Thermal energy storage - Knowledge (XXG)

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funded in the EU from 2000 to the present (2020). The basic concept is to store solar thermal energy as chemical latent energy in the zeolite. Typically, hot dry air from flat plate solar collectors is made to flow through a bed of zeolite such that any water adsorbate present is driven off. Storage can be diurnal, weekly, monthly, or even seasonal depending on the volume of the zeolite and the area of the solar thermal panels. When heat is called for during the night, or sunless hours, or winter, humidified air flows through the zeolite. As the humidity is adsorbed by the zeolite, heat is released to the air and subsequently to the building space. This form of TES, with specific use of zeolites, was first taught by Guerra in 1978. Advantages over molten salts and other high temperature TES include that (1) the temperature required is only the stagnation temperature typical of a solar flat plate thermal collector, and (2) as long as the zeolite is kept dry, the energy is stored indefinitely. Because of the low temperature, and because the energy is stored as latent heat of adsorption, thus eliminating the insulation requirements of a molten salt storage system, costs are significantly lower.

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oils, synthetic oils are more recently, vegetable oils are gaining interest because they are renewable and biodegradable. Numerious criteria are used to select an oil for a particular application: high energy storage capacity and specific heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, high chemical and physical stability, low coefficient of expansion, low cost, availability, low corrosion and compatibility with compounds materials, limited environmental issues, etc . Regarding the selection of a low-cost or cost-effective thermal oil, it is important to consider not only the acquisition or purchase cost, but also the operating and replacement costs or even final disposal costs. An oil that is initially more expensive may prove to be more cost-effective in the long run if it offers higher thermal stability, thereby reducing the frequency of replacement .

1488:(MOST). With this approach a molecule is converted by photoisomerization into a higher-energy isomer. Photoisomerization is a process in which one (cis trans) isomer is converted into another by light (solar energy). This isomer is capable of storing the solar energy until the energy is released by a heat trigger or catalyst (then, the isomer is converted into its original isomer). A promising candidate for such a MOST is Norbornadiene (NBD). This is because there is a high energy difference between the NBD and the quadricyclane (QC) photoisomer. This energy difference is approximately 96 kJ/mol. It is also known that for such systems, the donor-acceptor substitutions provide an effective means for red shifting the longest-wavelength absorption. This improves the solar spectrum match. 1472:. The molecule is called a chromophore-catalyst assembly which absorbs sunlight and kick starts the catalyst. This catalyst separates the electrons and the water molecules. The nanoparticles are assembled into a thin layer and a single nanoparticle has many chromophore-catalyst on it. The function of this thin layer of nanoparticles is to transfer away the electrons which are separated from the water. This thin layer of nanoparticles is coated by a layer of titanium dioxide. With this coating, the electrons that come free can be transferred more quickly so that hydrogen could be made. This coating is, again, coated with a protective coating that strengthens the connection between the chromophore-catalyst and the nanoparticle. 1492:

used to adjust this absorption maxima. However, this positive effect on the solar absorption is compensated by a higher molecular weight. This implies a lower energy density. This positive effect on the solar absorption has another downside. Namely, that the energy storage time is lowered when the absorption is redshifted. A possible solution to overcome this anti-correlation between the energy density and the red shifting is to couple one chromophore unit to several photo switches. In this case, it is advantageous to form so called dimers or trimers. The NBD share a common donor and/or acceptor.

1855:, to a pressure of, for example, 12 bar, heating it to around 500 °C (900 °F). The compressed gas is transferred to the top of the hot vessel where it percolates down through the gravel, transferring heat to the rock and cooling to ambient temperature. The cooled, but still pressurized, gas emerging at the bottom of the vessel is then adiabatically expanded to 1 bar, which lowers its temperature to −150 °C. The cold gas is then passed up through the cold vessel where it cools the rock while warming to its initial condition. 1424:(NaOH) solution. Heat (e.g. from using a solar collector) is stored by evaporating the water in an endothermic reaction. When water is added again, heat is released in an exothermic reaction at 50 °C (120 °F). Current systems operate at 60% efficiency. The system is especially advantageous for seasonal thermal energy storage, because the dried salt can be stored at room temperature for prolonged times, without energy loss. The containers with the dehydrated salt can even be transported to a different location. The system has a higher 1432:

energy losses. A container with a few cubic meters of salt could store enough of this thermochemical energy to heat a house throughout the winter. In a temperate climate like that of the Netherlands, an average low-energy household requires about 6.7 GJ/winter. To store this energy in water (at a temperature difference of 70 °C), 23 m insulated water storage would be needed, exceeding the storage abilities of most households. Using salt hydrate technology with a storage density of about 1 GJ/m, 4–8 m could be sufficient.

49: 65: 33: 1554:. Early examples of thermal batteries include stone and mud cook stoves, rocks placed in fires, and kilns. While stoves and kilns are ovens, they are also thermal storage systems that depend on heat being retained for an extended period of time. Thermal energy storage systems can also be installed in domestic situations with heat batteries and thermal stores being amongst the most common types of energy storage systems installed at homes in the UK. 247: 838: 1994: 852: 153:

an underground tank or in some kind of heat-transfer fluid (HTF) flowing through a system of pipes, either placed vertically in U-shapes (boreholes) or horizontally in trenches. Yet another system is known as a packed-bed (or pebble-bed) storage unit, in which some fluid, usually air, flows through a bed of loosely packed material (usually rock, pebbles or ceramic brick) to add or extract heat.

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renewable energy is transformed into high temperature high grade heat in highly insulated heat stores, for release later when needed. An emerging technology is the use of vacuum super insulated (VSI) heat stores. The use of electricity to generate heat, and not say direct heat from solar thermal collectors, means that very high temperatures can be realised, potentially allowing for inter

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seasonally extracted from the ground in winter and rejected to the ground in summer, creating a ground "thermal charge" in one season that is not uncharged and driven the other direction from neutral until a later season. Other more advanced examples of Ground-based Thermal Batteries utilizing intentional well-bore thermal patterns are currently in research and early use.

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applications and a wide range of materials that change phase at different temperatures. These materials include salts and waxes that are specifically engineered for the applications they serve. In addition to manufactured materials, water is a phase change material. The latent heat of water is 334 joules/gram. The phase change of water occurs at 0 °C (32 °F).

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A ground heat exchanger (GHEX) is an area of the earth that is utilized as a seasonal/annual cycle thermal battery. These thermal batteries are areas of the earth into which pipes have been placed in order to transfer thermal energy. Energy is added to the GHEX by running a higher temperature fluid

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Eventually, this system could reach a quantum yield of photoconversion up 94% per NBD unit. A quantum yield is a measure of the efficiency of photon emission. With this system the measured energy densities reached up to 559 kJ/kg (exceeding the target of 300 kJ/kg). So, the potential of the

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The DSPEC generates hydrogen fuel by making use of the acquired solar energy to split water molecules into its elements. As the result of this split, the hydrogen is isolated and the oxygen is released into the air. This sounds easier than it actually is. Four electrons of the water molecules need to

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have been achieved. This has been done by a DSPEC (dys-sensitized photoelectrosythesis cell). This is a cell that can store energy that has been acquired by solar panels during the day for night-time (or even later) use. It is designed by taking an indication from, well known, natural photosynthesis.

