1795:, where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third-person plural". Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation since one says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. The approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as
745:, instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", in which 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even one word in many languages. Unlike most other languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwak'wala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb):
1657:
466:
1910:
1786:
Word-based morphology is (usually) a word-and-paradigm approach. The theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional
1469:
The relationship between syntax and morphology, as well as how they interact, is called "morphosyntax"; the term is also used to underline the fact that syntax and morphology are interrelated. The study of morphosyntax concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, and some approaches to morphosyntax
938:
A central publication on this topic is the volume edited by Dixon and
Aikhenvald (2002), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and
1771:
Lexeme-based morphology usually takes what is called an item-and-process approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, a word form is said to be the result of applying rules that alter a word-form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule
1965:
spoken on the
Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Similar to other languages, words in Pingelapese can take different forms to add to or even change its meaning. Verbal suffixes are morphemes added at the end of a word to change its form.
1891:
The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology. The item-and-arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages. The item-and-process and word-and-paradigm approaches usually address fusional
991:
Word formation includes a process in which one combines two complete words, but inflection allows the combination of a suffix with a verb to change the latter's form to that of the subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, 'go' is used with subject I/we/you/they and plural
1895:
As there is very little fusion involved in word formation, classical typology mostly applies to inflectional morphology. Depending on the preferred way of expressing non-inflectional notions, languages may be classified as synthetic (using word formation) or analytic (using syntactic phrases).
1051:. There is also word formation in the processes of clipping in which a portion of a word is removed to create a new one, blending in which two parts of different words are blended into one, acronyms in which each letter of the new word represents a specific word in the representation (NATO for
1573:
Phonological rules constrain the sounds that can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in the language in question. For example, to form the plural of
992:
nouns, but third-person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns causes 'goes' to be used. The '-es' is therefore an inflectional marker that is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word's
1772:
takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem.
1465:
An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms that are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, and there are no corresponding syntactic rules for word formation.
2236:. While all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules, that was only the case in Latin, not in English. English borrowed such words from French and Latin but not the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine
987:
The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear-cut. There are many examples for which linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify the distinction.
1887:
It is clear that this classification is not at all clearcut, and many languages (Latin and Greek among them) do not neatly fit any one of these types, and some fit in more than one way. A continuum of complex morphology of language may be adopted.
1787:
paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. Word-and-paradigm approaches are also well-suited to capturing purely morphological phenomena, such as
959:
Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme, but other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are
1030:
are complete word forms in their own right but are subsequently treated as parts of one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, but the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. The word
1747:. For Bloomfield, the morpheme was the minimal form with meaning, but did not have meaning itself. For Hockett, morphemes are "meaning elements", not "form elements". For him, there is a morpheme plural using allomorphs such as
2060:
Directional suffixes are not limited to motion verbs. When added to non-motion verbs, their meanings are a figurative one. The following table gives some examples of directional suffixes and their possible meanings.
1514:. In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning. In each pair, the first word means "one of X", and the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form
1525:
One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that the one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In
English, there are word form pairs like
1437:
rules, which require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. Therefore, the syntactic rules of
English care about the difference between
1720:, seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenated, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for item-and-arrangement theories and similar approaches.
1712:
is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest and most naïve form, this way of analyzing word forms, called "item-and-arrangement", treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other ("
737:' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and". An extreme level of the theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the
605:, which investigates the categories of speech sounds that are distinguished within a spoken language, and thus may constitute the difference between a morpheme and another. Conversely,
984:
are examples of word formation. Informally, word formation rules form "new" words (more accurately, new lexemes), and inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).
2177:"Für die Lehre von der Wortform wähle ich das Wort "Morphologie", nach dem Vorgange der Naturwissenschaften ", "For the science of word-formation, I choose the term 'morphology' )
1538:
whose difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern or is not signaled at all. Even cases regarded as regular, such as
1369:
2417:
1590:
of
English. To "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the
2751:
1759:. Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, the two views are mixed in unsystematic ways so a writer may refer to "the morpheme plural" and "the morpheme
1055:), borrowing in which words from one language are taken and used in another, and coinage in which a new word is created to represent a new object or concept.
2190:, Kwak'wala belongs to the Northern branch of the Wakashan language family. "Kwakiutl" is still used to refer to the tribe itself, along with other terms.
