1150:). Some of these effects may be visible, and others cryptic, so it is often important to look beyond the most obvious effects of a gene to identify other effects. Cases occur where a gene affects an unimportant visible characteristic, yet a change in fitness is recorded. In such cases, the gene's subsurface effects may be responsible for the change in fitness. Pleiotropism is posing continual challenges for many clinical dysmorphologists in their attempt to explain birth defects which affect one or more organ system, with only a single underlying causative agent. For many pleiotropic disorders, the connection between the genetic abnormality and its manifestations is neither apparent nor understood.
1228:(several tightly linked genes performing similar or identical functions) arises by duplication of a single original gene, this is usually not the case with supergenes. In a supergene some of the constituent genes have quite distinct functions, so they must have come together under selection. This process might involve suppression of crossing-over, translocation of chromosome fragments and possibly occasional cistron duplication. That crossing-over can be suppressed by selection has been known for many years.
1325:, a founder of niche research, commented "It is very likely from an ecological point of view that all species, or at least all common species, consist of populations adapted to more than one niche". He gave as examples sexual size dimorphism and mimicry. In many cases where the male is short-lived and smaller than the female, he does not compete with her during her late pre-adult and adult life. Size difference may permit both sexes to exploit different niches. In elaborate cases of
95:
4340:
4032:
650:
4181:
4042:
1267:
45:
1599:
1585:
637:
62:
1335:, female morphs mimic a range of distasteful models called Batesian mimicry, often in the same region. The fitness of each type of mimic decreases as it becomes more common, so the polymorphism is maintained by frequency-dependent selection. Thus the efficiency of the mimicry is maintained in a much increased total population. However it can exist within one gender.
1353:
population on Pemba Island, Tanzania functions to avoid detection from a mate-searching male. The researchers found that male mate preference is controlled by frequency-dependent selection, which means that the rare morph suffers less from mating attempt than the common morph. The reasons why females
1032:
Endler's survey of natural selection gave an indication of the relative importance of polymorphisms among studies showing natural selection. The results, in summary: Number of species demonstrating natural selection: 141. Number showing quantitative traits: 56. Number showing polymorphic traits: 62.
890:
Polymorphism crosses several discipline boundaries, including ecology, genetics, evolution theory, taxonomy, cytology, and biochemistry. Different disciplines may give the same concept different names, and different concepts may be given the same name. For example, there are the terms established in
1309:
Polymorphism is strongly tied to the adaptation of a species to its environment, which may vary in colour, food supply, and predation and in many other ways including sexual harassment avoidance. Polymorphism is one good way the opportunities get to be used; it has survival value, and the selection
872:
Rare variations are not classified as polymorphisms, and mutations by themselves do not constitute polymorphisms. To qualify as a polymorphism, some kind of balance must exist between morphs underpinned by inheritance. The criterion is that the frequency of the least common morph is too high simply
1512:
was given much attention. The significance of the work on ecological genetics is that it has shown how important selection is in the evolution of natural populations, and that selection is a much stronger force than was envisaged even by those population geneticists who believed in its importance,
853:
Morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time; this excludes geographical races and seasonal forms. The use of the words "morph" or "polymorphism" for what is a visibly different geographical race or variant is common, but incorrect. The significance of geographical variation is that it may
1247:
Selection, whether natural or artificial, changes the frequency of morphs within a population; this occurs when morphs reproduce with different degrees of success. A genetic (or balanced) polymorphism usually persists over many generations, maintained by two or more opposed and powerful selection
1231:
Debate has centered round the question of whether the component genes in a super-gene could have started off on separate chromosomes, with subsequent reorganization, or if it is necessary for them to start on the same chromosome. Originally, it was held that chromosome rearrangement would play an
1060:
Genetic polymorphism is the simultaneous occurrence in the same locality of two or more discontinuous forms in such proportions that the rarest of them cannot be maintained just by recurrent mutation or immigration, originally defined by Ford (1940). The later definition by
Cavalli-Sforza &
727:
Put simply, polymorphism is when there are two or more possibilities of a trait on a gene. For example, there is more than one possible trait in terms of a jaguar's skin colouring; they can be light morph or dark morph. Due to having more than one possible variation for this gene, it is termed
1132:
Selection acts differently at different levels. The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the
1072:
In simple words, the term polymorphism was originally used to describe variations in shape and form that distinguish normal individuals within a species from each other. Presently, geneticists use the term genetic polymorphism to describe the functionally silent differences in
1154:"If a neutral trait is pleiotropically linked to an advantageous one, it may emerge because of a process of natural selection. It was selected but this doesn't mean it is an adaptation. The reason is that, although it was selected, there was no selection for that trait."
1170:) is present, but not if it is absent. This is one of the ways in which two or more genes may combine to produce a coordinated change in more than one characteristic (for instance, in mimicry). Unlike the supergene, epistatic genes do not need to be closely
728:'polymorphism'. However, if the jaguar has only one possible trait for that gene, it would be termed "monomorphic". For example, if there was only one possible skin colour that a jaguar could have, it would be termed monomorphic.
1033:
Number showing both Q and P traits: 23. This shows that polymorphisms are found to be at least as common as continuous variation in studies of natural selection, and hence just as likely to be part of the evolutionary process.
805:. In polyphenism, an individual's genetic makeup allows for different morphs, and the switch mechanism that determines which morph is shown is environmental. In genetic polymorphism, the genetic makeup determines the morph.
