1072:. PCR is a technique that allows a target DNA sequence to be amplified, meaning even a tiny quantity of DNA from a crime scene can be extracted and replicated many times to provide a sufficient amount of material for analysis. Gel electrophoresis allows the DNA sequence to be separated based on size, and the pattern that is derived is known as DNA fingerprinting and is unique to each individual. This combination of molecular genetic techniques allows a simple DNA sequence to be extracted, amplified, analyzed and compared with others and is a standard technique used in forensics.
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1034:, which was adapted from the genome immune defense that is naturally occurring in bacteria. This technique relies on the protein Cas9 which allows scientists to make a cut in strands of DNA at a specific location, and it uses a specialized RNA guide sequence to ensure the cut is made in the proper location in the genome. Then scientists use DNAs repair pathways to induce changes in the genome; this technique has wide implications for disease treatment.
562:, made great contributions to the field of genetics through his various experiments with pea plants where he was able to discover the principles of inheritance such as recessive and dominant traits, without knowing what genes where composed of. In the mid 19th century, anatomist Walther Flemming, discovered what we now know as chromosomes and the separation process they undergo through mitosis. His work along with
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785:. At cell division, cells must be able to copy its genome and pass it on to daughter cells. This is possible due to the double-stranded structure of DNA because one strand is complementary to its partner strand, and therefore each of these strands can act as a template strand for the formation of a new complementary strand. This is why the process of DNA replication is known as a semiconservative process.
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particular disease. DNA samples are obtained from participants and their genome can then be derived through lab machinery and quickly surveyed to compare participants and look for SNPs that can potentially be associated with the disease. This technique allows researchers to pinpoint genes and locations of interest in the human genome that they can then further study to identify that cause of the disease.
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539:, who was researching the composition of white blood cells, discovered and isolated a new molecule that he named nuclein from the cell nucleus, which would ultimately be the first discovery of the molecule DNA that was later determined to be the molecular basis of life. He determined it was composed of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus. Biochemist Albrecht Kosell identified nuclein as a
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mapped the entire human genome and has made this approach more readily available and cost effective for researchers to implement. In order to conduct a GWAS researchers use two groups, one group that has the disease researchers are studying and another that acts as the control that does not have that
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Reverse genetics is the term for molecular genetics techniques used to determine the phenotype resulting from an intentional mutation in a gene of interest. The phenotype is used to deduce the function of the un-mutated version of the gene. Mutations may be random or intentional changes to the gene
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derived rules that offered evidence of DNA being the genetic material of life. These were "1) that the base composition of DNA varies between species and 2) in natural DNA molecules, the amount of adenine (A) is equal to the amount of thymine (T), and the amount of guanine (G) is equal to the amount
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can help determine the cause and tailor the cure for a disease they are afflicted with and potentially allow for more individualized treatment approaches which could be more effective. For example, certain genetic variations in individuals could make them more receptive to a particular drug while
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are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). Furthermore, the role of chain terminating codons was elucidated. One noteworthy study was performed by Sydney
Brenner and collaborators using "amber" mutants defective in the gene encoding the major head protein of
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A key goal of molecular genetics is to identify and study genetic mutations. Researchers search for mutations in a gene or induce mutations in a gene to link a gene sequence to a specific phenotype. Therefore molecular genetics is a powerful methodology for linking mutations to genetic conditions
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is an emerging field of science, and researcher are able to leverage molecular genetic technology to modify the DNA of organisms and create genetically modified and enhanced organisms for industrial, agricultural and medical purposes. This can be done through genome editing techniques, which can
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that links the molecular structure of a gene to the protein or RNA encoded by that segment of DNA and the functional expression of that protein within an organism. Today, through the application of molecular genetic techniques, genomics is being studied in many model organisms and data is being
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are the building blocks of DNA, each composed of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. A single strand of DNA is held together by covalent bonds, while the two antiparallel strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
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of cytosine (C)." These rules, known as
Chargaff's rules, helped to understand of molecular genetics. In 1953 Francis Crick and James Watson, building upon the X-ray crystallography work done by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, were able to derive the 3-D double helix structure of DNA.
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and is responsible for its genetic traits, function and development. The composition of DNA itself is an essential component to the field of molecular genetics; it is the basis of how DNA is able to store genetic information, pass it on, and be in a format that can be read and translated.