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PCMs are further subdivided into organic, inorganic and eutectic materials. Compared to organic PCMs, inorganic materials are less flammable, cheaper and more widely available. They also have higher storage capacity and thermal conductivity. Organic PCMs, on the other hand, are less corrosive and not

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Solar energy is an application of thermal energy storage. Most practical solar thermal storage systems provide storage from a few hours to a day's worth of energy. However, a growing number of facilities use seasonal thermal energy storage (STES), enabling solar energy to be stored in summer to heat

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With the rise of wind and solar power (and other renewable energies) providing an ever increasing share of energy input into the electricity grids in some countries, the use of larger scale electric energy storage is being explored by several commercial companies. Ideally, the utilisation of surplus

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would appear to provide sufficient storage for a single house to meet 50% of heating demand. This could, in principle, be used to store surplus wind or solar heat due to the ability of electrical heating to reach high temperatures. At the neighborhood level, the Wiggenhausen-Süd solar development at

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operating on an annual cycle where energy is extracted from a building during the summer season to cool a building and added to the GHEX. Then that same energy is later extracted from the GHEX in the winter season to heat the building. This annual cycle of energy addition and subtraction is highly

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An example of an encapsulated thermal battery is a residential water heater with a storage tank. This thermal battery is usually slowly charged over a period of about 30–60 minutes for rapid use when needed (e.g., 10–15 minutes). Many utilities, understanding the "thermal battery" nature of water

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An encapsulated thermal battery is physically similar to a phase change thermal battery in that it is a confined amount of physical material which is thermally heated or cooled to store or extract energy. However, in a non-phase change encapsulated thermal battery, the temperature of the substance

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However, a recent meta-analysis on studies of thermochemical heat storage suggests that salt hydrates offer very low potential for thermochemical heat storage, that absorption processes have prohibitive performance for long-term heat storage, and that thermochemical storage may not be suitable for

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is also used for storing solar energy at a high temperature, termed molten-salt technology or molten salt energy storage (MSES). Molten salts can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy. Presently, this is a commercially used technology to store the heat collected by

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The materials are generally inexpensive and safe. One of the cheapest, most commonly used options is a water tank, but materials such as molten salts or metals can be heated to higher temperatures and therefore offer a higher storage capacity. Energy can also be stored underground (UTES), either in

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Isentropic systems involve two insulated containers filled, for example, with crushed rock or gravel: a hot vessel storing thermal energy at high temperature/pressure, and a cold vessel storing thermal energy at low temperature/pressure. The vessels are connected at top and bottom by pipes and the

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GHEX are usually implemented in two forms. The picture above depicts what is known as a "horizontal" GHEX where trenching is used to place an amount of pipe in a closed loop in the ground. They are also formed by drilling boreholes into the ground, either vertically or horizontally, and then the

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A crucial challenge for a useful MOST system is to acquire a satisfactory high energy storage density (if possible, higher than 300 kJ/kg). Another challenge of a MOST system is that light can be harvested in the visible region. The functionalization of the NBD with the donor and acceptor units is

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The energy is recovered as electricity by reversing the cycle. The hot gas from the hot vessel is expanded to drive a generator and then supplied to the cold store. The cooled gas retrieved from the bottom of the cold store is compressed which heats the gas to ambient temperature. The gas is then

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Some applications use the thermal capacity of water or ice as cold storage; others use it as heat storage. It can serve either application; ice can be melted to store heat then refrozen to warm an environment. The advantage of using a phase change in this way is that a given mass of material can

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In 2013 the Dutch technology developer TNO presented the results of the MERITS project to store heat in a salt container. The heat, which can be derived from a solar collector on a rooftop, expels the water contained in the salt. When the water is added again, the heat is released, with almost no

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The low cost ($ 200/ton) and high cycle rate (2,000×) of synthetic zeolites such as Linde 13X with water adsorbate has garnered much academic and commercial interest recently for use for thermal energy storage (TES), specifically of low-grade solar and waste heat. Several pilot projects have been

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at 4.2 kJ/(kg⋅K) whereas concrete has about one third of that. On the other hand, concrete can be heated to much higher temperatures (1200 °C) by for example electrical heating and therefore has a much higher overall volumetric capacity. Thus in the example below, an insulated cube of about

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A steam accumulator consists of an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure. As a heat storage device, it is used to mediate heat production by a variable or steady source from a variable demand for heat. Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy

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The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. With

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source as the energy extracted in the winter will be restored to the GHEX the next summer in a continually repeating cycle. This type is solar powered because it is the heat from the sun in the summer that is removed from a building and stored in the ground for use in the next winter season for

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Using oils as sensible heat storage materials is an effective approach for storing thermal energy, particularly in medium- to high-temperature applications. Different types of oils are used based on the temperature range and the specific requirements of the thermal energy storage system: mineral

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Kasper Moth-Poulsen and his team tried to engineer the stability of the high energy photo isomer by having two electronically coupled photo switches with separate barriers for thermal conversion. By doing so, a blue shift occurred after the first isomerization (NBD-NBD to QC-NBD). This led to a

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for later reuse. Employing widely different technologies, it allows surplus thermal energy to be stored for hours, days, or months. Scale both of storage and use vary from small to large – from individual processes to district, town, or region. Usage examples are the balancing of energy

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blocks heated to a high temperature with electricity and may or may not have good insulation and controls to release heat over a number of hours. Some advice not to use them in areas with young children or where there is an increased risk of fires due to poor housekeeping, both due to the high

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A good example of the Annual Cycle nature of a GHEX Thermal Battery can be seen in the ASHRAE Building study. As seen there in the 'Ground Loop and Ambient Air temperatures by date' graphic (Figure 2–7), one can easily see the annual cycle sinusoidal shape of the ground temperature as heat is

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In addition to using ice in direct cooling applications, it is also being used in heat pump-based heating systems. In these applications, the phase change energy provides a very significant layer of thermal capacity that is near the bottom range of temperature that water source heat pumps can

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Phase change materials used for thermal storage are capable of storing and releasing significant thermal capacity at the temperature that they change phase. These materials are chosen based on specific applications because there is a wide range of temperatures that may be useful in different

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offers much higher storage temperatures than salts with consequent greater capacity and efficiency. It is being researched as a possible more energy efficient storage technology. Silicon is able to store more than 1 MWh of energy per cubic meter at 1400 °C. An additional advantage is the

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heaters, have begun using them to absorb excess renewable energy power when available for later use by the homeowner. According to the above-cited article, "net savings to the electricity system as a whole could be $ 200 per year per heater — some of which may be passed on to its owner".

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A single tank with a divider plate to separate cold and hot molten salt is under development. It is more economical by achieving 100% more heat storage per unit volume over the dual tanks system as the molten-salt storage tank is costly due to its complicated construction.

3883:"Performance of the HVAC Systems at the ASHRAE Headquarters Building, Jeffrey D. Spitler, Laura E. Southard, Xiaobing Liu, GeoExchange Organization, September 30, 2014, see Figure 2-7 (pdf pg 32): Ambient air and ground loop water supply temperatures during occupied hours" 1131:

at the PCM's melting point, the material can be picked to have the desired temperature range. Desirable qualities include high latent heat and thermal conductivity. Furthermore, the storage unit can be more compact if volume changes during the phase transition are small.

1123:, the general term for the associated media is Phase-Change Material (PCM). During these transitions, heat can be added or extracted without affecting the material's temperature, giving it an advantage over SHS-technologies. Storage capacities are often higher as well. 1713:

mixture of ionic metal salts (sodium, potassium and lithium chlorides, bromides, etc.) as the electrolyte, manufactured with the salts in solid form. As long as the salts remain solid, the battery has a long shelf life of up to 50 years. Once activated (usually by a

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Several applications are being developed where ice is produced during off-peak periods and used for cooling at a later time. For example, air conditioning can be provided more economically by using low-cost electricity at night to freeze water into ice, then using the

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Sensible heat storage (SHS) is the most straightforward method. It simply means the temperature of some medium is either increased or decreased. This type of storage is the most commercially available out of the three; other techniques are less developed.