845:
Polymorphism does not cover characteristics showing continuous variation (such as weight), though this has a heritable component. Polymorphism deals with forms in which the variation is discrete (discontinuous) or strongly
1061:
Bodmer (1971) is currently used: "Genetic polymorphism is the occurrence in the same population of two or more alleles at one locus, each with appreciable frequency", where the minimum frequency is typically taken as 1%.
1263:. Non-human apes have similar blood groups to humans; this strongly suggests that this kind of polymorphism is ancient, at least as far back as the last common ancestor of the apes and man, and possibly even further.
1463:
Without proper field-work, the significance of the polymorphism to the species is uncertain and without laboratory breeding the genetic basis is obscure. Even with insects, the work may take many years; examples of
2445:
Cook, S.E.; Vernon, Jennifer G.; Bateson, Melissa; Guilford, Tim (February 1994). "Mate choice in the polymorphic
African swallowtail butterfly, Papilio dardanus: male-like females may avoid sexual harassment".
1405:
The polyphenic system does have a degree of environmental flexibility not present in the genetic polymorphism. However, such environmental triggers are the less common of the two methods.
1084:
where a form is progressively replaced by another. By definition, genetic polymorphism relates to a balance or equilibrium between morphs. The mechanisms that conserve it are types of
3764:
366:
1398:
are a famous case in point. In ants the distinction between workers and guards is environmental, by the feeding of the grubs. Polymorphism with an environmental trigger is called
1239:. This is known as Turner's sieve hypothesis. John Maynard Smith agreed with this view in his authoritative textbook, but the question is still not definitively settled.
1302:
or loci involved. Only if competing selection disappears will an allele disappear. However, heterozygote advantage is not the only way a polymorphism can be maintained.
906:
Various synonymous terms exist for the various polymorphic forms of an organism. The most common are morph and morpha, while a more formal term is morphotype. Form and
1306:, whereby a predator consumes a common morph whilst overlooking rarer morphs is possible and does occur. This would tend to preserve rarer morphs from extinction.
681:
1536:
promoted natural selection as the primary explanation of variation in natural populations, instead of genetic drift. Evidence can be seen in Mayr's famous book
946:
2813:
289:
600:
4272:
4017:
3472:
2731:
1562:, which he saw as dominated by selectively neutral mutations, and phenotypic characters, probably dominated by natural selection rather than drift.
1221:
in angiosperms are good examples. There is a long-standing debate as to how this situation could have arisen, and the question is not yet resolved.
408:
1366:. This switch may be genetic, or it may be environmental. Taking sex determination as the example, in humans the determination is genetic, by the
914:
in a population of animals, and "phase" as a color or other change in an organism due to environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.).
2823:
826:; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles; and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the
114:
1129:
Fitness varies in time and space. Fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.
3780:
3540:
2010:
1987:
1967:
1940:
1773:
1509:
595:
3137:
542:
808:
The term polymorphism also refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals, called
1354:
try to avoid male sexual harassment are that male mating attempt can reduce female fitness in many ways such as fecundity and longevity.
1166:
occurs when the expression of one gene is modified by another gene. For example, gene A only shows its effect when allele B1 (at another
778:. Polymorphism usually functions to retain a variety of forms in a population living in a varied environment. The most common example is
3863:
2783:
2402:
Goodale, M.A.; Sneddon, I. (August 1977). "The effect of distastefulness of the model on the predation of artificial batesian mimics".
3525:
3185:
674:
403:
234:
4078:
2273:
Turner, J. R. G. 1984. "Mimicry: The
Palatability Spectrum and its Consequences". In R. I. Vane-Wright, & P. R. Ackery (eds.),
2031:
2546:
Gosden, Thomas P.; Svensson, Erik I. (June 2009). "Density-Dependent Male Mating
Harassment, Female Resistance, and Male Mimicry".
1122:: The fitness of a particular phenotype is dependent on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in a given population. Example:
3597:
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136:
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According to the theory of evolution, polymorphism results from evolutionary processes, as does any aspect of a species. It is
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2952:
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can be described as an outcome of sexual conflict. Cook et al. (1994) argued that the male-like phenotype in some females in
1181:
Both pleiotropism and epistasis show that a gene need not relate to a character in the simple manner that was once supposed.
756:
615:
398:
3105:
4304:
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1119:
667:
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31:
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of modifier genes may reinforce the polymorphism. In addition, polymorphism seems to be associated with a higher rate of
3975:
3477:
1842:
Leimar, O (June 2005). "The evolution of phenotypic polymorphism: randomized strategies versus evolutionary branching".
585:
1232:
important role. This explanation was accepted by E. B. Ford and incorporated into his accounts of ecological genetics.
877:
or, as a rough guide, that it is greater than 1% (though that is far higher than any normal mutation rate for a single
4045:
3639:
1734:
1612:
1590:
1529:
1367:
641:
1982:
Weinberg, Robert A. (Robert Allan), 2013 "The biology of cancer". 2nd edition, Garland
Science, Taylor & Francis
4180:
865:
The term was first used to describe visible forms, but it has been extended to include cryptic morphs, for instance
3741:
2915:
1235:
However, many believe it more likely that the genes start on the same chromosome. They argue that supergenes arose
141:
2221:
Charlesworth, D.; B. Charlesworth (1975). "Theoretical genetics of
Batesian mimicry III. Evolution of dominance".