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bacteriophage T4. This study demonstrated the co-linearity of the gene with its encoded polypeptide, thus providing strong evidence for the "sequence hypothesis" that the amino acid sequence of a protein is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene determining the protein.
745:. The genetic code is made of four interchangeable parts othe DNA molecules, called "bases": adenine, cytosine, uracil (in RNA; thymine in DNA), and guanine and is redundant, meaning multiple combinations of these base pairs (which are read in triplicate) produce the same amino acid.
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allows researchers to analyze chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, when they are in a condensed state. Chromosomes are stained and visualized through a microscope to look for any chromosomal abnormalities. This technique can be used to detect congenital genetic disorder such as
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For molecular genetics to develop as a discipline, several scientific discoveries were necessary. The discovery of DNA as a means to transfer the genetic code of life from one cell to another and between generations was essential for identifying the molecule responsible for
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and paternity testing since these repeats are highly unique to individuals/families. a can also be used in constructing genetic maps and to studying genetic linkage to locate the gene or mutation responsible for specific trait or disease. Microsatellites can also be applied to
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and result in a gain of function by the host. Although these techniques have some inherent bias regarding the decision to link a phenotype to a particular function, it is much faster in terms of production than forward genetics because the gene of interest is already known.
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Avery OT, Macleod CM, McCarty M. Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated form pneumococcus type III. J Exp Med. 1944 Feb 1;79(2):137-58.
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between the nucleotide bases. Adenine binds with thymine and cytosine binds with guanine. It is these four base sequences that form the genetic code for all biological life and contains the information for all the proteins the organism will be able to synthesize.
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Molecular genetics is a scientific approach that utilizes the fundamentals of genetics as a tool to better understand the molecular basis of a disease and biological processes in organisms. Below are some tools readily employed by researchers in the field.
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other could have a higher risk of adverse reaction to treatments. So this information would allow researchers and clinicals to make the most informed decisions about treatment efficacy for patients rather than the standard trial and error approach.
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or single sequence repeats (SSRS) are short repeating segment of DNA composed to 6 nucleotides at a particular location on the genome that are used as genetic marker. Researchers can analyze these microsatellites in techniques such
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plays an essential role for criminal investigations through that use of various molecular genetic techniques. One common technique is DNA fingerprinting which is done using a combination of molecular genetic techniques like
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Molecular genetics has wide implications in medical advancement and understanding the molecular basis of a disease allows the opportunity for more effective diagnostic and therapies. One of the goals of the field is
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609:, the bacteria-infecting viruses that the group used as experimental model organisms. Studies by molecular geneticists affiliated with this group contributed to understanding how gene-encoded proteins function in
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Phage and the
Origins of Molecular Biology (2007) Edited by John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory of Quantitative Biology, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York
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plays a key role in the study of molecular genetics. The central dogma states that DNA replicates itself, DNA is transcribed into RNA, and RNA is translated into proteins. Along with the central dogma,
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molecules manifests as variation among organisms. Molecular genetics often applies an "investigative approach" to determine the structure and/or function of genes in an organism's genome using
681:(PCR) using Taq polymerase, invented by Mullis in 1985, enabled scientists to create millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence that could be used for transformation or manipulated using
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859:. Forward genetics is an unbiased approach and often leads to many unanticipated discoveries, but may be costly and time consuming. Model organisms like the nematode worm
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Sarabhai AS, Stretton AO, Brenner S, Bolle A (January 1964). "Co-linearity of the gene with the polypeptide chain". Nature. 201 (4914): 13–7. Bibcode:1964Natur.201...13S.
519:. It integrates these disciplines to explore things like genetic inheritance, gene regulation and expression, and the molecular mechanism behind various life processes.
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Howard, Heidi C.; van El, Carla G.; Forzano, Francesca; Radojkovic, Dragica; Rial-Sebbag, Emmanuelle; de Wert, Guido; Borry, Pascal; Cornel, Martina C. (January 2018).
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that contributed substantially to molecular genetics and the origins of molecular biology during the period from about 1945 to 1970. The phage group took its name from
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This image shows an example of the central dogma using a DNA strand being transcribed then translated and showing important enzymes used in the processes.
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926:). Missense mutations may cause total loss of function or result in partial loss of function, known as a knockdown. Knockdown may also be achieved by
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677:, was pivotal to molecular genetic research and enabled scientists to begin conducting genetic screens to relate genotypic sequences to phenotypes.