72:, which provide thermal energy storage to allow generation during night or peak demand. The 280 MW plant is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year. 226:

for driving a conventional turbine/generator set as used in any coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank of about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four hours by this

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As of 2016, researchers in several countries are conducting experiments to determine the best type of salt, or salt mixture. Low pressure within the container seems favorable for the energy transport. Especially promising are organic salts, so called

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One example of an experimental storage system based on chemical reaction energy is the salt hydrate technology . The system uses the reaction energy created when salts are hydrated or dehydrated. It works by storing heat in a container containing 50%

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higher energy of isomerization of the second switching event (QC-NBD to QC-QC). Another advantage of this system, by sharing a donor, is that the molecular weight per norbornadiene unit is reduced. This leads to an increase of the energy density.

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The different kinds of thermal energy storage can be divided into three separate categories: sensible heat, latent heat, and thermo-chemical heat storage. Each of these has different advantages and disadvantages that determine their applications.

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Using this method, the solar energy acquired from the solar panels is converted into fuel (hydrogen) without releasing the so-called greenhouse gasses. This fuel can be stored into a fuel cell and, at a later time, used to generate electricity.

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Mathiesen, B.V.; Lund, H.; Connolly, D.; Wenzel, H.; Østergaard, P.A.; Möller, B.; Nielsen, S.; Ridjan, I.; Karnøe, P.; Sperling, K.; Hvelplund, F.K. (2015). "Smart Energy Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions".

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of miscibility gap alloys is often higher (up to 400 W/(m⋅K)) than competing technologies which means quicker "charge" and "discharge" of the thermal storage is possible. The technology has not yet been implemented on a large scale.

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There are a multitude of PCMs available, including but not limited to salts, polymers, gels, paraffin waxes and metal alloys, each with different properties. This allows for a more target-oriented system design. As the process is

1527:. Such a thermal battery (a.k.a. TBat) allows energy available at one time to be temporarily stored and then released at another time. The basic principles involved in a thermal battery occur at the atomic level of matter, with 193:

project from 1995 to 1999. Estimates in 2006 predicted an annual efficiency of 99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly into electricity. Various

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absorb a large quantity of energy without its temperature changing. Hence a thermal battery that uses a phase change can be made lighter, or more energy can be put into it without raising the internal temperature unacceptably.

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Thermal batteries generally fall into 4 categories with different forms and applications, although fundamentally all are for the storage and retrieval of thermal energy. They also differ in method and density of heat storage.

1440:. Compared to lithium halide-based sorbents they are less problematic in terms of limited global resources and compared to most other halides and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) they are less corrosive and not negatively affected by CO 1585:

is changed without inducing a phase change. Since a phase change is not needed many more materials are available for use in an encapsulated thermal battery. One of the key properties of an encapsulated thermal battery is its

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Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas (2014). "A comprehensive model for the German electricity and heat sector in a future energy system with a dominant contribution from renewable energy technologies—Part I: Methodology".

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Another medium that can store thermal energy is molten (recycled) aluminum. This technology was developed by the Swedish company Azelio. The material is heated to 600 °C. When needed, the energy is transported to a

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In one type of TCS, heat is applied to decompose certain molecules. The reaction products are then separated, and mixed again when required, resulting in a release of energy. Some examples are the decomposition of

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Another important factor in LHS is the encapsulation of the PCM. Some materials are more prone to erosion and leakage than others. The system must be carefully designed in order to avoid unnecessary loss of heat.

4275:"Prepared for the Thermal Energy-Storage Systems Collaborative of the California Energy Commission" Report titled "Source Energy and Environmental Impacts of Thermal Energy Storage." Tabors Caramanis & Assoc 2767: 1407:(microporous crystalline alumina-silicates) and silica gels are well suited for this purpose. In hot, humid environments, this technology is often used in combination with lithium chloride to cool water. 1718:) and the electrolyte melts, it is very reliable with a high energy and power density. They are extensively used for military applications such as small to large guided missiles, and nuclear weapons. 3619:

Wang, Zhihang; Wu, Zhenhua; Hu, Zhiyu; Orrego-Hernández, Jessica; Mu, Erzhen; Zhang, Zhao-Yang; Jevric, Martyn; Liu, Yang; Fu, Xuecheng; Wang, Fengdan; Li, Tao; Moth-Poulsen, Kasper (16 March 2022).

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Large stores, mostly hot water storage tanks, are widely used in Nordic countries to store heat for several days, to decouple heat and power production and to help meet peak demands. Some towns use

1095:“Brick toaster” is a recently (August 2022) announced innovative heat reservoir operating at up to 1,500 °C (2,732 °F) that its maker, Titan Cement/Rondo claims should be able cut global 3055:

Sugo, Heber; Kisi, Erich; Cuskelly, Dylan (1 March 2013). "Miscibility gap alloys with inverse microstructures and high thermal conductivity for high energy density thermal storage applications".

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had commissioned an underground heat storage facility of over 1,100,000 cubic metres (39,000,000 cu ft) in size and 90GWh in capacity to be built, expected to be operational in 2028.

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operate in. This allows the system to ride out the heaviest heating load conditions and extends the timeframe by which the source energy elements can contribute heat back into the system.

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The one common principle of these other thermal batteries is that the reaction involved is not reversible. Thus, these batteries are not used for storing and retrieving heat energy.

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Storage heaters are commonplace in European homes with time-of-use metering (traditionally using cheaper electricity at nighttime). They consist of high-density ceramic bricks or

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through the pipes and thus raising the temperature of the local earth. Energy can also be taken from the GHEX by running a lower-temperature fluid through those same pipes.

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There are other items that have historically been termed "thermal batteries", such as energy-storage heat packs that skiers use for keeping hands and feet warm (see

4389: 189:). The heat can later be converted into superheated steam to power conventional steam turbines and generate electricity at a later time. It was demonstrated in the 3982: 1166:

Rather than pumping the liquid metal between tanks as in a molten-salt system, the metal is encapsulated in another metallic material that it cannot alloy with (

1076:) of solar collectors, which will supply the 570 houses with around 50% of their heating and hot water. Siemens-Gamesa built a 130 MWh thermal storage near 2970: 1170:). Depending on the two materials selected (the phase changing material and the encapsulating material) storage densities can be between 0.2 and 2 MJ/L. 883: 4002: 3750: 4187: 2737: 2437: 1375:

chemical reaction with thermo-chemical materials (TCM) . Depending on the reactants, this method can allow for an even higher storage capacity than LHS.

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In pumped-heat electricity storage (PHES), a reversible heat-pump system is used to store energy as a temperature difference between two heat stores.

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from industrial processes. Heat storage, both seasonal and short term, is considered an important means for cheaply balancing high shares of variable

3711: 2930: 1725:). These contain iron powder moist with oxygen-free salt water which rapidly corrodes over a period of hours, releasing heat, when exposed to air. 1299:

of ice in the afternoon to reduce the electricity needed to handle air conditioning demands. Thermal energy storage using ice makes use of the large

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of the tank the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week. When electricity is needed, the hot molten salt is pumped to a conventional

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The developer claimed that a round trip efficiency of 72–80% was achievable. This compares to >80% achievable with pumped hydro energy storage.