2175:
Charlesworth, D.; B. Charlesworth (1975). "Theoretical genetics of
Batesian mimicry II. Evolution of supergenes".
1544:. Similar shifts in emphasis can be seen in most of the other participants in the evolutionary synthesis, such as
3535:
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119:
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3251:
3241:
2700:(3rd ed). New York: Columbia U. Pr. Note the contrast between these this edition and the original 1937 edition.
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2605:
918:
and characteristics are also possible descriptions, though that would imply just a limited aspect of the body.
497:
492:
467:
422:
388:
382:
371:
1480:
by E. B. Ford and his co-workers from the mid-1920s to the 1970s (similar work continues today, especially on
1080:
Genetic polymorphism is actively and steadily maintained in populations by natural selection, in contrast to
720:
of a species. To be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time and belong to a
3963:
3893:
3802:
3530:
3412:
3180:
2776:
610:
517:
512:
457:
418:
219:
2129:
Charlesworth, D; B Charlesworth (1975). "Theoretical genetics of
Batesian mimicry I. single-locus models".
1126:, where rare morphs of prey are actually fitter due to predators concentrating on the more frequent morphs.
759:
that may not always correspond to a phenotype, but always corresponds to a branch in the genetic tree. See
4165:
3651:
3592:
3520:
3482:
3383:
3354:
3327:
3322:
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1291:
1101:
934:
522:
477:
299:
4324:
4071:
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3817:
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3716:
3701:
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3513:
3417:
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3305:
3246:
3224:
3205:
3021:
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2967:
2925:
1909:
1680:
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1496:
was largely discounted as the leading mechanism for evolution, continued through the middle period when
1008:
986:
930:
855:
620:
502:
447:
413:
326:
3068:
1020:
A conditional development strategy, where the phenotype of each individual is set by environmental cues
2638:
Cain, Arthur J.; Provine, W. B. 1991. "Genes and
Ecology in History". In R. J. Berry, et al. (eds.),
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4284:
4278:
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129:
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3100:
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2905:
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1559:
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1303:
1279:
1271:
1085:
982:
748:
562:
552:
487:
452:
336:
239:
164:
99:
4041:
2358:"Predator induced colour polymorphism in Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Hawaii"
2277:, ch. 14. "Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society of London" ser., #11. London: Academic Pr.
1413:
Investigation of polymorphism requires use of both field and laboratory techniques. In the field:
4289:
4217:
4207:
4170:
4103:
3953:
3905:
3898:
3495:
3407:
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3053:
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2987:
2947:
2861:
2856:
2851:
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2579:
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2427:
2392:. Yale. The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume: polymorphism and niche diversity, p66–70.
2318:
1867:
1423:
922:
896:
605:
537:
321:
249:
214:
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4262:
4202:
4197:
4189:
4150:
4128:
3995:
3721:
3669:
3263:
3164:
3127:
3122:
3078:
3073:
3026:
2992:
2571:
2563:
2528:
2510:
2463:
2419:
2256:
2248:
2210:
2202:
2164:
2156:
2027:
2006:
1983:
1963:
1957:
1936:
1930:
1859:
1769:
1493:
1287:
1047:
802:
779:
771:
306:
184:
174:
169:
94:
4369:
4343:
4212:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4123:
4064:
3587:
3154:
3132:
2940:
2555:
2518:
2502:
2491:"The role of male harassment on female fitness for the dengue vector mosquito Aedes aegypti"
2455:
2411:
2369:
2308:
2240:
2194:
2148:
2103:
2081:
1917:
1851:
1822:
1514:
1465:
1331:
1299:
1214:
1194:
1167:
1109:
954:
915:
341:
1069:: one interbreeding population; b) discrete forms; and c) not maintained just by mutation.
3948:
3399:
3388:
3342:
3285:
3234:
3014:
2818:
1765:
1638:
1266:
1171:
294:
284:
146:
27:
Occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms in the population of a species
2598:
The
Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolutionary Theories in the Decades Around 1900
1362:
The mechanism which decides which of several morphs an individual displays is called the
1286:
The relative proportions of the morphs may vary; the actual values are determined by the
1023:
A mixed development strategy, where the phenotype is randomly assigned during development
2304:
2236:
2190:
2144:
2077:
4160:
3788:
3660:
2962:
2957:
2895:
2873:
2523:
2490:
1604:
1456:
1123:
911:
833:
Balanced polymorphism refers to the maintenance of different phenotypes in population.
782:, which occurs in many organisms. Other examples are mimetic forms of butterflies (see
376:
279:
2244:
2198:
2152:
4358:
3990:
3868:
3827:
3673:
3567:
3442:
3427:
3095:
3090:
2415:
1757:
1688:
1518:
1501:
1497:
962:
907:
900:
527:
199:
2583:
2475:
2431:
4309:
3985:
3933:
3878:
3711:
3706:
3447:
3058:
2322:
1871:
1555:
1533:
1505:
1449:
1206:
1105:
974:
938:
767:
547:
532:
316:
311:
229:
4257:
4243:
4118:
4108:
4012:
3883:
3664:
3612:
3147:
2977:
2883:
2841:
2335:
1888:, pp. 154–163 (Tables 5.1, 5.2; Sects. 5.2, 5.3). Princeton: Princeton U. Press.