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2455:"One small edit for humans, one giant edit for humankind? Points and questions to consider for a responsible way forward for gene editing in humans"
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as the blueprint for life and breakthroughs in molecular genetics research came from the combined works of many scientists. In 1869, chemist
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first came up with the
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance, which helped explain some of the patterns Mendel had observed much earlier.
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Schneeberger, Korbinian (August 20, 2014). "Using next-generation sequencing to isolate mutant genes from forward genetic screens".
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and provided its name deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). He continued to build on that by isolating the basic building blocks of DNA and
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is used in understanding how RNA is translated into proteins. Replication of DNA and transcription from DNA to mRNA occurs in the
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Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (2018). Sex in microbial pathogens. Infection, Genetics and
Evolution volume 57, pages 8-25.
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855:(the mutant gene masks the phenotype of another gene). Finally, the location and specific nature of the mutation is mapped via
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may be performed to determine if the phenotype results from more than one gene. The mutant genes are then characterized as
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and individuals are screened for the specific phenotype. Often, a secondary assay in the form of a selection may follow
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551:: adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine. and uracil. His work on nucleotides earned him a Nobel Prize in Physiology.
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where the desired phenotype is difficult to observe, for example in bacteria or cell cultures. The cells may be
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Gene editing allows scientists to alter/edit an organism's DNA. One way to due this is through the technique
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Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002),
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Its unique structure allows DNA to store and pass on biological information across generations during
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Righetti, Pier
Giorgio (June 24, 2005). "Electrophoresis: The march of pennies, the march of dimes".
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is a molecular genetics technique used to identify genes or genetic mutations that produce a certain
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2183:"Forward and Reverse Genetic Approaches for the Analysis of Vertebrate Development in the Zebrafish"
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involve modifying base pairings in a DNA sequence, or adding and deleting certain regions of DNA.
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are fields in biology that come out of the study of molecular genetics and the central dogma.
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DNA is a double stranded molecule, with each strand oriented in an antiparallel fashion.
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The field of study is based on the merging of several sub-fields in biology: classical
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Jeremy W. Dale and Simon F. Park. 2010. Molecular
Genetics of Bacteria, 5th Edition
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so that the mutants with the desired phenotype are selected from the non-mutants.
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caused by nucleotide substitution, a nucleotide addition or deletion to induce a
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1548:"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid"
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Doyle, Alfred; McGarry, Michael P.; Lee, Nancy A.; Lee, James J. (April 2012).
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have been used successfully to study phenotypes resulting from gene mutations.
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Hardy, Serge; Legagneux, Vincent; Audic, Yann; Paillard, Luc (October 2010).
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1350:"Gregor Mendel and the Principles of Inheritance | Learn Science at Scitable"
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in 2001. The culmination of all of those discoveries was a new field called
578:. In 1944 Avery, McLeod and McCarthy isolated DNA from a virulent strain of
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980:(GWAS) are a technique that relies on single nucleotide polymorphisms (
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techniques in the late 1970s, first by Maxam and
Gilbert, and then by
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where the gene is not expressed and a loss of function results (e.g.
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that may aid the search for treatments of various genetics diseases.
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669:, and paved the way for molecular cloning. The development of
1179:(Fall 2013 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
691:), followed by the eventual sequencing of the human genome via the
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Sites and databases related to genetics, cytogenetics and oncology
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separation. A decade later, the first whole genome was sequenced (
653:. In 1971, Berg utilized restriction enzymes to create the first
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that addresses how differences in the structures or expression of
1270:"Before Watson and Crick in 1953 Came Friedrich Miescher in 1869"
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2511:"What are genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9?: MedlinePlus Genetics"
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Mutants exhibiting the phenotype of interest are isolated and a
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2065:"Semi-Conservative DNA Replication | Learn Science at Scitable"
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Atlas of
Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology
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Lamm, Ehud; Harman, Oren; Veigl, Sophie
Juliane (June 2020).
2536:"Personalized Medicine: Motivation, Challenges and Progress"
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allowed for the identification of specific DNA segments via
3303:
1836:"Timeline: Organisms that have had their genomes sequenced"
1659:"Restriction Enzymes Spotlight | Learn Science at Scitable"
1485:"Regularities in the Composition of Pentose Nucleic Acids"
712:, and links genetic mutations on an evolutionary scale.
