of
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994:
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One of the most outspoken critics of some concepts of "molecular assemblers" was
Professor
1973:
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967:"Synthesis of many different types of organic small molecules using one automated process"
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611:), or it could simply outcompete natural lifeforms for necessary resources such as
400:
377:
360:
318:
221:
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1238:"Institute for Molecular ManufacturingDebate About Assemblers — Smalley Rebuttal"
258:, in partnership with the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, amongst others.
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1945:
1823:
1808:
1798:
1195:
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716:
691:
512:
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329:
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312:, which is a molecular ring sliding along a molecular axle. The ring carries a
2018:
1903:
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927:
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638:
539:
429:
142:
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838:"Sequence-Specific Peptide Synthesis by an Artificial Small-Molecule Machine"
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990:
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624:
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A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative
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Foresight Guidelines for Responsible Nanotechnology Development (2006)
1353:
612:
337:
1099:
1082:
904:"An artificial molecular machine that builds an asymmetric catalyst"
411:"Universal Assembler", the patented exponential assembly process by
206:
fit this definition. This is because they receive instructions from
1304:
1154:
387:
A typical nanofactory would fit in a desktop box, in the vision of
1271:"Nanoscience and nanotechnologies:opportunities and uncertainties"
412:
1423:
1028:"Stereodivergent synthesis with a programmable molecular machine"
403:, a systems design of a replicating nanofactory architecture by
348:
report a platform that automates the synthesis of 14 classes of
207:
1745:
1427:
393:
Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation
336:
derivative (in a way reminiscent to the ribosome assembling an
270:"molecular manufacturing", which he defined as the programmed "
18:
1414:
Integrated Nanosystems for Atomically Precise Manufacturing
1181:
Systemantics: How Systems Work and Especially How They Fail
777:"Value of 2008 British Pounds today - Inflation calculator"
620:
484:
assemblers might be evolved from simpler systems since "A
443:
If nanofactories could be built, severe disruption to the
261:
Likewise, the term "molecular assembler" has been used in
1184:(1st ed.). New York: Pocket Books. pp. 80–81.
46:
568:
The study committee reviewed the technical content of
1348:
1374:
Unraveling the Big Debate over Small Machines (2004)
2011:
1964:
1832:
1786:
1779:
1655:
1632:
1609:
1576:
1531:
1494:
1461:
1210:"Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology"
503:Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology
239:Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
1026:; Marcos, V.; Palmer, L. I.; Pisano, S. (2017).
352:, with thousands of compatible building blocks.
817:
815:
742:"Productive Nanosystems: A Technology Roadmap"
1757:
1439:
1380:Design considerations for an assembler (1995)
167:
8:
1349:Center for Responsible Nanotechnology (2008)
1339:free software for modeling nanotech entities
1151:"Nanotechnology: Grey Goo is a Small Issue"
2173:
1783:
1764:
1750:
1742:
1446:
1432:
1424:
174:
160:
65:
1098:
998:
303:, details a new method of synthesizing a
823:"C&En: Cover Story - Nanotechnology"
220:
210:and then assemble specific sequences of
1359:Rage Against the (Green) Machine (2003)
1345:of molecular manufacturing technologies
733:
194:, is a "proposed device able to guide
73:
2029:Differential technological development
515:for his contributions to the field of
1337:Nano-Hive: Nanospace Simulator (2006)
1224:"Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines"
1081:Kelly, T. R.; Snapper, M. L. (2017).
582:exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies
202:. Some biological molecules such as
7:
1700:
1251:Future Technologies, Today's Choices
47:move details into the article's body
2118:Future-oriented technology analysis
1386:Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
417:Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
297:'s group, published in the journal
1877:High-temperature superconductivity
1418:United States Department of Energy
1370:UK EducationGuardian, 11 June 2003
1354:Molecular Assembler website (2008)
1137:"Nanofactory Technical Challenges"
364:prototypical molecular assembler.
14:
1409:Review of Molecular Manufacturing
1392:Design of a Primitive Nanofactory
562:U.S. National Academy of Sciences
340:). In another paper published in
16:Proposed nanotechnological device
2172:
1989:Self-reconfiguring modular robot
1724:
1712:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1331:Molecular Dynamics Studio (2016)
655:
641:
141:
129:
23:
627:examples run on). However, the
526:Chemical & Engineering News
344:in March 2015, chemists at the
237:Beginning in 2007, the British
69:Part of a series of articles on
1882:High-temperature superfluidity
1368:Government launches nano study
376:is a proposed system in which
1:
2145:Technology in science fiction
1647:Scanning tunneling microscope
1398:Video - Nanofactory in Action
293:Nonetheless, a 2013 paper by
1022:Kassem, S.; Lee, A. T. L..;
549:Royal Academy of Engineering
1619:Molecular scale electronics
1420:Workshop – August 5–6, 2015
1123:"Nanofactory Collaboration"
395:(1992), a notable work of "
247:Battelle Memorial Institute
2227:
2150:Technology readiness level
2086:Technological unemployment
592:
577:thermodynamic efficiencies
500:
497:Drexler and Smalley debate
251:U.S. National Laboratories
241:has funded development of
2168:
2133:Technological singularity
2093:Technological convergence
1909:Multi-function structures
1683:
1634:Scanning probe microscopy
928:10.1038/s41565-018-0105-3
722:Nanotechnology in fiction
432:nanofactory development.