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and Thermal Capacity/Diffusivity of GHEX Thermal Batteries—Log-Time 1-Dimensional Curve Fit and newly released Advanced Thermal Response Testing.

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Khare, Sameer; Dell'Amico, Mark; Knight, Chris; McGarry, Scott (2012). "Selection of materials for high temperature latent heat energy storage".

2379: 901:(PCMs) are also used in molten-salt energy storage, while research on obtaining shape-stabilized PCMs using high porosity matrices is ongoing. 378: 3091: 1823:) offer a high melting point suited to efficient steam generation, while high alumina cement-based materials offer good storage capabilities. 4349: 4311: 3224: 2613: 2463: 3955: 2675: 2479: 1604:

was built in 2022 to store renewable solar and wind power as heat, for later use as district heating, and possible later power generation.

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materials, as they are mixtures, are more easily adjusted to obtain specific properties, but have low latent and specific heat capacities.

4163: 4130: 3938: 3869:"Thermal Response Testing Takes a Step Forward, Geo Outlook 2017 Vol. 14 No. 3, Rick Clemenzi, Xiaobing Liu, Garen Ewbank and Judy Siglin" 3801: 2909: 3454:

Kolpak, Alexie M.; Grossman, Jeffrey C. (2011). "Azobenzene-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes As High-Energy Density Solar Thermal Fuels".

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solar power-tower/molten-salt plant in Spain achieved a first by continuously producing electricity 24 hours per day for 36 days. The

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Mansø, Mads; Petersen, Anne Ugleholdt; Wang, Zhihang; Erhart, Paul; Nielsen, Mogens Brøndsted; Moth-Poulsen, Kasper (16 May 2018).

2255: 2072:"Preparation and enhanced thermal performance of novel (solid to gel) form-stable eutectic PCM modified by nano-graphene platelets" 1403:

Adsorption processes also fall into this category. It can be used to not only store thermal energy, but also control air humidity.

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Khare, S.; Dell'Amico, M.; Knight, C.; McGarry, S. (2013). "Selection of materials for high temperature sensible energy storage".

2872:"Technico-economic comparison of heat transfer fluids or thermal energy storage materials: A case study using Jatropha curcas oil" 210:). Experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid. 119:; heat from combined heat and power (CHP) power plants; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that exceeds grid demand and 4265: 2133:"Low-cost solution to the grid reliability problem with 100% penetration of intermittent wind, water, and solar for all purposes" 876: 313: 4249: 2587: 246: 4023: 1944: 1790: 1766: 1677: 949: 569: 89: 3882: 3240:

N’Tsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Schmidt, Thomas; Rammelberg, Holger Urs; Watts, Beatriz Amanda; Ruck, Wolfgang K. L. (1 July 2014).

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be separated and transported elsewhere. Another difficult part is the process of merging the two separate hydrogen molecules.

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of the storage material, and the system needs to be properly designed to ensure energy extraction at a constant temperature.

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pumps. Intersessional storage in caverns has been investigated and appears to be economical and plays a significant role in

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contained between impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with gravel and water and insulated at the top, as well as

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as the energy store, and low-grade waste heat to drive the thermal re-expansion of the air, operated at a power station in

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in Alberta, Canada, achieved a year-round 97% solar heating fraction, a world record made possible by incorporating STES.

1797: 1613: 398: 3769: 3368:"Calorimetric Studies and Structural Aspects of Ionic Liquids in Designing Sorption Materials for Thermal Energy Storage" 2791:"Review of vegetable oils behaviour at high temperature for solar plants: Stability, properties and current applications" 2099:"Preparation and thermal performance of methyl palmitate and lauric acid eutectic mixture as phase change material (PCM)" 4654: 3979: 1929: 1786: 1248: 1187: 1811:

are possible with high temperature solar thermal input. Various eutectic metal mixtures, such as aluminum and silicon (

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A disadvantage of SHS is its dependence on the properties of the storage medium. Storage capacities are limited by the

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to generate electricity from it. The system can reportedly store solar energy for up to 18 years and may be an option

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than heat stored in water and the capacity of the system can be designed to store energy from a few months to years.

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molecular photo switches is enormous—not only for solar thermal energy storage but for other applications as well.

1230: 739: 2690:"The world's first seasonal energy storage facility of its kind is planned for the Kruunuvuorenranta rock caverns" 1208: 4669: 4431: 3999: 1866:

using sliding valves. Surplus heat generated by inefficiencies in the process is shed to the environment through

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Heat energy can be added to or removed from a GHEX at any point in time. However, they are most often used as a

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demand between daytime and nighttime, storing summer heat for winter heating, or winter cold for summer cooling (

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Renewable Energy Systems: A Smart Energy Systems Approach to the Choice and Modeling of 100% Renewable Solutions

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Mitran, Raul-Augustin; Lincu, Daniel; Buhǎlţeanu, Lucian; Berger, Daniela; Matei, Cristian (15 September 2020).

4580: 4575: 4446: 3907: 3242:"A systematic multi-step screening of numerous salt hydrates for low temperature thermochemical energy storage" 3195:

U.S. Pat. No. 4,269,170, "Adsorption solar heating and storage"; Inventor: John M. Guerra; Granted May 26, 1981

2429: 1863: 1586: 1504: 1333: 1328: 905: 791: 729: 403: 358: 348: 278: 219: 178: 4549: 4524: 3594: 3528:"Molecular solar thermal energy storage in photoswitch oligomers increases energy densities and storage times" 3303: 1593:. Several substances are used for these thermal batteries, for example water, concrete, and wet or dry sand. 4644: 4595: 4585: 4514: 4486: 3010: 2992: 2025: 1998: 1974: 1954: 1939: 1851:. One prototype used argon at ambient temperature and pressure from the top of the cold store is compressed 1715: 1395:

can also be used and, since it needs photons to occur, works especially well when paired with solar energy.

856: 734: 724: 428: 363: 2542:"Shape-stabilized phase change materials using molten NaNO3 — KNO3 eutectic and mesoporous silica matrices" 4659: 4329: 1934: 943: 820: 629: 614: 562: 343: 157: 128: 3937:(MSc). Sustainable Engineering: Renewable Energy Systems and the Environment, University of Strathclyde. 2789:

Gomna, Aboubakar; N’Tsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Coulibaly, Yézouma (15 September 2019).

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Jones, B. G.; Roy, R. P.; Bohl, R. W. (1977). "Molten-salt energy-storage system — A feasibility study".

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Research into using sand as a heat storage medium has been performed in Finland, where a prototype 8 MWh

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in the U.S. can store 6 hours worth of generating capacity in molten salt. During the summer of 2013 the

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N’Tsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Seshie, Yao Manu; Coulibaly, Yézouma (23 February 2021).

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predictable based on energy modelling of the building served. A thermal battery used in this mode is a

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to change. Some thermal batteries also involve causing a substance to transition thermally through a

48: 3632: 3539: 3463: 3338: 3064: 2910:"World first: Siemens Gamesa begins operation of its innovative electrothermal energy storage system" 2871: 2829: 2828:

Gomna, Aboubakar; N’Tsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Coulibaly, Yézouma (15 April 2020).

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A working fluid, typically water or steam, is used to transfer the heat into and out of the system.

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An experimental investigation of an electrical storage heater in the context of storage technologies

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pipes are inserted in the form of a closed-loop with a "u-bend" fitting on the far end of the loop.

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De Jong, Ard-Jan; Van Vliet, Laurens; Hoegaerts, Christophe; Roelands, Mark; Cuypers, Ruud (2016).