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while translation from RNA to proteins occurs in the
2092:, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2016, pp. 27–57,
2088:"Selection versus Screening in Directed Evolution",
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67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
30:For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see
2534:Goetz, Laura H.; Schork, Nicholas J. (June 2018).
601:was an informal network of biologists centered on
1718:"Southern Blotting | MyBioSource Learning Center"
2181:Lawson, Nathan D.; Wolfe, Scot A. (2011-07-19).
1326:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910"
901:Diagram illustrating the development process of
27:Scientific study of genes at the molecular level
2232:"Forward and reverse mutagenesis in C. elegans"
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1375:"Walther Flemming: pioneer of mitosis research"
637:by Arber and Linn in 1969 opened the field of
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1546:Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C. (April 1953).
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2406:"Genome-Wide Association Studies Fact Sheet"
1944:"Transcription, Translation and Replication"
1738:"Professor Paul Berg | Biographical summary"
558:, who became known as one of the fathers of
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2045:Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition
1483:Elson, David; Chargaff, Erwin (May 1954).
1228:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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2430:"Karyotyping | Learn Science at Scitable"
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127:Learn how and when to remove this message
2796:Restriction fragment length polymorphism
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3659:List of genetics research organizations
2090:Directed Evolution of Selective Enzymes
1762:"Herbert W. Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen"
1177:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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146:
1379:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
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905:vaccine by reverse genetics techniques
809:, random mutations are generated with
969:to study comparisons between groups.
700:collected in computer databases like
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1245:"Mutation, Repair and Recombination"
65:adding citations to reliable sources
3286:
2041:"The Structure and Function of DNA"
1143:Timeline of the history of genetics
847:(resulting in a gain of function),
657:molecule and first recombinant DNA
2459:European Journal of Human Genetics
1886:Methods of Information in Medicine
884:An example of forward genetics in
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3130:Post-transcriptional modification
851:(showing a loss of function), or
811:mutagens (chemicals or radiation)
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2552:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.05.006
2277:"Reverse genetics in eukaryotes"
1200:(Sixth ed.). New York, NY.
1088:DNA damage (naturally occurring)
910:of interest. Mutations may be a
765:is made up by its entire set of
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3135:Post-translational modification
978:Genome-wide association studies
973:Genome-wide association studies
52:needs additional citations for
2143:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-CF80-4
1920:"The Central Dogma | Protocol"
888:(a nematode) using mutagenesis
1:
3257:Post-translational regulation
2609:10.1080/20961790.2018.1489445
1373:Paweletz, N. (January 2001).
1198:Molecular biology of the cell
1196:Alberts, Bruce (2014-11-18).
1175:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
1138:Regulation of gene expression
3618:Missing heritability problem
3205:High-throughput technique ("
2200:10.1016/j.devcel.2011.06.007
1696:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.01.018
1469:10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024
3083:Functional biology/medicine
2591:Li, Chengtao (2018-07-18).
1992:"A Brief Guide to Genomics"
1787:"DNA sequencing | genetics"
1684:Journal of Chromatography A
1286:10.1534/genetics.120.303195
3714:
2597:Forensic Sciences Research
2230:Kutscher, Lena M. (2014).