1525:
1399:
1371:
1225:
1218:
866:
823:
791:
732:
557:
274:
224:
44:
4248:
3873:
3774:
3696:
3683:
3572:
3432:
3117:
3004:
2982:
2935:
2930:
2878:
2846:
2506:
1580:
1446:
1395:
1311:
1257:
1253:
1210:
1175:
1147:
1113:
958:
942:
899:(1998). The shorter term morphism was preferred by the evolutionary biologist
813:
787:
775:
744:
717:
331:
254:
209:
189:
103:
2567:
2514:
2467:
2423:
2252:
2206:
2160:
4007:
3858:
3602:
3422:
3085:
2833:
1913:
1661:
1202:
1163:
1143:
1097:
978:
892:
859:
841:
Monomorphism means having only one form. Dimorphism means having two forms.
798:
712:
590:
204:
124:
2575:
2532:
2459:
2085:
1863:
1504:
were prominent, to the last quarter of the 20th century when ideas such as
910:
are sometimes used, but are easily confused in zoology with, respectively,
2260:
2214:
2168:
2062:"Studies on crossing-over I. The effects of selection on crossover values"
1584:
636:
61:
17:
3910:
3258:
3112:
2374:
2357:
1260:
1066:
970:
874:
752:
736:
721:
580:
179:
68:
1394:. However, in some animals an environmental trigger determines the sex:
4294:
4252:
4095:
4087:
3552:
3452:
3300:
3295:
3009:
2761:
2742:
1827:
1810:
1481:
1391:
1387:
1326:
1295:
1190:
926:
847:
827:
783:
695:
2640:
Genes in Ecology: The 33rd Symposium of the British Ecological Society
1420:
selection of an ecological area or areas, with well-defined boundaries
969:. Horticulturists sometimes confuse this usage of "variety" both with
929:, the word "morpha" plus a Latin name for the morph can be added to a
2313:
2288:
1275:
950:
878:
818:
809:
51:
2338:
1971. "Colour and Banding Morphs in Subfossil Samples of the Snail
2061:
735:
can be used to clarify that the different forms arise from the same
2559:
2048:
The nature of selection: evolutionary theory in philosophical focus
1855:
1004:– where the phenotype of each individual is genetically determined
3508:
3317:
3216:
1383:
1265:
937:
name. However, this invites confusion with geographically variant
2726:
1077:
sequence between individuals that make each human genome unique.
945:, especially if polytypic. Morphs have no formal standing in the
3467:
2344:
Ecological genetics and Evolution: Essays in Honour of E.B. Ford
1379:
1375:
966:
4060:
2765:
1386:), sex determination is by haplo-diploidy: the females are all
1290:
of the morphs at a particular time and place. The mechanism of
2489:
Helinski, Michelle E. H.; Harrington, Laura C. (1 June 2012).
1198:
1074:
812:, within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of
1484:). The results had a considerable effect on the mid-century
1468:
noted in the nineteenth century are still being researched.
4056:
1459:, biochemistry or similar techniques if morphs are cryptic
1956:
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Bodmer, Walter Fred (1999) .
1340:
Female-limited polymorphism and sexual assault avoidance
1201:
blood groups), the more complex forms are controlled by
953:, the concept of morphs is represented with the terms "
2026:. Canada: Thompson & Thompson. pp. 116, 422.
1524:
In just a couple of decades the work of Fisher, Ford,
1756:
Ford, E. B. (1940). "Polymorphism and Taxonomy". In
4226:
4188:
4094:
3926:
3851:
3755:
3682:
3638:
3493:
3397:
3214:
3173:
3042:
2832:
1417:
detailed survey of occurrence, habits and predation
766:Polymorphism is common in nature; it is related to
702:is the occurrence of two or more clearly different
2390:The evolutionary theater and the evolutionary play
71:jaguar (about 6% of the South American population)
1676:
1674:
1248:pressures. Diver (1929) found banding morphs in
1904:Ford, E. B. 1965. "Heterozygous Advantage". In
1730:
1728:
1935:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 104.
4072:
2777:
1189:Although a polymorphism can be controlled by
977:usage, rice agriculture jargon, and informal
675:
8:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1142:Most genes have more than one effect on the
1052:Since all polymorphism has a genetic basis,
1751:
1749:
1747:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1657:
1655:
1429:relative numbers and distribution of morphs
1294:assures the population of some alternative
858:, whereas true polymorphism takes place in
4079:
4065:
4057:
2784:
2770:
2762:
682:
668:
77:
4273:Coloration evidence for natural selection
2711:The neutral theory of molecular evolution
2522:
2373:
2312:
2119:, pp. 335–336. London: Allen & Unwin.
1826:
997:Three mechanisms may cause polymorphism:
985:" (protection of a cultivar as a form of
760:
4018:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1997:
1995:
1552:, though the latter was slow to change.
1476:Polymorphism was crucial to research in
2003:Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems
1630:
965:", which are formally regulated by the
743:is a term used somewhat differently by
85:
1007:An example of this can be seen in the
895:(1975), and for classical genetics by
3781:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
2743:"Notes on Rearing Scarlet tiger moth
2289:"Fossil records of Mendelian mutants"
1722:(4th ed.). London: Chapman & Hall
1510:neutral theory of molecular evolution
724:population (one with random mating).
7:
2115:Darlington, C.D.; Mather, K. 1949.
1685:Genetics of the Evolutionary Process
2495:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2356:Stimson, John; Mark Berman (1990).
2060:Detlefsen J.A.; Roberts E. (1921).