1429:
The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily but must be categories that are relevant to stating the
741:
language. In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by
601:
The basic fields of linguistics broadly focus on language structure at different "scales". Morphology is considered to operate at a scale larger than
2879:
1362:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1268:
1263:
1258:
2021:
There are also directional suffixes that when added to the root word give the listener a better idea of where the subject is headed. The verb
2465:
493:
1446:
because the choice between both forms determines the form of the verb that is used. However, no syntactic rule shows the difference between
1920:
383:
1394:
of nouns. Also, arranging the word forms of a lexeme into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as
1176:
719:
Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In
2321:
1355:
1139:
1840:
In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. Some languages are
1426:(first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive).
1052:
3103:
3081:
3062:
3039:
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2740:
2634:
2520:
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1945:
515:
1151:
3180:
1736:'s "sign base" morpheme hypothesis: As morphemes, they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and meaning.
343:
867:('otter'), etc. In other words, a speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words:
831:
That is, to a speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the
121:
3175:
1868:). That leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. A standard example of an isolating language is
403:
348:
1470:
exclude from its domain the phenomena of word formation, compounding, and derivation. Within morphosyntax fall the study of
1307:
643:. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, including the
2975:(Speech). Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on South and Southeast Asian Natural Language Processing (SANLP). Mumbai: COLING.
1433:
of the language. Person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in
English because the language has
378:
69:
1181:
1648:
While the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list are very strong, they are not absolute.
323:
189:
2730:
1630:
There are three principal approaches to morphology and each tries to capture the distinctions above in different ways:
1166:
2774:
443:
149:
1386:
is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the
1275:
1253:
1018:. The latter is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form.
1317:
2489:
2411:
1210:
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1727:
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1134:
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are concerned with how speakers create words in specific contexts, which evolves over the history of a language.
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31:
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Für die lere von der wortform wäle ich das wort « morphologie», nach dem vorgange der naturwißenschaften
1739:
Bloomfield's "lexical morpheme" hypothesis: morphemes, affixes and roots alike are stored in the lexicon.
2609:
Van Valin, R. D., van Valin Jr, R. D., van Valin Jr, R. D., LaPolla, R. J., & LaPolla, R. J. (1997)
1343:
1225:
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1205:
944:
539:
164:
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671:
and word-form. Generally, a lexeme is a set of inflected word-forms that is often represented with the
3159:
1622:
in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding.
1566:. Those cases, in which the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", constitute
1522:) affixed to the second word, which signals the key distinction between singular and plural entities.
1962:
1811:
1196:
1191:
1171:
993:
640:
479:
408:
318:
199:
144:
41:
609:
is concerned with the next-largest scale, and studies how words in turn form phrases and sentences.
1066:
249:
179:
154:
126:
3147:
3135:
2593:
Linguistic
Fundamentals for Natural Language Processing: 100 Essentials from Morphology and Syntax
2203:
using a modified transcription. This phenomenon of Kwak'wala was reported by
Jacobsen as cited in
465:
2910:
2483:
1841:
1744:
1733:
1697:
1423:
1411:
1407:
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1094:
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613:
is a distinct field that categorises languages based on the morphological features they exhibit.
591:
583:
543:
528:, including the principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one another within a
469:
448:
418:
373:
328:
296:
286:
174:
169:
1656:
667:
The term "word" has no well-defined meaning. Instead, two related terms are used in morphology:
2884:(Speech). Voice and Grammatical Functions in Austronesian. University of Sydney. Archived from
939:
sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit
3099:
3077:
3058:
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244:
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2954:
2950:
2002:
is an example of a verbal prefix. It is added to the beginning of a word and means 'not.'
1312:
1230:
1010:
There is a further distinction between two primary kinds of morphological word formation:
951:. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory.
571:
2460:. Robert M. W. Dixon, A. I︠U︡. Aĭkhenvalʹd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002.
824:
clubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINER man-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER otter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVE club
3144:
by
Stephen R. Anderson, part of Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, cowgill.ling.yale.edu
1668:. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word such as
3141:
3051:
2788:
Arabic morphology and phonology: based on the Marāḥ al-arwāḥ by Aḥmad b. ʻAlī b. Masʻūd
1881:
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1005:
965:
948:
258:
2294:
626:
3169:
3091:
2688:
2505:
2359:
1966:
Prefixes are those that are added at the front. For example, the
Pingelapese suffix –
1791:. Examples to show the effectiveness of word-based approaches are usually drawn from
1730:'s "single morpheme" hypothesis: Roots and affixes have the same status as morphemes.
1713:
1302:
996:, but in the process of inflection, the word never changes its grammatical category.
711:, on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different concepts.