1243:Brown, Terence A. (2002),
1093:DNA damage theory of aging
1083:Complementation (genetics)
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2763:Site-directed mutagenesis
2471:10.1038/s41431-017-0024-z
2342:10.1007/s11248-011-9537-3
2098:10.1002/9783527655465.ch2
1766:Science History Institute
1148:Transformation (genetics)
1066:polymerase chain reaction
679:Polymerase chain reaction
537:Johann Friedrich Miescher
2244:10.1895/wormbook.1.167.1
1128:Homologous recombination
1047:, where an individual's
667:bacterial transformation
631:restriction endonuclease
584:repair of genomic damage
32:Introduction to genetics
2540:Fertility and Sterility
2122:Nature Reviews Genetics
1791:Encyclopedia Britannica
1742:WhatisBiotechnology.org
943:Molecular genetic tools
868:Drosophila melanogaster
2723:: key methods of study
2016:"Home - Genome - NCBI"
1811:"The Invention of PCR"
906:
889:
862:Caenorhabditis elegans
725:
688:Haemophilus influenzae
3654:List of genetic codes
3078:Developmental biology
3073:Computational biology
1864:EMBL-EBI Train online
1113:Genetic recombination
1045:personalized medicine
1038:Personalized medicine
900:
883:
827:antibiotic resistance
723:
501:Mendelian inheritance
422:Personalized medicine
416:Personalized medicine
281:Quantitative genetics
276:Mendelian inheritance
3553:Behavioural genetics
3252:Post-transcriptional
2686:at Wikimedia Commons
2020:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1434:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
1249:Genomes. 2nd edition
1173:"Molecular Genetics"
1171:Waters, Ken (2013),
986:Human Genome Project
871:, and the zebrafish
841:complementation test
693:Human Genome Project
651:hybridization probes
554:In the early 1900s,
344:Branches of genetics
76:"Molecular genetics"
61:improve this article
18:Molecular geneticist
3633:Population genomics
3623:Molecular evolution
3583:Genetic engineering
3047:Histone methylation
2738:Gel electrophoresis
2593:"Forensic genetics"
2330:Transgenic Research
2281:Biology of the Cell
1898:10.1055/s-008-38405
1860:"What is genomics?"
1564:1953Natur.171..737W
1501:1954Natur.173.1037E
1495:(4413): 1037–1038.
1123:History of genetics
1070:gel electrophoresis
1019:Genetic engineering
1014:Genetic engineering
1009:Modern applications
967:population genetics
916:frameshift mutation
639:genetic engineering
629:The isolation of a
314:Genetic engineering
271:Population genetics
142:Part of a series on
3698:Molecular genetics
3593:Genetic monitoring
2758:Restriction digest
2721:Molecular genetics
2684:Molecular genetics
2293:10.1042/BC20100038
2187:Developmental Cell
1118:Genomic imprinting
962:DNA fingerprinting
907:
890:
726:
580:S. pneumoniae
482:Molecular genetics
286:Molecular genetics
245:History and topics
3685:
3684:
3608:He Jiankui affair
3598:Genetic genealogy
3588:Genetic diversity
3517:the British Isles
3422:Genetic variation
3301:
3300:
3280:Molecular biology
3265:
3264:
3219:Mass spectrometry
3096:
3095:
2863:Molecular biology
2829:
2828:
2743:Molecular cloning
2682:Media related to
2666:978-0-470-74184-9
2107:978-3-527-65546-5
2047:, Garland Science
1615:978-0-87969-800-3
1558:(4356): 737–738.
1509:10.1038/1731037a0
1207:978-0-8153-4432-2
1155:Sources and notes
1061:Forensic genetics
1056:Forensic genetics
912:missense mutation
825:using a gene for
647:Southern blotting
619:DNA recombination
547:; made up of the
531:The discovery of
509:molecular biology
479:
478:
208:Genetic variation
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
3705:
3675:
3674:
3638:Reverse genetics
3613:Medical genetics
3328:
3321:
3314:
3305:
3289:
3288:
3277:
3276:
3210:
3105:
2958:
2953:
2897:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2833:
2817:
2816:
2753:Promoter bashing
2714:
2707:
2700:
2691:
2681:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2571:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2382:"Microsatellite"
2378:
2372:
2371:
2361:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2202:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2145:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2012:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2002:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1655:
1649:
1631:10.1038/201013a0
1623:
1617:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1572:10.1038/171737a0
1543:
1537:
1536:
1480:
1471:
1461:
1452:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1391:10.1038/35048077
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1305:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1227:
1219:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1168:
928:RNA interference
893:Reverse genetics
865:, the fruit fly
799:Forward genetics
794:Forward genetics
757:Structure of DNA
735:the genetic code
675:Frederick Sanger
505:cellular biology
471:
464:
457:
444:
439:
438:
336:Medical genetics
332:
327:
326:
158:
139:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3663:
3642:
3541:
3532:the Middle East
3498:Archaeogenetics
3492:
3436:
3375:
3337:
3332:
3302:
3297:
3261:
3234:Gene regulation
3228:
3204:
3165:Model organisms
3148:
3125:Cell signalling
3092:
3051:
2956:
2951:
2938:
2909:DNA replication
2888:
2865:
2860:
2830:
2825:
2805:
2786:Gene sequencing
2772:
2724:
2718:
2674:
2648:
2646:Further reading
2643:
2642:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2519:
2517:
2515:medlineplus.gov
2509:
2508:
2504:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2436:
2428:
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2423:
2414:
2412:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2390:
2388:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2287:(10): 561–580.