1065:The definition has three parts: a)
981:lingo) and with the legal concept "
4213:Pouyannian (with pseudocopulation)
3186:Evolutionary developmental biology
2698:Genetics and the Origin of Species
1492:. The work started at a time when
869:, which can be revealed by a test.
710:, also referred to as alternative
25:
2672:Variation and Evolution in Plants
2619:Evolution: the History of an Idea
1959:The Genetics of Human Populations
1472:Relevance for evolutionary theory
1424:capture, mark, release, recapture
1133:population are doing at the time.
1092:Mechanisms of balancing selection
4339:
4338:
4179:
4114:Aristotelian/Distraction display
4040:
4031:
4030:
2749:. Amateur Entomologists' Society
1799:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford U. Pr.
1597:
1583:
1329:, such as the African butterfly
1318:Polymorphism and niche diversity
649:
648:
635:
93:
60:
43:
3843:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3032:Gene-centered view of evolution
2066:Journal of Experimental Zoology
2001:Begon, Townsend, Harper. 2006.
1345:Female-limited polymorphism in
757:single nucleotide polymorphisms
642:Evolutionary biology portal
3971:Hologenome theory of evolution
3838:History of molecular evolution
3064:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2953:Last universal common ancestor
2696:Dobzhansky, Theodosius. 1951.
2685:Processes of Organic Evolution
2627:University of California Press
2224:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2178:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2132:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1739:Natural Selection and Heredity
1618:Single-nucleotide polymorphism
1432:estimation of population sizes
1205:consisting of several tightly
601:Creation–evolution controversy
355:History of evolutionary theory
1:
4305:Frequency-dependent selection
3765:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2683:Stebbins, G. Ledyard. 1966.
2245:10.1016/s0022-5193(75)80083-x
2199:10.1016/s0022-5193(75)80082-8
2153:10.1016/s0022-5193(75)80081-6
2005:. 4th ed, Blackwell, Oxford.
1962:. Courier. pp. 118–122.
1886:Natural Selection in the Wild
1741:(4th ed.) London: Hutchinson.
1120:Frequency dependent selection
822:has feeding individuals, the
3976:Missing heritability problem
3603:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2732:Heterostyly in the Cowslip (
2653:Animal Species and Evolution
2416:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90117-8
2388:Hutchinson, G. Evelyn 1965.
2022:Nussbaum, Robert L. (2007).
1668:. Faber & Faber, London.
1538:Animal Species and Evolution
586:Evolution as fact and theory
2674:. New York: Columbia U. Pr.
1795:Smith, John Maynard. 1998.
1649:= form, figure, silhouette)
1613:Fondation Jean Dausset-CEPH
1591:Evolutionary biology portal
1558:drew a distinction between
1368:XY sex-determination system
4386:
3608:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3160:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2621:(3rd rev. & exp. ed.)
2275:The Biology of Butterflies
1809:Huxley, Julian S. (1955).
1569:
1056:has a particular meaning:
1045:
621:Nature-nurture controversy
29:
4333:
4177:
4026:
3106:Parent–offspring conflict
2911:Earliest known life forms
2799:
2507:10.1007/s00265-012-1365-9
1440:genetic data from crosses
755:in the genotype, such as
508:Evolutionary neuroscience
483:Evolutionary epistemology
463:Evolutionary anthropology
443:Applications of evolution
4234:Anti-predator adaptation
3959:Cultural group selection
3823:The eclipse of Darwinism
3795:On the Origin of Species
3770:Transmutation of species
2117:The Elements of Genetics
2098:Darlington, C. D. 1956.
1929:Hedrick, Philip (2011).
1811:"Morphism and Evolution"
1185:The origin of supergenes
873:to be the result of new
498:Evolutionary linguistics
493:Evolutionary game theory
468:Evolutionary computation
3964:Dual inheritance theory
3803:History of paleontology
2727:Guide to reptile morphs
2548:The American Naturalist
1932:Genetics of Populations
1436:And in the laboratory:
1270:The white morph of the
1082:transient polymorphisms
891:ecological genetics by
611:Objections to evolution
518:Evolutionary psychology
513:Evolutionary physiology
458:Evolutionary aesthetics
437:Fields and applications
419:History of paleontology
4365:Polymorphism (biology)
3652:Punctuated equilibrium
2973:Non-adaptive radiation
2921:Evolutionary arms race
2741:McNamara, Don (1998).
2460:10.1006/anbe.1994.1053
2342:". In R. Creed (ed.),
2086:10.1002/jez.1400320206
1681:Dobzhansky, Theodosius
1486:evolutionary synthesis
1292:heterozygote advantage
1283:
1278:is partly a result of
1112:is fitter than either
1102:heterozygote advantage
923:taxonomic nomenclature
543:Speciation experiments
523:Experimental evolution
478:Evolutionary economics
300:Recent human evolution
158:Processes and outcomes
4325:Underwater camouflage
4104:Aggressive/Wicklerian
3944:Evolutionary medicine
3818:Mendelian inheritance
3526:Biological complexity
3514:Programmed cell death
3206:Phenotypic plasticity
2926:Evolutionary pressure
2916:Evidence of evolution
2814:Timeline of evolution
2617:Bowler, P. J. 2003.