672:
1587:
301:
91:
2967:
2361:
Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology: A General Theory of Inflection and Word Formation
1700:
and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes. In words such as
1637:
Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes use of an item-and-process approach.
738:
2982:
2611:
1958:
1391:
635:
550:
that can only appear as part of a larger word. For example, in English the root
507:
453:
428:
49:
1634:
Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of an item-and-arrangement approach.
532:. Most approaches to morphology investigate the structure of words in terms of
1383:
1338:
1244:
1235:
961:
676:
423:
106:
3053:
Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar
2842:
2770:
2475:
1716:") like beads on a string. More recent and sophisticated approaches, such as
17:
2155:
1808:
1567:
602:
575:
398:
393:
229:
219:
111:
101:
3153:
1743:
Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one
2455:
2187:
1665:
1664:
In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of
1602:: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding
630:
534:
529:
2269:
Jones, Daniel (2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
1615:
1603:
1487:
1329:
742:
2914:
2881:
Symmetrical Voice Systems and Precategoriality in Philippine Languages
699:
are thus considered different word-forms belonging to the same lexeme
3148:
Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Morphology: The Words of Language
2025:
means to walk. A directional suffix can be used to give more detail.
1861:
1856:
because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together (like some
1619:
1430:
940:
668:
606:
116:
2966:
Kishorjit, N; Vidya Raj, RK; Nirmal, Y; Sivaji, B. (December 2012).
2906:
1614:
Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the
943:, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the
546:
that can exist as words by themselves, but also categories such as
538:, which are the smallest units in a language with some independent
2854:. LINCOM coursebooks in linguistics, 07. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa.
1848:
whose words tend to have many easily separable morphemes (such as
720:
547:
3098:. Cambridge studies in linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
2404:
Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétersbourg
525:
2893:
Hockett, Charles F. (1947). "Problems of morphemic analysis".
2809:(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: SGeorgetown University Press.
1903:
1462:. The first two are nouns, and the other two are adjectives.
976:
is an inflectional rule, and compound phrases and words like
2690:
Morphology: A Study of the Relation Between Meaning and Form
2572:
Introduction – 2 Syntax and morphosyntax: some basic notions
3007:(in French). Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal.
2365:. Albany: NY: State University of New York Press. pp.
2402:
Schleicher, August (1859). "Zur Morphologie der Sprache".
1660:
Morpheme-based morphology tree of the word "independently"
3076:. Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
3057:. Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
2012:
2006:
1990:
1984:
650:
The term "morphology" was introduced into linguistics by
2869:
Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y., eds. (2007).
1970:
means 'with' or 'at.' It is added at the end of a verb.
1422:
can be organized into tables by using the categories of
647:
of Aḥmad b. 'Alī Mas'ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE.
3156:
by Farrell Ackerman and Henry Beecher, grammar.ucsd.edu
3096:
Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure
1927:
1723:
Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms:
562:
may appear as its own word, or it may be combined with
2575:
in Dufter, Andreas, and Stark, Elisabeth (eds., 2017)
1618:
that, morphologically conceived, is the collection of
843:-'the'), referring to "man", attaches not to the noun
2406:. VII°. Vol. I, N.7. St. Petersburg. p. 35.
1884:
are prototypical inflectional or fusional languages.
1640:
Word-based morphology, which normally makes use of a
516:
3132:
in Linguistics 001 by Mark Liberman, ling.upenn.edu
3050:
2981:
625:morphological analysis dates back to the linguist
3072:Spencer, Andrew; Zwicky, Arnold M., eds. (1998).
3030:Singh, Rajendra; Starosta, Stanley, eds. (2003).
2511:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
964:rules, but those of the second kind are rules of
2204:
1582:to the end of the word would result in the form
2224:in English does not mean that the English word
1844:, and have little to no morphology; others are
1826:fits the regular pattern of plural formation).
1125:
570:. Morphology also analyzes how words behave as
2828:. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
2442:
2430:
3115:Syntax : Structure, Meaning And Function
3113:van Valin, Robert D.; LaPolla, Randy (1997).
2957:. In Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich (ed.).
2565:
2563:
2561:
1363:
487:
8:
2988:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2752:"Morphology: an interview with Mark Aronoff"
2625:Haspelmath, Martin; Sims, Andrea D. (2002).
2301:. Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University
2125:Action continued to a certain point in time
1486:Above, morphological rules are described as
2112:Change has caused the start of a new state
3150:by Adam Szczegielniak, scholar.harvard.edu
2922:Fabrega, Antonio; Scalise, Sergio (2012).