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are termed "thermal batteries". They are non-rechargeable electrical batteries using a low-melting

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heating. There are two main methods of Thermal Response Testing that are used to characterize the

1372: 619: 485: 468: 413: 268: 256: 92:). Storage media include water or ice-slush tanks, masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with 2018: 991:) were designated in 2018 to store heat in summer from warm seawater and release it in winter for 3668: 3416: 3241: 3206: 2790: 2569: 2360: 1531:

being added to or taken from either a solid mass or a liquid volume which causes the substance's

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Heat pumps, as used by the GHEX depicted above, were invented in the 1940s by Robert C. Webber.

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Another promising way to store solar energy for electricity and heat production is a so-called

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of water. Historically, ice was transported from mountains to cities for use as a coolant. One

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Competence Center Thermal Energy Storage at Lucerne School of Engineering and Architecture

4283: 4006: 3989:. Presentation at IDEA/CDEA District Energy/CHP 2011 Conference. Toronto, 26–29 June 2011. 3986: 3686: 3166: 2098: 2053:"Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend" 1969: 1904: 1703: 1380: 1152: 1053: 1022: 433: 388: 318: 207: 195: 127:

production and integration of electricity and heating sectors in energy systems almost or

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Storing energy in molecular bonds is being investigated. Energy densities equivalent to

17: 4559: 4501: 4456: 3570: 3527: 3392: 3367: 3327:"Thermochemical Heat Storage — from Reaction Storage Density to System Storage Density" 2931:"Siemens project to test heated rocks for large-scale, low-cost thermal energy storage" 2167: 2132: 1964: 1894: 1877: 1867: 1751: 1642: 1540: 1425: 1300: 803: 776: 749: 717: 700: 579: 368: 338: 199: 93: 84: 3122: 4638: 4491: 4259: 4046:"Canadian Solar Community Sets New World Record for Energy Efficiency and Innovation" 3672: 3417:"A reality check on long-term thermochemical heat storage for household applications" 2965: 2573: 2364: 1924: 1808: 1774: 1770: 1590: 1437: 1337: 1043: 815: 781: 688: 671: 552: 542: 393: 169: 41: 4019: 2703: 2676:"Gigantic cavern heat storage facility to be implemented in Mustikkamaa in Helsinki" 1012:

relative abundance of silicon when compared to the salts used for the same purpose.

4451: 3257: 2212: 1469: 754: 639: 308: 273: 186: 116: 3712:""There is a great deal of experience with solid-media high-temperature storages"" 3144: 2887: 2845: 4111: 4084: 3351: 3326: 3280: 2806: 2557: 2131:

Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Frew, Bethany A. (2015).

3868: 1993: 1804: 1733: 1722: 1532: 1383:(over a range of 300–800 °C, with a heat decomposition of 2.1 MJ/kg), 1197: 1167: 1160: 1116: 851: 759: 634: 584: 547: 530: 515: 333: 173: 57: 3645: 3620: 3552: 3432: 2588:"World's Largest Solar Thermal Plant With Storage Comes Online — CleanTechnica" 2240: 111:

Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with

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Brünig, Thorge; Krekic, Kristijan; Bruhn, Clemens; Pietschnig, Rudolf (2016).

3216: 2830:"Thermal stability of a vegetable oil-based thermal fluid at high temperature" 2407:

Heat Transfer in Energy Conservation; Proceedings of the Winter Annual Meeting

2117: 2090: 1384: 1352: 1304: 1128: 769: 594: 589: 557: 520: 505: 288: 120: 4359: 4321: 3730:"Overview of high-temperature storage solution providers — status March 2024" 3664: 3561: 3440: 3265: 3130: 3024:

Rawson, Anthony; Kisi, Erich; Sugo, Heber; Fiedler, Thomas (1 October 2014).

2895: 2853: 2814: 2565: 2356: 2279: 2019:"Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan" 1862:

The compression and expansion processes are provided by a specially designed

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generation into heat stored for the following winter with relatively minimal

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Bauer, Thomas; Steinmann, Wolf-Dieter; Laing, Doerte; Tamme, Rainer (2012).

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Saeed, R.M.; Schlegel, J.P.; Castano, C.; Sawafta, R.; Kuturu, V. (2017).

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which causes even more energy to be stored and released due to the delta

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Thermal batteries are very common, and include such familiar items as a

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is a physical structure used for the purpose of storing and releasing

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Sustainable Thermal Storage Systems: Planning, Design, and Operations

4246: 3802:"Sand Batteries provide heat to district heating networks in Finland" 2614:"Cerro Dominador concentrated solar power plant inaugurated in Chile" 1847:

While charging, the system can use off-peak electricity to work as a

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Thermo-chemical heat storage (TCS) involves some kind of reversible

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In 2022, researchers reported combining the MOST with a chip-sized

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and 1.5 MW electric output. A similar system is scheduled for

3026:"Effective conductivity of Cu–Fe and Sn–Al miscibility gap alloys" 2876:

African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development

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African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development

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Bauer, Thomas; Odenthal, Christian; Bonk, Alexander (April 2021).

1841: 1308: 995:. In 2024, it was announced that the municipal energy supplier of 710: 63: 53: 47: 31: 3006: 2480:"Solar heads for the hills as tower technology turns upside down" 967:

estimates an 11.6 GWh capacity and 120 MW thermal output for its

4160:"ENERGY STORAGE:THE MISSING LINK IN THE UK'S ENERGY COMMITMENTS" 1880:

and is capable of operating at much higher power levels. Use of

1524: 808: 4371: 2704:"Vantaan Ikean lähelle aletaan pian louhia valtavaa luolastoa" 2070:

Saeed, R.M.; Schlegel, J.P.; Castano, C.; Sawafta, R. (2018).

2017:

Wright, Matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al. (October 2010).

1312: 1191: 4288: 4131:"Isentropic's Pumped Heat System Stores Energy at Grid Scale" 3770:"The hidden battery: Opportunities in electric water heating" 1732:

heat by a non-chemical phase-change such as by absorbing the

4009:, which has an interseasonal pit storage, is being expanded. 3107:"Recent advances in research on cold thermal energy storage" 3092:"Thermal capacitors made from Miscibility Gap Alloys (MGAs)" 3090:

Fiedler, T.; Rawson, Anthony; Sugo, H.; Kisi, Erich (2014).

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transferred to the bottom of the hot vessel to be reheated.

920:, inaugurated in June 2021, has 17.5 hours of heat storage. 115:

from off-peak, lower cost electric power, a practice called

4048:(Press release). Natural Resources Canada. 5 October 2012. 3415:

N’Tsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Kuznik, Frédéric (1 April 2021).

3775:. Prepared for NRECA, NRDC, and PLMA by the Brattle Group. 3839:"Advanced Testing Method for Ground Thermal Conductivity" 2637:"Seasonal pit heat storage: Cost benchmark of 30 EUR/m³" 3837:

Liu, Xiaobing; Clemenzi, Rick; Liu, Su (1 April 2017).

2961:"Nyt energilager skal opsamle grøn energi i varme sten" 1468:

The DSPEC consists of two components: a molecule and a

3621:"Chip-scale solar thermal electrical power generation" 1060:

has received international attention. This features a

3751:"Your home water heater may soon double as a battery" 3281:"Seasonal energy storage: Summer heat for the winter" 3205:

Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Luo, Lingai (9 September 2024).