1797:Evolutionary Genetics
1572:List of polymorphisms
1409:Investigative methods
1269:
1009:blue-tailed damselfly
987:intellectual property
856:allopatric speciation
503:Evolutionary medicine
448:Biosocial criminology
414:History of speciation
327:Evolutionary taxonomy
290:Timeline of evolution
4300:Evolutionary ecology
4285:Deception in animals
4279:Dazzled and Deceived
4239:Animal communication
3918:Teleology in biology
3813:Blending inheritance
3191:Genetic assimilation
3054:Artificial selection
2793:Evolutionary biology
2745:Callimorpha dominula
2668:Stebbins, G. Ledyard
2596:Bowler, P. J. 1983.
2375:10.1038/hdy.1990.110
2346:. Oxford: Blackwell.
2024:Genetics in Medicine
1906:Genetic Polymorphism
1666:Genetic polymorphism
1323:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
1174:or even on the same
1054:genetic polymorphism
1042:Genetic polymorphism
1002:Genetic polymorphism
751:to describe certain
749:molecular biologists
741:Genetic polymorphism
473:Evolutionary ecology
87:Evolutionary biology
30:For other uses, see
4146:Emsleyan/Mertensian
3981:Molecular evolution
3939:Ecological genetics
3808:Transitional fossil
3598:Sexual reproduction
3438:endomembrane system
3367:pollinator-mediated
3323:dolphins and whales
3101:Parental investment
2642:. Oxford: Blackwell
2305:1929Natur.124..183D
2237:1975JThBi..55..325C
2191:1975JThBi..55..305C
2145:1975JThBi..55..283C
2078:1921JEZ....32..333D
1762:The New Systematics
1735:Sheppard, Philip M.
1720:Ecological Genetics
1560:molecular evolution
1542:Ecological Genetics
1490:evolutionary theory
1478:ecological genetics
1304:Apostatic selection
1280:apostatic selection
1217:in butterflies and
1104:): "Heterosis: the
1086:balancing selection
801:and is modified by
575:Social implications
563:Universal Darwinism
553:Island biogeography
488:Evolutionary ethics
453:Ecological genetics
399:Molecular evolution
337:Transitional fossil
165:Population genetics
81:Part of a series on
4290:Deimatic behaviour
3954:Cultural evolution
3069:Fisher's principle
2998:Handicap principle
2988:Parallel evolution
2852:Adaptive radiation
2287:Diver, C. (1929).
1884:Endler J.A. 1986.
1828:10.1038/hdy.1955.1
1768:pp. 493–513.
1718:Ford, E. B. 1975.
1284:
1256:going back to the
1028:Relative frequency
951:botanical taxonomy
897:John Maynard Smith
606:Theistic evolution
538:Selective breeding
250:Parallel evolution
215:Adaptive radiation
4352:
4351:
4320:Signalling theory
4295:Mimicry#Evolution
4268:Community ecology
4263:Animal coloration
4109:Ant/Myrmecomorphy
4054:
4053:
3670:Uniformitarianism
3623:Sex-determination
3128:Sexual dimorphism
3123:Natural selection
3027:Unit of selection
2993:Signalling theory
2104:Allen & Unwin
2102:, p. 36. London:
2100:Chromosome Botany
2011:978-1-4051-1117-1
1988:978-0-8153-4219-9
1969:978-0-486-40693-0
1942:978-0-7637-5737-3
1918:Faber & Faber
1775:978-1-930723-72-6
1494:natural selection
1488:, and on present
1288:effective fitness
1252:could be seen in
1048:Gene polymorphism
916:Phenotypic traits
803:natural selection
780:sexual dimorphism
772:genetic variation
692:
691:
383:Origin of Species
185:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
4377:
4344:Category mimicry
4342:
4341:
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4081:
4074:
4067:
4058:
4044:
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3833:Modern synthesis
3593:Multicellularity
3588:Mosaic evolution
3473:auditory ossicle
3155:Social selection
3138:Flowering plants
3133:Sexual selection
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2709:Kimura M. 1983.
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1466:Batesian mimicry
1443:population cages
1390:, the males are
1347:Papilio dardanus
1332:Papilio dardanus
1254:prefossil shells
1250:Cepaea nemoralis
1215:Batesian mimicry
1146:of an organism (
1013:Ischnura elegans
816:. For example,
684:
677:
670:
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616:Level of support
409:Current research
394:Modern synthesis
389:Before synthesis
342:Extinction event
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3015:Species complex
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2050:. Chicago. p197
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2657:Harvard U. Pr.
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258:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
161:
160:
157:
156:
153:
152:
150:
149:
144:
139:
133:
132:
127:
122:
117:
111:
108:
107:
98:
90:
89:
83:
82:
67:Dark-morph or
66:
59:
58:
57:
49:
42:
41:
40:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4382:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4345:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4187:
4182:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4077:
4075:
4070:
4068:
4063:
4062:
4059:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4037:
4029:
4028:
4025:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3991:Phylogenetics
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3919:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3894:Structuralism
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3869:Catastrophism
3867:
3866:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3828:Neo-Darwinism
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3742:Reinforcement
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3674:Catastrophism
3671:
3668:
3666:
3665:Macromutation
3662:
3661:Micromutation
3659:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3568:Immune system
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3492:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3428:symbiogenesis
3426:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3096:Kin selection
3094:
3092:
3091:Genetic drift
3089:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2782:
2780:
2775:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2748:
2746:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2734:Primula veris
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2329:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2299:(3118): 183.
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2072:(2): 333–54.
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2035:
2033:9781416030805
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1771:
1767:
1766:Clarendon Pr.