1924:Molecular nanotechnology
1887:Linear acetylenic carbon
1657:Molecular nanotechnology
1601:Solid lipid nanoparticle
1586:Self-assembled monolayer
556:Formal scientific review
511:(1943–2005) who won the
438:molecular nanotechnology
2098:Technological evolution
2071:Exploratory engineering
1642:Atomic force microscope
1591:Supramolecular assembly
1578:Molecular self-assembly
1083:"A molecular assembler"
991:10.1126/science.aaa5414
865:10.1126/science.1229753
397:exploratory engineering
2108:Technology forecasting
2103:Technological paradigm
2076:Proactionary principle
1404:Nanofactory technology
580:systems which greatly
454:mechanical engineering
346:University of Illinois
321:that can fold into an
249:and hosted by several
234:
106:Productive nanosystems
2034:Disruptive innovation
1897:Metamaterial cloaking
1773:Emerging technologies
1731:Technology portal
1376:from BetterHumans.com
908:Nature Nanotechnology
428:mechanosynthesis and
325:that can perform the
224:
148:Technology portal
2081:Technological change
2024:Collingridge dilemma
1518:Green nanotechnology
808:on November 4, 2011.
607:or the whole Earth (
2138:Technology scouting
2113:Accelerating change
1984:Powered exoskeleton
1941:Programmable matter
1819:Smart manufacturing
1814:Molecular assembler
1794:3D microfabrication
1665:Molecular assembler
1052:10.1038/nature23677
1044:2017Natur.549..374K
983:2015Sci...347.1221L
977:(6227): 1221–1226.
920:2018NatNa..13..381D
857:2013Sci...339..189L
802:"Grants on the Web"
749:Foresight Institute
712:Santa Claus machine
188:molecular assembler
117:Engines of Creation
91:Molecular assembler
2206:Molecular machines
2155:Technology roadmap
1857:Conductive polymer
1719:Science portal
1596:DNA nanotechnology
1256:2006-04-14 at the
623:light (which some
272:chemical synthesis
235:
231:biological machine
196:chemical reactions
136:Science portal
2188:
2187:
2007:
2006:
1956:Synthetic diamond
1852:Artificial muscle
1834:Materials science
1739:
1738:
1314:978-0-309-10223-0
1093:(7672): 336–337.
1038:(7672): 374–378.
851:(6116): 189–193.
677:Molecular machine
663:Technology portal
200:molecular machine
184:
183:
96:Molecular machine
64:
63:
43:length guidelines
2218:
2211:Self-replication
2176:
2175:
2123:Horizon scanning
2039:Ephemeralization
1999:Uncrewed vehicle
1919:Carbon nanotubes
1784:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1743:
1729:
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1703:
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1691:
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1675:Mechanosynthesis
1566:characterization
1448:
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1283:
1282:
1273:. Archived from
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1153:. Archived from
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751:. Archived from
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738:
665:
660:
659:
651:
646:
645:
464:Self-replication
409:Forrest Bishop's
382:mechanosynthesis
327:enantioselective
279:self-replicating
256:mechanosynthesis
190:, as defined by
176:
169:
162:
146:
145:
134:
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86:Mechanosynthesis
66:
59:
56:
50:
41:Please read the
27:
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2003:
1960:
1862:Femtotechnology
1847:Amorphous metal
1828:
1775:
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1711:
1679:
1651:
1628:
1624:Nanolithography
1611:Nanoelectronics
1605:
1572:
1527:
1490:
1481:Popular culture
1457:
1452:
1382:by Ralph Merkle
1327:
1322:
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1258:Wayback Machine
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509:Richard Smalley
505:
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456:professor Dame
450:science fiction
389:K. Eric Drexler
370:
350:small molecules
267:popular culture
263:science fiction
192:K. Eric Drexler
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54:
51:
40:
37:may be too long
32:This article's
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2201:Nanotechnology
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2064:Robot ethics
1979:Nanorobotics
1946:Quantum dots
1813:
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1670:Nanorobotics
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1508:Nanomedicine
1500:applications
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2128:Moore's law
2059:Neuroethics
2054:Cyberethics
1824:Utility fog
1809:Claytronics
1799:3D printing
1196:Archive.org
717:3D printing
692:Biosecurity
570:Nanosystems
523:assemblers
513:Nobel prize
458:Ann Dowling
374:nanofactory
357:David Leigh
330:epoxidation
295:David Leigh
212:amino acids
2195:Categories
2019:Automation
1904:Metal foam
1554:Non-carbon
1545:Nanotubes
1541:Fullerenes
1523:Regulation
1281:2006-06-16
1176:Gall, John
1161:2007-08-21
762:2008-04-01
729:References
605:ecoregions
540:Greenpeace
533:Regulation
430:diamondoid
419:(2004) by
2049:Bioethics
1867:Fullerene
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687:Biosafety
682:Bioethics
625:nanomotor
480:problem.
440:article.
355:In 2017,
204:ribosomes
75:Molecular
45:and help
1974:Domotics
1966:Robotics
1951:Silicene
1872:Graphene
1694:Category
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1254:Archived
1178:(1978).
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474:ecophagy
334:chalcone
314:thiolate
310:rotaxane
243:ribosome
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1842:Aerogel
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1486:Outline
1471:History
1040:Bibcode
1000:4687482
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971:Science
952:4624041
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853:Bibcode
845:Science
702:Ecocide
476:or the
426:diamond
342:Science
323:α-helix
305:peptide
300:Science
216:protein
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2012:Topics
1780:Fields
1549:Carbon
1496:Impact
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