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Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP)

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District heating accumulation tower from Theiss near

3595:"New liquid system could revolutionize solar energy" 2652:"Seasonal heat storages in district heating systems" 1884:

as heat storage material could enhance performance.

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Thermal energy storage tower inaugurated in 2017 in

4568: 4500: 4419: 4412: 4405: 1656: 1648: 1633: 1623: 1307:of water (= one cubic meter) can store 334 million 1222:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2760:"Energy-storage system based on silicon from sand" 2300:"A Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage" 2298:Sarbu, Ioan; Sebarchievici, Calin (January 2018). 1399:Adsorption (or Sorption) solar heating and storage 1840:whole system is filled with an inert gas such as 3820:"Test Information | Main | Site Title" 2730:"Molten silicon used for thermal energy storage" 1769:—storing high grade heat in summer from surplus 3498:"Storing energy in chemical bonds of molecules" 3208:Heat and Cold Storage 2: Thermochemical Storage 3030:International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 3007:"Miscibility Gap Alloy Thermal Storage Website" 2137:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2382:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from 2256:"Thermal Energy Storage Materials and Systems" 1068:) reinforced concrete thermal store linked to 4383: 4212: 4210: 4208: 3521: 3519: 908:use this thermal energy storage concept. The 877: 8: 1985:US DOE International Energy Storage Database 1662:Heat pumps were first produced in the 1970s. 1618: 1448:long-term solar heat storage in buildings. 924:Heat storage in tanks, ponds or rock caverns 4256:MSN article on Ice Storage Air Conditioning 4125: 4123: 4121: 2657:. Linköping, Sweden: Linköping University. 4650:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 4617: 4416: 4409: 4390: 4376: 4368: 3768:Hledik, R.; Chang, J.; Lueken, R. (2016). 2333:"Molten Salt Storage for Power Generation" 884: 870: 245: 229: 4266:ICE TES Thermal Energy Storage — IDE-Tech 4154: 4152: 3654: 3644: 3569: 3551: 3391: 3350: 3167:"Liquid air 'offers energy storage hope'" 2315: 2166: 2156: 1282:Learn how and when to remove this message 4020:"Thermal Energy Storage in ThermalBanks" 3974: 3972: 3421:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3042:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.05.024 2272:10.1615/AnnualRevHeatTransfer.2012004651 2229:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4175: 4173: 2009: 1980:Uniform Solar Energy and Hydronics Code 1387:(300–350 °C, 0.26 MJ/kg) and 237: 4100:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 4073:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 3744: 3742: 3111:International Journal of Refrigeration 2795:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2650:Gebremedhin, Alemayehu; Zinko, Heimo. 2546:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2503: 2501: 1617: 379:List of low-energy building techniques 68:Construction of the salt tanks at the 4026:from the original on 14 November 2011 3998:SunStor-4 Project, Marstal, Denmark. 3297:MERITS project Compact Heat Storage. 3287:from the original on 18 January 2017. 2973:from the original on 26 November 2016 2865: 2863: 2664:from the original on 13 January 2017. 2440:from the original on 13 January 2017. 1480:Molecular Solar Thermal System (MOST) 1038:Heat storage in hot rocks or concrete 7: 4224:from the original on 12 October 2017 4193:from the original on 22 January 2017 4052:from the original on 3 November 2016 3077:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.11.029 2941:from the original on 13 October 2016 2770:from the original on 4 November 2016 2740:from the original on 4 November 2016 2486:from the original on 7 November 2017 2293: 2291: 2289: 1608:Ground heat exchange thermal battery 1220:adding citations to reliable sources 27:Technologies to store thermal energy 3928:Romero, I.B.; Strachan, P. (2013). 3306:from the original on 15 August 2017 3177:from the original on 2 October 2012 3013:from the original on 12 March 2018. 2041:, RenewableEnergyFocus.com website. 1589:(VHC), also termed volume-specific 1119:storage (LHS) is associated with a 918:Cerro Dominador Solar Thermal Plant 198:of different salts are used (e.g., 4166:from the original on 12 July 2014. 3749:Mooney, Chris (24 February 2016). 3165:Harrabin, Roger (2 October 2012). 3145:"How Thermal Energy Storage Works" 2430:"How to Use Solar Energy at Night" 2428:Biello, David (18 February 2009). 25: 4545:Research in lithium-ion batteries 4252:on the economies of load shifting 4137:from the original on 22 July 2015 4000:The solar district heating system 3944:from the original on 14 May 2016. 3593:Hawkins, Joshua (15 April 2022). 3171:BBC News, Science and Environment 2993:"Makers claim:Rondo Heat Battery" 2521:from the original on 10 July 2016 2380:"Advantages of Using Molten Salt" 4616: 2456:Renewable Energy: A First Course 2378:Mancini, Tom (10 January 2006). 1992: 1196: 1148:Miscibility gap alloy technology 850: 837: 836: 314:Energy efficiency implementation 44:with a thermal capacity of 2 GWh 4262: (archived 19 January 2013) 3956:"Solarthermal world.og website" 1945:List of energy storage projects 1827:Pumped-heat electricity storage 1791:Seasonal thermal energy storage 1678:Seasonal thermal energy storage 1207:needs additional citations for 570:Ocean thermal energy conversion 90:Seasonal thermal energy storage 4530:Lithium iron phosphate battery 4218:"Isentropic's PHES Technology" 3258:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.053 2260:Annual Review of Heat Transfer 2213:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.075 2051:Stern, Ray (10 October 2013). 1870:during the discharging cycle. 1486:molecular solar thermal system 1136:as prone to phase-separation. 1: 4510:Compressed-air energy storage 3980:Drake Landing Solar Community 3786:McGrath, Matt (5 July 2022). 3625:Cell Reports Physical Science 3372:Chemistry: A European Journal 3283:. Zurich, Switzerland: Empa. 3123:10.1016/S0140-7007(01)00078-0 2888:10.1080/20421338.2020.1838082 2846:10.1080/20421338.2020.1732080 2024:. Energy Research Institute, 1876:Another proposed system uses 1798:Drake Landing Solar Community 1796:space during winter. In 2017 1614:Ground-coupled heat exchanger 1159:of a metallic material (see: 1107:output by 15% over 15 years. 1042:Water has one of the highest 1025:using a heat-transfer fluid. 399:Passive solar building design 4181:"Pumped Heat Energy Storage" 4112:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.03.009 4085:10.1016/j.solmat.2012.07.020 3502:Off Grid Energy Independence 3352:10.1016/j.egypro.2016.06.187 3105:Saito, Akio (1 March 2002). 2807:10.1016/j.solmat.2019.109956 2635:Epp, Baerbel (17 May 2019). 2558:10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110644 1930:Ice storage air conditioning 1787:Solar hot water storage tank 1580:Encapsulated thermal battery 1567:Phase change thermal battery 1509:for renewable energy storage 1363:Thermo-chemical heat storage 1188:Ice storage air conditioning 96:by means of boreholes, deep 3057:Applied Thermal Engineering 2764:www.powerengineeringint.com 2454:(2013). "Thermal storage". 1999:Renewable energy portal 1163:) to store thermal energy. 857:Renewable energy portal 575:Renewable energy transition 4686: 3646:10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100789 3553:10.1038/s41467-018-04230-8 3433:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110683 2710:(in Finnish). 5 April 2024 2458:. CRC Press. p. 375. 2241:10.1016/j.rser.2013.09.012 1784: 1749: 1611: 1558:Types of thermal batteries 1326: 1185: 941: 927: 906:solar thermal power plants 4612: 4432:Artificial photosynthesis 3857:– via www.osti.gov. 3217:10.1002/9781394312559.ch1 2118:10.1016/j.est.2017.08.005 2106:Journal of Energy Storage 2091:10.1016/j.est.2017.11.003 2079:Journal of Energy Storage 910:Solana Generating Station 419:Sustainable refurbishment 70:Solana Generating Station 4581:Battery electric vehicle 4576:Alternative fuel vehicle 4447:Concentrated solar power 4302:Hyman, Lucas B. (2011). 