1763:
1759:
1758:Julian Huxley
1752:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1595:
1592:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:, and Ford's
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1498:Sewall Wright
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1049:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1027:
1022:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1000:
999:
998:
992:
990:
988:
984:
983:plant variety
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
909:
904:
902:
901:Julian Huxley
898:
894:
885:
880:
876:
871:
868:
864:
861:
857:
852:
850:or polymodal.
849:
844:
843:
842:
836:
834:
831:
829:
825:
821:
820:
815:
811:
806:
804:
800:
795:
793:
789:
786:), and human
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
725:
723:
719:
715:
714:
709:
705:
701:
697:
685:
680:
678:
673:
671:
666:
665:
663:
662:
656:
646:
643:
638:
632:
631:
630:
629:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
572:
571:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
528:Phylogenetics
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
440:
434:
433:
424:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
384:
380:
378:
375:
373:
372:Before Darwin
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
359:
352:
351:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
301:
298:
297:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
272:
265:
264:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
200:Genetic drift
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
155:
154:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
134:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
110:
109:
105:
101:
96:
92:
91:
88:
84:
80:
79:
70:
63:
53:
46:
37:
33:
19:
4315:Polymorphism
4314:
4310:Phagomimicry
4277:
4258:Co-evolution
4003:Polymorphism
4002:
3986:Astrobiology
3934:Biogeography
3889:Saltationism
3879:Orthogenesis
3864:Alternatives
3793:
3779:
3712:Cospeciation
3707:Cladogenesis
3656:Saltationism
3613:Mating types
3536:Color vision
3521:Avian flight
3443:mitochondria
3181:Canalisation
3059:Biodiversity
2804:Introduction
2751:. Retrieved
2744:
2733:
2713:. Cambridge.
2710:
2705:
2697:
2692:
2684:
2679:
2671:
2663:
2652:
2647:
2639:
2634:
2618:
2613:
2597:
2592:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2451:
2447:
2440:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2389:
2384:
2365:
2361:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2274:
2269:
2228:
2222:
2182:
2176:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2116:
2111:
2099:
2094:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2047:
2042:
2023:
2017:
2002:
1978:
1958:
1951:
1931:
1924:
1905:
1885:
1880:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1796:
1761:
1738:
1719:
1684:
1665:
1646:
1645:= many, and
1642:
1633:
1554:
1541:
1537:
1534:Cyril Clarke
1523:
1500:'s ideas on
1475:
1462:
1435:
1412:
1404:
1363:
1361:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1330:
1321:
1308:
1285:
1249:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1209:on a single
1207:linked genes
1197:(e.g. human
1193:at a single
1188:
1180:
1162:
1148:pleiotropism
1141:
1138:Pleiotropism
1106:heterozygote
1081:
1079:
1071:
1064:
1053:
1051:
1031:
1012:
996:
975:viticultural
939:ring species
920:
905:
889:
886:Nomenclature
862:populations.
840:
832:
824:gastrozooids
817:
807:
796:
768:biodiversity
765:
730:
726:
711:
707:
703:
700:polymorphism
699:
693:
548:Sociobiology
533:Paleontology
381:
317:Biogeography
312:Biodiversity
230:Coextinction
220:Co-operation
195:Polymorphism
194:
120:Introduction
50:Light-morph
36:
32:Polymorphism
4244:Aposematism
4119:Automimicry
4013:Systematics
3884:Mutationism
3702:Catagenesis
3630:Snake venom
3563:Eusociality
3541:in primates
3531:Cooperation
3459:In animals
3279:butterflies
3252:Cephalopods
3242:Brachiopods
3174:Development
3148:Mate choice
2901:Convergence
2884:Coevolution
2842:Abiogenesis
2410:: 660–665.
1821:(1): 1–52.
1526:Arthur Cain
1452:if possible
1400:polyphenism
1372:Hymenoptera
1351:P. dardanus
1226:gene family
1219:heterostyly
867:blood types
837:Terminology
792:blood types
745:geneticists
733:polyphenism
558:Systematics
367:Renaissance
245:Convergence
235:Contingency
225:Coevolution
4359:Categories
4249:Camouflage
4218:Vavilovian
4208:Gilbertian
4171:Wasmannian
4096:In animals
3874:Lamarckism
3852:Philosophy
3775:David Hume
3737:Peripatric
3732:Parapatric
3717:Ecological
3697:Anagenesis
3692:Allopatric
3684:Speciation
3648:Gradualism
3573:Metabolism
3433:chromosome
3423:Eukaryotes
3201:Modularity
3118:Population
3044:Population
3005:Speciation
2983:Panspermia
2936:Extinction
2931:Exaptation
2906:Divergence
2879:Cladistics
2867:Reciprocal
2847:Adaptation
2655:. Boston:
1912:/London.:
1764:. Oxford:
1625:References
1550:Dobzhansky
1447:chromosome
1396:alligators
1358:The switch
1312:speciation
1258:Mesolithic
1224:Whereas a
1211:chromosome
1203:supergenes
1176:chromosome
1114:homozygote
993:Mechanisms
959:subvariety
943:subspecies
814:cnidarians
788:hemoglobin
776:adaptation
718:population
713:phenotypes
332:Cladistics
255:Extinction
240:Divergence
210:Speciation
190:Adaptation
104:John Gould
69:melanistic
18:Morphotype
4203:Dodsonian
4190:In plants
4156:Müllerian
4129:Locomotor
4008:Protocell
3859:Darwinism
3747:Sympatric
3496:processes
3384:Tetrapods
3333:Kangaroos
3259:Dinosaurs
3196:Inversion
3165:Variation
3086:Gene flow
3079:Inclusive
2889:Mutualism
2834:Evolution
2753:15 August
2602:Baltimore
2568:0003-0147
2515:0340-5443
2468:0003-3472
2424:0003-3472
2253:0022-5193
2207:0022-5193
2161:0022-5193
1662:Ford E.B.