2274:
2273:
2269:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2134:10.1038/nrg3745
2128:(10): 662–676.
2119:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2073:
2071:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2048:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2000:
1998:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1976:
1974:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1950:
1942:
1941:
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1913:
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1869:
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1603:
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1540:
1482:
1481:
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1455:
1426:
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1372:
1371:
1367:
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1267:
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1242:
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1195:
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1190:
1182:
1180:
1170:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1078:
1058:
1040:
1028:
1016:
1011:
995:
975:
957:Microsatellites
954:
952:Microsatellites
945:
895:
886:C. elegans
796:
791:
759:
718:
665:, now known as
655:recombinant DNA
643:electrophoresis
611:DNA replication
529:
494:genetic screens
484:is a branch of
475:
434:
427:
426:
417:
409:
408:
407:
406:
357:
349:
348:
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318:
299:
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246:
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224:
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133:
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113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3711:
3709:
3701:
3700:
3690:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3628:Plant genetics
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3568:Genome editing
3565:
3560:
3555:
3549:
3547:
3546:Related topics
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3503:
3501:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3468:Immunogenetics
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3380:Key components
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3333:
3331:
3330:
3323:
3316:
3308:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3283:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3214:DNA microarray
3211:
3201:
3200:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3172:
3162:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3059:
3057:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2926:
2916:
2905:
2903:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2778:Bioinformatics
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2734:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2673:
2672:External links
2670:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2603:(2): 103–104.
2583:
2546:(6): 952–963.
2526:
2502:
2445:
2434:www.nature.com
2421:
2397:
2373:
2336:(2): 327–349.
2316:
2267:
2222:
2173:
2112:
2106:
2080:
2069:www.nature.com
2056:
2031:
2007:
1983:
1968:"Genetic Code"
1959:
1948:www.atdbio.com
1935:
1911:
1876:
1851:
1827:
1802:
1778:
1753:
1729:
1709:
1690:(1–2): 24–40.
1674:
1663:www.nature.com
1650:
1618:
1601:
1538:
1472:
1453:
1420:
1365:
1354:www.nature.com
1341:
1330:NobelPrize.org
1317:
1280:(2): 291–296.
1260:
1235:
1206:
1188:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1057:
1054:
1039:
1036:
1027:
1024:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
994:
991:
974:
971:
953:
950:
944:
941:
934:) to create a
894:
891:
807:genetic screen
795:
792:
790:
787:
761:An organism's
758:
755:
717:
714:
710:bioinformatics
671:DNA sequencing
607:bacteriophages
591:Erwin Chargaff
564:Theodor Boveri
528:
525:
477:
476:
474:
473:
466:
459:
451:
448:
447:
446:
445:
429:
428:
425:
424:
418:
415:
414:
411:
410:
405:
404:
399:
394:
391:
386:
384:Immunogenetics
381:
376:
371:
366:
360:
359:
358:
355:
354:
351:
350:
347:
346:
339:
338:
333:
316:
311:
309:DNA sequencing
306:
300:
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289:
288:
283:
278:
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258:
253:
247:
244:
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230:
221:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
169:
168:
167:
165:Key components
164:
163:
160:
159:
151:
150:
144:
143:
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3710:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3678:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3639:
3636:
3634:
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3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
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3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
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3566:
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3559:
3556:
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3551:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3324:
3322:
3317:
3315:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3224:Lab-on-a-chip
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3202:
3199:
3198:Radioactivity
3195:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3115:Cultured meat
3113:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3103:
3099:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3035:trp repressor
3033:
3031:
3030:lac repressor
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2955:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2919:Transcription
2917:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2901:Central dogma
2898:
2895:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2852:
2850:
2845:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2822:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2768:Southern blot
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2748:Northern blot
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2685:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2587:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2527:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2498:
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933:
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924:knockout mice
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783:cell division
779:
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730:central dogma
722:
716:Central dogma
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556:Gregor Mendel
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517:biotechnology
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78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3578:Genetic code
3512:the Americas
3488:Quantitative
3477:
3458:Cytogenetics
3453:Conservation
3346:Introduction
3290:
3278:
3190:Fluorescence
3178:Nucleic acid
3169:C57BL/6 mice
3160:Cell culture
3068:Biochemistry
3063:Cell biology
2818:
2801:STR analysis
2730:Experimental
2720:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2543:
2539:
2529:
2518:. Retrieved
2514:
2505:
2462:
2458:
2448:
2437:. Retrieved
2433:
2424:
2413:. Retrieved
2409:
2400:
2389:. Retrieved
2385:
2376:
2333:
2329:
2319:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2235:
2225:
2193:(1): 48–64.