3896:Molten-salt battery#Uses 2337:Chemie Ingenieur Technik 1746:Electric thermal storage 1702:In the defense industry 1587:volumetric heat capacity 1545:enthalpy of vaporization 1505:thermoelectric generator 1351:energy system that uses 1334:Cryogenic energy storage 1329:Cryogenic energy storage 1323:Cryogenic energy storage 1231:"Thermal energy storage" 404:Sustainable architecture 359:Glass in green buildings 349:Environmental technology 279:Compact fluorescent lamp 179:concentrated solar power 18:Molten salt heat storage 4586:Hybrid electric vehicle 4515:Flywheel energy storage 4487:Space-based solar power 4342:10.1016/C2012-0-07273-0 2158:10.1073/pnas.1510028112 2026:University of Melbourne 1975:Uniform Mechanical Code 1955:Pumpable ice technology 1940:Liquid nitrogen economy 1761:temperatures involved. 1716:pyrotechnic heat source 1698:Other thermal batteries 1415:Salt hydrate technology 1066:420,000 cu ft 1029:Heat storage using oils 725:Human-powered transport 429:Tropical green building 364:Green building and wood 4555:Thermal energy storage 4282:23 August 2014 at the 4162:. IMechE. p. 27. 3384:10.1002/chem.201602723 2349:10.1002/cite.202000137 1935:Lamm-Honigmann process 1767:seasonal heat transfer 1739:of certain compounds. 1658:First production 1521:thermal energy battery 1074:46,000 sq ft 1003:Hot silicon technology 944:Hot water storage tank 821:Personal rapid transit 563:Tidal stream generator 424:Thermal energy storage 344:Environmental planning 164:Molten salt technology 158:specific heat capacity 106:phase-change materials 77:Thermal energy storage 73: 61: 45: 4482:Photovoltaic pavement 4427:Airborne wind turbine 4399:Emerging technologies 4005:24 March 2021 at the 3532:Nature Communications 3211:(1 ed.). Wiley. 1950:Phase change material 1882:phase change material 1864:reciprocating machine 1707:molten-salt batteries 1458:lithium-ion batteries 1311:(MJ) or 317,000 955:as a heat source for 953:heated by solar power 914:Gemasolar Thermosolar 899:Phase Change Material 665:Sustainable transport 610:Floating wind turbine 439:Zero heating building 354:Fossil fuel phase-out 144:Sensible heat storage 131:by renewable energy. 125:renewable electricity 67: 51: 35: 4022:. ICAX Ltd, London. 3985:4 March 2016 at the 2969:. 25 November 2016. 1803:The combined use of 1781:Solar energy storage 1688:thermal conductivity 1344:as an energy store. 1338:liquification of air 1216:improve this article 1182:Ice-based technology 1175:Thermal conductivity 1155:alloys rely on the 1080:with 750 °C in 971:water cistern under 937:solar thermal energy 799:Personal transporter 694:Wind-powered vehicle 538:Marine current power 444:Zero-energy building 304:Efficient energy use 83:) is the storage of 4655:Energy conservation 4550:Silicon–air battery 4535:Molten-salt battery 4525:Lithium–air battery 4520:Grid energy storage 4472:Molten salt reactor 4442:Carbon-neutral fuel 4220:. 20 October 2014. 3691:Energy Saving Trust 3637:2022CRPS....300789W 3544:2018NatCo...9.1945M 3468:2011NanoL..11.3156K 3343:2016EnPro..91..128D 3069:2013AppTE..51.1345S 2937:. 12 October 2016. 2482:. 30 January 2012. 2434:Scientific American 2415:1977htec.proc...39J 2205:2015ApEn..145..139M 2149:2015PNAS..11215060J 1910:Fireless locomotive 1620: 1111:Latent heat storage 983:under sea level in 486:Carbon-neutral fuel 414:Sustainable habitat 269:Building insulation 257:Energy conservation 233:Part of a series on 4336:. Academic Press. 2692:. 30 January 2018. 2317:10.3390/su10010191 1727:Instant cold packs 1541:enthalpy of fusion 1044:thermal capacities 963:. Energy producer 961:heating in Finland 501:Geothermal heating 329:Energy saving lamp 239:Sustainable energy 74: 62: 46: 38:Krems an der Donau 4632: 4631: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4351:978-0-124-10423-5 4313:978-0-07-175297-8 3978:Wong B. (2011). 3806:Solarthermalworld 3716:Solarthermalworld 3504:. 21 January 2014 3476:10.1021/nl201357n 3226:978-1-78945-134-4 2708:Helsingin Sanomat 2594:. 14 October 2013 2592:cleantechnica.com 2465:978-1-4398-6115-8 2057:Phoenix New Times 1960:Steam accumulator 1915:Geothermal energy 1666: 1665: 1635:Working principle 1393:nitrosyl chloride 1389:calcium hydroxide 1292: 1291: 1284: 1266: 985:Kruunuvuorenranta 930:Steam accumulator 894: 893: 491:Geothermal energy 224:superheated steam 204:potassium nitrate 196:eutectic mixtures 16:(Redirected from 4677: 4670:Renewable energy 4620: 4619: 4540:Nanowire battery 4467:Methanol economy 4462:Hydrogen economy 4417: 4410: 4392: 4385: 4378: 4369: 4363: 4325: 4271:Laramie, Wyoming 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4214: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4192: 4185: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4156: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4127: 4116: 4115: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4016: 4010: 3996: 3990: 3976: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3943: 3936: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3904: 3898: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3746: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3687:"Storing energy" 3683: 3677: 3676: 3658: 3648: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3573: 3555: 3523: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3395: 3378:(45): 16200–12. 3363: 3357: 3356: 3354: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3237: 3231: 3230: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3063:(1–2): 1345–50. 3052: 3046: 3045: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2867: 2858: 2857: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2678:. 22 March 2018. 2672: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2656: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2520: 2513: 2505: 2496: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2476: 2470: 2469: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2402: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2319: 2295: 2284: 2283: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2223: 2217: 2216: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2170: 2160: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2103: 2094: 2076: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2023: 2014: 1997: 1996: 1920:Geothermal power 1900:District heating 1822: 1821: 1820: 1737:heat of solution 1683:renewable energy 1659: 1639: 1638: 1621: 1552:hot water bottle 1537:phase transition 1444:contaminations. 1422:sodium hydroxide 1297:cooling capacity 1287: 1280: 1276: 1273: 1267: 1265: 1224: 1200: 1192: 1121:phase transition 1106: 1105: 1104: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1050: 1007:Solid or molten 993:district heating 982: 978: 970: 957:district heating 886: 879: 872: 859: 855: 854: 845: 840: 839: 677:Electric vehicle 526:Run-of-the-river 511:Hydroelectricity 496:Geothermal power 457:Renewable energy 409:Sustainable city 384:Low-energy house 324:Energy recycling 249: 230: 21: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4600: 4564: 4496: 4401: 4396: 4366: 4352: 4328: 4314: 4306:. McGraw-Hill. 4301: 4297: 4295:Further reading 4284:Wayback Machine 4243: 4238: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4206: 4196: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4171: 4158: 4157: 4150: 4140: 4138: 4129: 4128: 4119: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4029: 4027: 4018: 4017: 4013: 4007:Wayback Machine 3997: 3993: 3987:Wayback Machine 3977: 3970: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3941: 3934: 3927: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3847:10.2172/1354667 3836: 3835: 3831: 3818: 3817: 3813: 3808:. 6 March 2024. 3800: 3799: 3795: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3772: 3767: 3766: 3762: 3755:Washington Post 3748: 3747: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3718:. 6 March 2024. 3710: 3709: 3705: 3695: 3693: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3618: 3617: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3525: 3524: 3517: 3507: 3505: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3331:Energy Procedia 3324: 3323: 3319: 3309: 3307: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3279:Rainer, Klose. 