1164:Epistasis
1159:Epistasis
1144:phenotype
1098:Heterosis
979:gardening
935:trinomial
893:E.B. Ford
875:mutations
860:panmictic
799:heritable
753:mutations
731:The term
722:panmictic
716:, in the
591:Dysgenics
307:Phylogeny
205:Gene flow
175:Diversity
170:Variation
4198:Bakerian
4141:Chemical
4124:Batesian
4036:Category
3911:Vitalism
3906:Theistic
3899:Spandrel
3583:Morality
3578:Monogamy
3453:plastids
3418:Flagella
3374:Reptiles
3355:sea cows
3338:primates
3247:Molluscs
3225:Bacteria
3113:Mutation
3046:genetics
3022:Taxonomy
2968:Mismatch
2948:Homology
2862:Cheating
2857:Altruism
2623:Berkeley
2584:35052139
2576:19382852
2533:25544799
2476:53186308
2432:53159705
2362:Heredity
1864:15937747
1815:Heredity
1689:New York
1683:. 1970.
1577:See also
1566:Examples
1546:Stebbins
1513:such as
1450:cytology
1261:Holocene
1067:sympatry
1037:Genetics
971:cultivar
931:binomial
903:(1955).
854:lead to
737:genotype
655:Category
581:Eugenics
423:timeline
404:Evo-devo
362:Overview
180:Mutation
142:Evidence
137:Glossary
4370:Morphas
4253:Crypsis
4151:Eyespot
4088:Mimicry
3927:Related
3757:History
3618:Meiosis
3553:Empathy
3548:Emotion
3448:nucleus
3389:Viruses
3379:Spiders
3291:Mammals
3274:Insects
3074:Fitness
3010:Species
2809:Outline
2524:4276144
2323:4067174
2301:Bibcode
2261:1207162
2233:Bibcode
2215:1207161
2187:Bibcode
2169:1207160
2141:Bibcode
2074:Bibcode
1914:MIT Pr.
1872:8062017
1760:(ed.).
1515:Haldane
1482:mimicry
1455:use of
1392:haploid
1388:diploid
1327:mimicry
1298:at the
1296:alleles
1272:monarch
1243:Ecology
1237:in situ
1191:alleles
961:" and "
955:variety
927:zoology
921:In the
848:bimodal
828:medusae
784:mimicry
696:biology
147:History
130:Outline
4337:
4161:Sexual
4046:Portal
3722:Hybrid
3558:Ethics
3400:organs
3362:Plants
3348:lemurs
3343:humans
3328:horses
3318:hyenas
3306:wolves
3301:canids
3235:origin
2670:1950.
2582:
2574:
2566:
2531:
2521:
2513:
2474:
2466:
2430:
2422:
2340:Cepaea
2321:
2293:Nature
2259:
2251:
2213:
2205:
2167:
2159:
2030:
2009:
1986:
1966:
1939:
1910:Boston
1870:
1862:
1844:Am Nat
1772:
1737:1975.
1664:1965.
1556:Kimura
1519:Fisher
1506:Kimura
1364:switch
1276:Hawaii
1172:linked
912:"form"
879:allele
819:Obelia
810:zooids
774:, and
704:morphs
653:
377:Darwin
52:jaguar
4136:Brood
3509:Death
3504:Aging
3483:brain
3269:Fungi
3230:Birds
3143:Fungi
2941:Event
2824:Index
2747:(L.)"
2580:S2CID
2472:S2CID
2428:S2CID
2319:S2CID
1868:S2CID
1647:μορφή
1639:Greek
1620:(SNP)
1502:drift
1384:wasps
1370:. In
1300:locus
1195:locus
1168:locus
1110:locus
1108:at a
949:. In
908:phase
761:below
708:forms
115:Index
3996:Tree
3468:hair
3408:Cell
3311:dogs
3296:cats
3286:Life
3264:Fish
3217:taxa
2755:2006
2572:PMID
2564:ISSN
2529:PMID
2511:ISSN
2464:ISSN
2420:ISSN
2257:PMID
2249:ISSN
2211:PMID
2203:ISSN
2165:PMID
2157:ISSN
2028:ISBN
2007:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1964:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1860:PMID
1770:ISBN
1643:πολύ
1548:and
1532:and
1517:and
1426:data
1382:and
1380:bees
1376:ants
1100:(or
963:form
957:", "
947:ICZN
790:and
747:and
125:Main
3494:Of
3463:eye
3413:DNA
3398:Of
3215:Of
2736:L.)
2608:Pr.
2556:doi
2552:173
2519:PMC
2503:doi
2456:doi
2412:doi
2370:doi
2309:doi
2297:124
2241:doi
2195:doi
2149:doi
2082:doi
1852:doi
1848:165
1823:doi
1508:'s
1274:in
1199:ABO
1075:DNA
989:).
967:ICN
941:or
933:or
925:of
706:or
694:In
102:by
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