2852:An introduction to the study of morphology
2661:
2416:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1370:
1356:
1062:
827:"the man clubbed the otter with his club."
494:
480:
36:
2578:Manual of Romance Morphosyntax and Syntax
1946:Learn how and when to remove this message
2926:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
2873:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2612:Syntax: Structure, meaning, and function
2600:, p.35, Morgan & Claypool Publishers
2320:Aronoff, Mark; Fudeman, Kirsten (n.d.).
2063:
1876:(and practically all Turkic languages).
1655:
1035:, for example, is derived from the word
2673:
2457:Word : a cross-linguistic typology
2389:
2322:"Morphology and Morphological Analysis"
2261:
2228:is analyzed into a derivational prefix
2167:
1328:
1243:
1124:
1072:
1065:
968:. The generation of the English plural
48:
2694:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp.
2481:
2409:
2331:. Blackwell Publishing. Archived from
1550:is not pronounced the same way as the
847:("man") but to the verb; the markers -
2649:
2200:
2052:= 'away from speaker and listener' →
1917:This section may contain information
917:kwixʔid i-da-bəgwanəma χ-a-q'asa s-is
723:, one way to express the concept of '
7:
2581:, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
1022:, therefore, is a compound, as both
715:Prosodic word vs. morphological word
629:, who formulated the 3,959 rules of
384:Conservative and innovative language
3154:LIGN120: Introduction to Morphology
3032:Explorations in Seamless Morphology
3014:Aspects of the theory of morphology
1418:, organizes such. For example, the
2790:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
2711:Preverbal Particles in Pingelapese
2615:, p.2, Cambridge University Press.
1852:); others yet are inflectional or
1053:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
27:Study of words and their formation
25:
3136:Intro to Linguistics – Morphology
2959:Structure of Modern English pt. 1
2871:Word: A cross-linguistic typology
2807:Introducing linguistic morphology
2299:Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science
947:-phonological lack of freedom of
2969:Manipuri Morpheme Identification
2951:Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich
2935:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1908:
1586:, which is not permitted by the
1047:itself is derived from the verb
464:
3138:by Jirka Hana, ufal.mff.cuni.cz
2924:Morphology: from Data to Theory
1872:. An agglutinative language is
1672:, the morphemes are said to be
3162:by P. J. Hancox, cs.bham.ac.uk
2955:"The use of tenses in English"
2273:, Cambridge University Press,
2271:English Pronouncing Dictionary
2244:'to hang' into the derivative
2205:van Valin & LaPolla (1997)
1807:follows the normal pattern of
1562:, a vowel is added before the
1:
3117:. Cambridge University Press.
3005:Cours de morphologie générale
2503:Anderson, Stephen R. (1992).
2293:Anderson, Stephen R. (n.d.).
955:Inflection vs. word formation
2833:Bloomfield, Leonard (1933).
2735:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2216:The existence of words like
2013:
2007:
1991:
1985:
1420:personal pronouns in English
324:Functional discourse grammar
190:Ethnography of communication
2538:"Word Formation in English"
1187:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
679:. For instance, the lexeme
444:Second-language acquisition
3202:
3074:The handbook of morphology
2443:Haspelmath & Sims 2002
2431:Haspelmath & Sims 2002
2099:Action has been completed
1833:
1779:
1642:word-and-paradigm approach
1059:Paradigms and morphosyntax
1003:
122:Syntax–semantics interface
29:
2931:Katamba, Francis (1993).
2878:Foley, William A (1998).
1923:to the article's subject.
1652:Morpheme-based morphology
1558:, and in plurals such as
1542:, are not so simple; the
434:Philosophy of linguistics
334:Interactional linguistics
3049:Spencer, Andrew (1991).
3021:Scalise, Sergio (1983).
3012:Mel'čuk, Igor A (2006).
3003:Mel'čuk, Igor A (1993).
2980:Matthews, Peter (1991).
2837:. New York: Henry Holt.
2826:A glossary of morphology
2627:Understanding Morphology
2569:Dufter and Stark (2017)
1782:Realizational morphology
1763:" in the same sentence.
683:contains the word-forms
30:Not to be confused with
3181:Linguistics terminology
2786:Åkesson, Joyce (2001).
2709:Hattori, Ryoko (2012).
2686:Bybee, Joan L. (1985).
2590:Emily M. Bender (2013)
1858:Indo-European languages
1767:Lexeme-based morphology
1578:by simply appending an
1000:Types of word formation
633:morphology in the text
3160:Morphological analysis
2824:Bauer, Laurie (2004).
2805:Bauer, Laurie (2003).