2190:
2186:
2176:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2089:
2083:
2072:. Retrieved
2068:
2059:
2049:, retrieved
2044:
2034:
2023:. Retrieved
2019:
2010:
1999:. Retrieved
1995:
1986:
1975:. Retrieved
1971:
1962:
1951:. Retrieved
1947:
1938:
1927:. Retrieved
1924:www.jove.com
1923:
1914:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1868:. Retrieved
1866:. 2011-09-09
1863:
1854:
1843:. Retrieved
1839:
1830:
1819:. Retrieved
1817:. 2007-10-24
1815:Bitesize Bio
1814:
1805:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:
1781:
1770:. Retrieved
1768:. 2016-06-01
1765:
1756:
1745:. Retrieved
1741:
1732:
1721:. Retrieved
1712:
1687:
1683:
1677:
1666:. Retrieved
1662:
1653:
1621:
1604:
1555:
1551:
1541:
1492:
1488:
1423:
1385:(1): 72–75.
1382:
1378:
1368:
1357:. Retrieved
1353:
1344:
1333:. Retrieved
1329:
1320:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1253:, retrieved
1251:, Wiley-Liss
1248:
1238:
1197:
1191:
1181:, retrieved
1176:
1108:Genetic code
1103:Gene mapping
1059:
1041:
1029:
1026:Gene editing
1017:
996:
976:
955:
946:
908:
885:
872:
866:
860:
838:
797:
780:
772:
760:
727:
686:
663:E. coli
662:
634:
628:
603:Max Delbrück
596:
588:
579:
568:
553:
541:nucleic acid
530:
521:
513:biochemistry
498:
481:
480:
402:Quantitative
374:Cytogenetics
369:Conservation
285:
251:Introduction
123:
117:January 2012
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
3558:Epigenetics
3292:WikiProject
3101:Engineering
3056:Linked life
2971:Pribnow box
2929:Translation
2465:(1): 1–11.
1892:(2). 2001.
1133:Mutagenesis
1098:Epigenetics
1032:Crispr/Cas9
998:Karyotyping
993:Karyotyping
874:Danio rerio
831:fluorescent
823:transformed
819:mutagenesis
815:transposons
775:Nucleotides
683:agarose gel
599:phage group
549:nucleotides
3563:Geneticist
3537:South Asia
3483:Population
3463:Ecological
3432:Amino acid
3412:Nucleotide
3387:Chromosome
3242:Epigenetic
3153:Techniques
3015:Terminator
2998:trp operon
2993:lac operon
2988:gal operon
2791:Microarray
2520:2023-12-09
2439:2023-12-07
2415:2023-12-07
2410:Genome.gov
2391:2023-12-07
2386:Genome.gov
2074:2023-10-16
2051:2023-10-16
2025:2023-10-16
2001:2020-12-04
1996:Genome.gov
1977:2020-12-04
1972:Genome.gov
1953:2020-12-04
1929:2020-12-04
1870:2019-10-07
1845:2019-10-07
1840:yourgenome
1821:2019-10-07
1796:2019-10-07
1772:2019-10-07
1747:2019-10-07
1723:2019-11-11
1668:2019-10-07
1359:2023-10-15
1335:2023-10-15
1255:2023-10-09
1183:2019-10-07
1068:(PCR) and
857:sequencing
789:Techniques
747:Proteomics
615:DNA repair
397:Population
379:Ecological
304:Geneticist
218:Amino acid
198:Nucleotide
173:Chromosome
87:newspapers
3478:Molecular
3473:Microbial
3448:Classical
3167:(such as
3025:Repressor
2617:2096-1790
2560:0015-0282
2479:1018-4813
2350:0962-8819
2209:1534-5807
2152:1471-0056
1906:0026-1270
1580:1476-4687
1517:1476-4687
1415:205011982
1399:1471-0072
1294:0016-6731
1224:cite book
1216:887605755
932:transgene
903:avian flu
853:epistatic
849:recessive
803:phenotype
589:In 1950,
393:Molecular
389:Microbial
364:Classical
265:molecular
261:Evolution
3692:Category
3677:Category
3603:Heredity
3573:Genomics
3417:Mutation
3407:Heredity
3371:Glossary
3361:Timeline
3335:Genetics
3174:Methods
3108:Concepts
3088:Genetics
3042:Silencer
3020:Enhancer
2976:TATA box
2966:Promoter
2957:Heredity
2893:Overview
2884:Glossary
2820:Category
2635:30483657
2578:29935653
2497:29192152
2368:21800101
2311:20812916
2262:24449699
2238:: 1–26.