3278: 3277: 3273: 3239: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3180: 3178: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3104: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3005: 3004: 3000: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2976: 2974: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2944: 2942: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2869: 2868: 2861: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2773: 2771: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2661: 2654: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2619: 2617: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2597: 2595: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2511: 2507: 2506: 2499: 2489: 2487: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2466: 2452:Ehrlich, Robert 2450: 2449: 2445: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2389: 2387: 2377: 2376: 2372: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2297: 2296: 2287: 2266:(15): 131–177. 2253: 2252: 2248: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2189: 2188: 2184: 2143:(49): 15060–5. 2130: 2129: 2125: 2101: 2096: 2095: 2074: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2050: 2049: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2021: 2016: 2015: 2011: 2006: 1991: 1989: 1970:Thermal battery 1905:Eutectic system 1890: 1868:heat exchangers 1837: 1829: 1819: 1816: 1815: 1814: 1812: 1793: 1785:Main articles: 1783: 1775:standing losses 1754: 1748: 1700: 1657: 1636: 1634: 1619:Thermal battery 1616: 1610: 1582: 1569: 1560: 1517: 1515:Thermal Battery 1482: 1454: 1452:Molecular bonds 1443: 1417: 1401: 1381:potassium oxide 1365: 1331: 1325: 1288: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1225: 1223: 1213: 1201: 1190: 1184: 1153:Miscibility gap 1150: 1113: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1096: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1054:Friedrichshafen 1048: 1040: 1031: 1023:Stirling engine 1018: 1016:Molten aluminum 1005: 980: 976: 968: 950:insulated ponds 946: 932: 926: 890: 849: 848: 835: 828: 827: 667: 657: 656: 459: 449: 448: 434:Waste-to-energy 389:Microgeneration 319:Energy recovery 259: 220:steam-generator 208:calcium nitrate 166: 146: 137: 94:heat exchangers 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4683: 4681: 4673: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4645:Energy storage 4637: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4598: 4596:Wireless power 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4572: 4570: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4560:Ultracapacitor 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4506: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4457:Home fuel cell 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4423: 4421: 4414: 4407: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4395: 4394: 4387: 4380: 4372: 4365: 4364: 4350: 4326: 4312: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4291: 4286: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4253: 4242: 4241:External links 4239: 4236: 4235: 4204: 4169: 4148: 4117: 4090: 4063: 4037: 4011: 3991: 3968: 3947: 3920: 3899: 3888: 3874: 3860: 3829: 3811: 3793: 3778: 3760: 3738: 3721: 3703: 3678: 3611: 3585: 3515: 3489: 3462:(8): 3156–62. 3446: 3407: 3358: 3317: 3290: 3271: 3246:Applied Energy 3232: 3225: 3197: 3188: 3157: 3136: 3117:(2): 177–189. 3097: 3082: 3047: 3016: 2998: 2984: 2952: 2922: 2901: 2882:(2): 193–211. 2859: 2840:(3): 317–326. 2820: 2781: 2751: 2721: 2695: 2681: 2667: 2642: 2627: 2605: 2579: 2532: 2497: 2471: 2464: 2443: 2420: 2397: 2386:on 5 June 2011 2370: 2343:(4): 534–546. 2323: 2304:Sustainability 2285: 2246: 2218: 2193:Applied Energy 2182: 2123: 2062: 2043: 2031: 2008: 2007: 2005: 2002: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1965:Storage heater 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1895:Carnot battery 1891: 1889: 1886: 1878:turbomachinery 1836: 1833: 1828: 1825: 1817: 1782: 1779: 1752:Storage heater 1750:Main article: 1747: 1744: 1699: 1696: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1654: 1653: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1643:Thermodynamics 1640: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1612:Main article: 1609: 1606: 1581: 1578: 1568: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1525:thermal energy 1516: 1513: 1481: 1478: 1453: 1450: 1441: 1426:energy density 1416: 1413: 1400: 1397: 1364: 1361: 1359:, UK in 2010. 1327:Main article: 1324: 1321: 1301:heat of fusion 1290: 1289: 1204: 1202: 1195: 1186:Main article: 1183: 1180: 1149: 1146: 1112: 1109: 1101: 1039: 1036: 1030: 1027: 1017: 1014: 1004: 1001: 977:300,000 m 969:260,000 m 925: 922: 892: 891: 889: 888: 881: 874: 866: 863: 862: 861: 860: 846: 830: 829: 826: 825: 824: 823: 813: 812: 811: 804:Rail transport 801: 796: 795: 794: 789: 784: 779: 777:Roller skating 774: 773: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 750:Cycle rickshaw 747: 737: 732: 722: 721: 720: 715: 714: 713: 706:Human-electric 701:Hybrid vehicle 698: 697: 696: 691: 686: 685: 684: 668: 663: 662: 659: 658: 655: 654: 653: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 592: 587: 582: 580:Renewable heat 577: 572: 567: 566: 565: 560: 555: 545: 540: 535: 534: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 472: 471: 460: 455: 454: 451: 450: 447: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 369:Green building 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 339:Energy storage 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 260: 255: 254: 251: 250: 242: 241: 235: 234: 200:sodium nitrate 181:(e.g., from a 165: 162: 145: 142: 136: 133: 129:completely fed 104:solutions and 85:thermal energy 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4682: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4660:Heat transfer 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4625: 4624: 4615: 4614: 4611: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4492:Vortex engine 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4388: 4386: 4381: 4379: 4374: 4373: 4370: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4299: 4294: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4278: 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March 2024. 3731: 3725: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3704: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3631:(3): 100789. 3630: 3626: 3622: 3615: 3612: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3318: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3236: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3201: 3198: 3192: 3189: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3158: 3146: 3140: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3101: 3098: 3093: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2972: 2968: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2782: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2755: 2752: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2709: 2705: 2699: 2696: 2691: 2685: 2682: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2660: 2653: 2646: 2643: 2638: 2631: 2628: 2616:. 9 June 2021 2615: 2609: 2606: 2593: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2533: 2517: 2510: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2467: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2421: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2401: 2398: 2385: 2381: 2374: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2339:(in German). 2338: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2250: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2222: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2073: 2066: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2032: 2028:. p. 33. 2027: 2020: 2013: 2010: 2003: 2001: 2000: 1995: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1925:Heat capacity 1923: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1854: 1853:adiabatically 1850: 1845: 1843: 1834: 1832: 1826: 1824: 1810: 1809:sensible heat 1806: 1801: 1799: 1792: 1788: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1771:photovoltaics 1768: 1762: 1759: 1753: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1705: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1670: 1661: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1615: 1607: 1605: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1592: 1591:heat capacity 1588: 1579: 1577: 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