2750:Aronoff, Mark (2009).
2729:Aronoff, Mark (1993).
2488:: CS1 maint: others (
2357:Beard, Robert (1995).
2151:Morphome (linguistics)
1836:Morphological typology
1830:Morphological typology
1718:distributed morphology
1661:
928:hit-the-otter with-his
855:-'the'), referring to
813:kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəma
663:Lexemes and word-forms
611:Morphological typology
580:grammatical categories
574:, and how they may be
271:Theoretical frameworks
225:Philosophy of language
205:History of linguistics
32:Morphological typology
3176:Linguistic morphology
3023:Generative Morphology
2850:Bubenik, Vit (1999).
2507:A-Morphous Morphology
1921:important or relevant
1776:Word-based morphology
1659:
1435:grammatical agreement
1177:Nominative–absolutive
1140:Nominative–accusative
924:clubbed PIVOT-the-man
566:to form the new word
165:Conversation analysis
3130:Lecture 7 Morphology
2732:Morphology by Itself
1963:Micronesian language
1928:improve this section
1708:is the root and the
1490:between word forms:
1039:by using the prefix
994:grammatical category
658:Fundamental concepts
641:constituency grammar
558:are both morphemes;
542:. Morphemes include
409:Internet linguistics
319:Construction grammar
3025:. Dordrecht: Foris.
2545:Library of Congress
2536:Plag, Ingo (2003).
2338:on 27 February 2020
2329:What is Morphology?
2199:Example taken from
2067:Directional suffix
1291:Object–verb–subject
1286:Object–subject–verb
1281:Subject–object–verb
1269:Verb–object–subject
1264:Verb–subject–object
1259:Subject–verb–object
1152:Ergative–absolutive
1067:Linguistic typology
594:. Concepts such as
344:Systemic functional
139:Applied linguistics
81:General linguistics
2629:. London: Arnold.
2186:Formerly known as
2011:= to be correct →
1793:fusional languages
1662:
1610:Lexical morphology
524:) is the study of
449:Theory of language
419:Origin of language
374:Autonomy of syntax
329:Grammaticalization
175:Discourse analysis
170:Corpus linguistics
3092:Stump, Gregory T.
3016:. Berlin: Mouton.
2713:. pp. 31–33.
2467:978-0-511-48624-1
2412:cite encyclopedia
2142:
2141:
2086:Onset of a state
2017:= to be incorrect
1956:
1955:
1948:
1390:of verbs and the
1380:
1379:
1322:Place–manner–time
1318:Time–manner–place
1211:Dependent-marking
1162:Symmetrical voice
1145:Marked nominative
685:eat, eats, eaten,
652:August Schleicher
504:
503:
292:Distributionalism
235:Psycholinguistics
16:(Redirected from
3193:
3118:
3109:
3087:
3068:
3056:
3045:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2987:
2976:
2974:
2962:
2946:
2927:
2918:
2889:
2874:
2865:
2846:
2829:
2820:
2801:
2781:
2779:
2773:. Archived from
2756:
2746:
2715:
2714:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2693:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2622:
2616:
2607:
2601:
2588:
2582:
2567:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2542:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2510:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2487:
2479:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2415:
2407:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2364:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2326:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2266:
2249:
2214:
2208:
2197:
2191:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2073:Non-motion verb
2064:
2016:
2010:
1994:
1988:
1951:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1912:
1911:
1904:
1850:Turkic languages
1585:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1063:
885:
854:
842:
801:
797:
793:
779:
775:
760:
756:
733:
726:
702:
682:
520:
496:
489:
482:
468:
414:LGBT linguistics
404:Internationalism
379:Compositionality
240:Sociolinguistics
215:Neurolinguistics
210:Interlinguistics
195:Ethnomethodology
37:
21:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3166:
3165:
3126:
3121:
3112:
3106:
3090:
3084:
3071:
3065:
3048:
3042:
3029:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2996:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2949:
2943:
2930:
2921:
2892:
2877:
2868:
2862:
2849:
2832:
2823:
2817:
2804:
2798:
2785:
2777:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2728:
2724:
2722:Further reading
2719:
2718:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2672:
2668:
2662:Bloomfield 1933
2660:
2656:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2608:
2604:
2589:
2585:
2568:
2559:
2550:
2548:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2480:
2468:
2454:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2408:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2324:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2304:
2302:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2215:
2211:
2198:
2194:
2185:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2147:
1995:= to be good at
1989:= to be good →
1952:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1925:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1838:
1832:
1784:
1778:
1769:
1696:is the (bound)
1654:
1628:
1612:
1484:
1431:syntactic rules
1376:
1313:Free word order
1231:Syntactic pivot
1126:Morphosyntactic
1061:
1008:
1002:
957:
949:bound morphemes
936:
931:
927:
920:
915:
912:
905:
899:
891:
889:
883:
877:
852:
840:
829:
820:
817:-χ-a q'asa-s-is
816:
811:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
781:
777:
773:
768:
762:
758:
754:
736:
731:
729:
724:
717:
700:
680:
665:
660:
621:The history of
619:
572:parts of speech
554:and the suffix
518:
500:
459:
458:
369:
361:
360:
272:
264:
263:
259:Writing systems
150:Anthropological
140:
132:
131:
82:
74:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3199:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3168:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3125:
3124:External links
3122:
3120:
3119:
3110:
3104:
3088:
3082:
3069:
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3046:
3040:
3027:
3018:
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3000:
2994:
2977:
2963:
2947:
2941:
2928:
2919:
2907:10.2307/410295
2901:(4): 321–343.