2236:WormBook
2217:21763608
2160:25139187
1704:16038288
1647:10179456
1639:14085558
1588:13054692
1525:13165710
1442:19871359
1407:11413469
1312:32487691
1274:Genetics
1076:See also
1049:genetics
845:dominant
834:reporter
751:genomics
743:ribosome
697:genomics
576:bacteria
572:heredity
560:genetics
496:.
442:Category
329:template
320:Genomics
298:Research
203:Mutation
193:Heredity
148:Genetics
3356:History
3351:Outline
3247:Genetic
3194:Pigment
3183:Protein
3144:Wet lab
3140:Dry lab
3120:Mitosis
2952:Genetic
2943:Element
2933:protein
2874:History
2626:6197140
2569:6366451
2488:5839051
2359:3516403
2302:3017359
2253:4078664
2168:1822657
1596:4253007
1560:Bibcode
1533:4219775
1497:Bibcode
1450:2135445
1303:7268995
805:. In a
739:nucleus
706:Ensembl
659:plasmid
635:E. coli
623:viruses
527:History
486:biology
256:History
228:Outline
101:scholar
3522:Europe
3507:Africa
3441:Fields
3427:Allele
3402:Genome
3207:-omics
3196:&
3005:Intron
2983:Operon
2664:
2633:
2623:
2615:
2576:
2566:
2558:
2495:
2485:
2477:
2366:
2356:
2348:
2309:
2299:
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2250:
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1904:
1702:
1645:
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1613:
1594:
1586:
1578:
1552:Nature
1531:
1523:
1515:
1489:Nature
1448:
1440:
1413:
1405:
1397:
1310:
1300:
1292:
1214:
1204:
763:genome
515:, and
440:
356:Fields
213:Allele
188:Genome
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
3647:Lists
3527:Italy
3366:Index
2879:Index
2654:, at
2164:S2CID
1643:S2CID
1592:S2CID
1529:S2CID
1411:S2CID
829:or a
233:Index
108:JSTOR
94:books
3010:Exon
2662:ISBN
2631:PMID
2613:ISSN
2574:PMID
2556:ISSN
2493:PMID
2475:ISSN
2364:PMID
2346:ISSN
2307:PMID
2258:PMID
2213:PMID
2205:ISSN
2156:PMID
2148:ISSN
2102:ISBN
1902:ISSN
1700:PMID
1688:1079
1635:PMID
1611:ISBN
1584:PMID
1576:ISSN
1521:PMID
1513:ISSN
1438:PMID
1403:PMID
1395:ISSN
1308:PMID
1290:ISSN
1230:link
1212:OCLC
1202:ISBN
982:SNPs
749:and
728:The
704:and
702:NCBI
645:and
617:and
597:The
80:news
3397:RNA
3392:DNA
2923:RNA
2913:DNA
2621:PMC
2605:doi
2564:PMC
2548:doi
2544:109
2483:PMC
2467:doi
2354:PMC
2338:doi
2297:PMC
2289:doi
2285:102
2248:PMC
2240:doi
2195:doi
2138:hdl
2130:doi
2094:doi
1894:doi
1692:doi
1627:doi
1568:doi
1556:171
1505:doi
1493:173
1465:doi
1446:PMC
1430:doi
1387:doi
1298:PMC
1282:doi
1278:215
813:or
767:DNA
633:in
545:RNA
533:DNA
490:DNA
183:RNA
178:DNA
63:by
3694::
3500:of
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