2890:
2888:on 2006-09-25.
2875:
2866:
2860:
2847:
2830:
2821:
2815:
2802:
2796:
2783:
2780:on 2011-07-06.
2747:
2741:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2701:
2678:
2666:
2654:
2642:
2635:
2617:
2602:
2583:
2557:
2528:
2521:
2495:
2466:
2447:
2435:
2423:
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2382:
2375:
2349:
2312:
2285:
2279:
2260:
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2254:
2251:
2250:
2209:
2192:
2179:
2166:
2165:
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2110:
2107:
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2100:
2097:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2058:
2057:
2056:= to walk away
2047:
2046:= to walk down
2037:
2019:
2018:
1997:
1996:
1982:
1954:
1953:
1916:
1914:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1834:Main article:
1831:
1828:
1780:Main article:
1777:
1774:
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1261:
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1247:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1216:Double-marking
1213:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1184:
1182:Direct-inverse
1179:
1174:
1169:
1167:Active–stative
1164:
1159:
1157:Split ergative
1154:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1115:Oligosynthetic
1112:
1107:
1102:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1060:
1057:
1006:Word formation
1004:Main article:
1001:
998:
966:word formation
956:
953:
929:
925:
918:
910:
903:
900:
892:
887:
880:i-da-bəgwanəma
878:
870:
869:
863:instead of to
818:
814:
804:
785:
782:
766:
763:
748:
747:
734:
727:
716:
713:
677:small capitals
664:
661:
659:
656:
645:Marāḥ Al-Arwāḥ
623:ancient Indian
618:
615:
502:
501:
499:
498:
491:
484:
476:
473:
472:
461:
460:
457:
456:
451:
446:
441:
439:Prescriptivism
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431:
426:
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411:
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62:
56:
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52:
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26:
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14:
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10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
3198:
3187:
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3158:
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3149:
3146:
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3123:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3105:0-521-78047-0
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3083:0-631-18544-5
3079:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3064:0-631-16144-9
3060:
3055:
3054:
3047:
3043:
3041:0-7619-9594-3
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2995:0-521-42256-6
2991:
2986:
2985:
2978:
2971:
2970:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2942:0-312-10356-5
2938:
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2929:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
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2900:
2896:
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2882:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2861:3-89586-570-2
2857:
2853:
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2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2816:0-87840-343-4
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2797:9789004120280
2793:
2789:
2784:
2776:
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2768:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2742:9780262510721
2738:
2734:
2733:
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2726:
2721:
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2705:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2682:
2679:
2675:
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2663:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2636:0-340-76026-5
2632:
2628:
2621:
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2614:
2613:
2606:
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2599:
2595:
2594:
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2558:
2546:
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2529:
2524:
2522:9780521378666
2518:
2514:
2509:
2508:
2499:
2496:
2491:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2451:
2448:
2445:, p. 16.
2444:
2439:
2436:
2433:, p. 15.
2432:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2413:
2405:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2386:
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2376:0-7914-2471-5
2372:
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2353:
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2316:
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2300:
2296:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2280:3-12-539683-2
2276:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2240:and the verb
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2189:
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2171:
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2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
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2144:
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2124:
2121:
2119:
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2111:
2108:
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2098:
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2090:
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2077:
2076:
2072:
2069:
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2065:
2062:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:i = 'down' →
2041:
2038:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2015:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1993:
1987:
1983:
1981:= to use with
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1950:
1947:
1939:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1915:
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1889:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:agglutinative
1843:
1837:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
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1773:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
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1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1721:
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1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1670:independently
1667:
1658:
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1649:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1625:
1623:
1621:
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1607:
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1601:
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1593:
1589:
1581:
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1545:
1541:
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1523:
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1457:
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1449:
1445:
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1436:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1382:A linguistic
1373:
1368:
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1359:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1308:OS word order
1306:
1304:
1303:V2 word order
1301:
1299:
1298:V1 word order
1296:
1292:
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1282:
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1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
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1212:
1209:
1207:
1206:Zero-marking
1204:
1198:
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1193:
1190:
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1110:Polysynthetic
1108:
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1105:Agglutinative
1103:
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1074:Morphological
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389:Descriptivism
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18:Morpho-syntax
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2775:the original
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2674:Hockett 1947
2669:
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2605:
2598:Morphosyntax
2597:
2591:
2586:
2576:
2570:
2549:. Retrieved
2544:
2531:
2506:
2498:
2456:
2450:
2438:
2426:
2403:
2397:
2390:Åkesson 2001
2385:
2360:
2352:
2340:. Retrieved
2333:the original
2328:
2315:
2303:. Retrieved
2298:
2295:"Morphology"
2288:
2270:
2264:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2201:Foley (1998)
2195:
2182:
2174:
2170:
2138:Comparative
2130:
2117:
2104:
2091:
2078:
2070:Motion verb
2059:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2039:
2036:= to walk up
2033:
2029:
2022:
2020:
1999:
1998:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1957:
1942:
1933:
1926:Please help
1918:
1894:
1890:
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1839:
1823:
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1815:
1812:comparatives
1804:
1800:
1796:
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1714:concatenated
1709:
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1588:phonotactics
1579:
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1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1428:
1388:conjugations
1381:
1276:OV languages
1254:VO languages
1226:Null-subject
1221:Head-marking
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1009:
990:
986:
981:
977:
973:
969:
962:inflectional
958:
937:
934:
923:
921:-t'alwagwayu
916:
908:
906:-t'alwagwayu
901:
896:
893:
882:
879:
874:
871:
864:
860:
859:, attach to
856:
848:
844:
836:
830:
826:
823:
812:
808:
805:
792:INSTRUMENTAL
789:
783:
771:
764:
752:
750:kwixʔid-i-da
749:
718:
708:
704:
696:
692:
688:
684:
666:
649:
644:
634:
620:
600:
596:productivity
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
533:
511:
505:
302:Glossematics
282:Constituency
254:interpreting
96:
92:Lexicography
2547:. Cambridge
2232:and a root
1977:= to use →
1959:Pingelapese
1892:languages.
1536:sheep/sheep
1532:goose/geese
1460:independent
1452:dog catcher
1392:declensions
1339:Color terms
1197:Indirective
1192:Secundative
1033:independent
1020:Dog catcher
1016:compounding
978:dog catcher
821:t'alwagwayu
806:t'alwagwayu
732:NOUN-PHRASE
725:NOUN-PHRASE
639:by using a
578:to express
508:linguistics
454:Terminology
429:Orthography
349:Usage-based
250:Translating
145:Acquisition
50:Linguistics
3170:Categories
3142:Morphology
2984:Morphology
2933:Morphology
2650:Beard 1995
2551:2016-11-30
2256:References
2109:away from
1936:April 2024
1818:replacing
1809:adjectival
1799:replacing
1745:Hockettian
1734:Bloomfield
1568:allomorphy
1482:Allomorphy
1476:government
1245:Word order
1236:Theta role
1172:Tripartite
1012:derivation
982:dishwasher
853:ACCUSATIVE
800:POSSESSIVE
784:q'asa-s-is
778:DETERMINER
774:ACCUSATIVE
759:DETERMINER
636:Aṣṭādhyāyī
582:including
512:morphology
424:Orismology
309:Functional
297:Generative
287:Dependency
107:Pragmatics
97:Morphology
87:Diachronic
2843:760588323
2771:1678-8931
2484:cite book
2476:704513339
2246:dependere
2162:Footnotes
2156:Etymology
2032:= 'up' →
1992:mwahu-kin
1842:isolating
1789:morphomes
1666:morphemes
1488:analogies
1472:agreement
1456:dependent
1135:Alignment
1095:Synthetic
1088:Isolating
1045:dependent
1037:dependent
894:χ-a-q'asa
861:bəgwanəma
845:bəgwanəma
765:bəgwanəma
739:Kwak'wala
654:in 1859.
603:phonology
576:inflected
535:morphemes
399:Iconicity
394:Etymology
314:Cognitive
277:Formalist
230:Phonetics
220:Philology
112:Semantics
102:Phonology
3094:(2001).
3034:. SAGE.
2953:(1969).
2895:Language
2835:Language
2218:appendix
2188:Kwakiutl
2145:See also
2122:towards
2054:aluh-eng
2014:sa-pwung
1900:Examples
1860:such as
1854:fusional
1728:Baudouin
1384:paradigm
1344:Numerals
1100:Fusional
1083:Analytic
945:prosodic
909:with-his
886:-the-man
753:clubbed-
631:Sanskrit
568:catching
530:language
200:Forensic
180:Distance
127:Typology
42:a series
40:Part of
3186:Grammar
2596:, ch.4
2342:30 July
2305:30 July
2242:pendere
2222:pending
2044:aluh-di
2034:aluh-da
1979:ius-kin
1874:Turkish
1870:Chinese
1866:Russian
1822:(where
1803:(where
1620:lexemes
1616:lexicon
1604:phoneme
1528:ox/oxen
1330:Lexicon
1028:catcher
875:clubbed
872:kwixʔid
833:markers
743:affixes
617:History
548:affixes
540:meaning
155:Applied
65:History
60:Outline
3102:
3080:
3061:
3038:
2992:
2939:
2915:410295
2913:
2858:
2841:
2813:
2794:
2769:
2765:(12).
2739:
2633:
2519:
2515:, 75.
2474:
2464:
2373:
2277:
2226:depend
1862:Pashto
1814:) and
1688:, and
1626:Models
1560:dishes
1534:, and
1512:dishes
1510:is to
1502:is to
1494:is to
1424:person
1412:gender
1408:number
1400:aspect
1049:depend
1043:, and
941:clitic
790:otter-
669:lexeme
627:Pāṇini
607:syntax
592:aspect
590:, and
584:number
521:-ə-jee
470:Portal
368:Topics
117:Syntax
2973:(PDF)
2911:JSTOR
2778:(PDF)
2759:ReVEL
2755:(PDF)
2698:, 13.
2541:(PDF)
2369:, 3.
2336:(PDF)
2325:(PDF)
2135:from
2131:-sang
2096:down
2008:pwung
1986:mwahu
1961:is a
1882:Greek
1878:Latin
1805:older
1801:elder
1797:older
1454:, or
1396:tense
972:from
932:-club
913:-club
884:PIVOT
865:q'asa
857:otter
841:PIVOT
755:PIVOT
721:Latin
709:Eater
588:tense
560:catch
552:catch
544:roots
526:words
70:Index
3100:ISBN
3078:ISBN
3059:ISBN
3036:ISBN
2990:ISBN
2937:ISBN
2856:ISBN
2839:OCLC
2811:ISBN
2792:ISBN
2767:ISSN
2737:ISBN
2631:ISBN
2517:ISBN
2490:link
2472:OCLC
2462:ISBN
2418:link
2371:ISBN
2344:2016
2307:2016
2275:ISBN
2234:pend
2220:and
2118:-doa
2050:-eng
1919:not
1880:and
1864:and
1824:cows
1820:kine
1816:cows
1757:-ren
1755:and
1702:dogs
1698:root
1694:pend
1686:-ent
1682:pend
1600:cats
1598:and
1596:dogs
1576:dish
1556:cats
1548:dogs
1518:(or
1508:dish
1506:and
1504:cats
1496:dogs
1474:and
1458:and
1450:and
1444:dogs
1442:and
1416:case
1404:mood
1026:and
1014:and
970:dogs
902:s-is
837:i-da
809:club
772:man-
769:-χ-a
730:and
707:and
697:eats
695:and
687:and
564:-ing
556:-ing
517:mor-
252:and
245:Text
2903:doi
2238:de-
2230:de-
2105:-la
2092:-di
2083:up
2079:-da
2030:-da
2023:alu
2000:sa-
1975:ius
1968:kin
1753:-en
1706:dog
1690:-ly
1678:de-
1674:in-
1594:in
1554:in
1546:in
1520:-es
1500:cat
1498:as
1492:dog
1448:dog
1440:dog
1414:or
1041:in-
1024:dog
980:or
974:dog
849:χ-a
796:3SG
705:Eat
701:eat
693:Eat
689:ate
681:eat
675:in
519:FOL
506:In
3172::
2909:.
2899:23
2897:.
2761:.
2757:.
2696:11
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2207:.
1949:)
1943:(
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1930:.
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