590:(FWS) to end a policy that waives detailed federal Endangered Species Act reviews for new mining permits. Under current policy, as long as a given MTR mining operation complies with federal surface mining law, the agency presumes conclusively, despite the complexities of intra- and inter-species relationships, that the instance of MTR in question is not damaging to endangered species or their habitat. Since 1996, this policy has exempted many strip mines from being subject to permit-specific reviews of impact on individual endangered species. Because of the 1996 Biological Opinion by FWS making case-by-case formal reviews unnecessary, the Interior's Office of Surface Mining and state regulators require mining companies to hire a government-approved contractor to conduct their own surveys for any potential endangered species. The surveys require approval from state and federal biologists, who provide informal guidance on how to minimize mines' potential effects to species. While the agencies have the option to ask for formal endangered species consultations during that process, they do so very rarely.
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sources. Ground water samples from domestic wells in mining areas documented contaminations of arsenic, lead, barium, beryllium, selenium, iron, manganese, aluminum and zinc levels surpassing drinking water standards. A statistical study showed that water treatment facilities in MTR counties had significantly higher violations under the Safe
Drinking Water Act compared to non-MTR counties and non-mining counties. Another study showed that ecological integrity of streams negatively correlates with cancer mortality rate in West Virginia; unhealthy streams correlates with higher cancer mortality rate. However, more studies are required on MTR impacts on public water and human health, some studies indicate the possibility of the two. Given the evidence that MTR impaired surface and ground water quality, safety of drinking water requires more efforts for protection and prevention.
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from residential sites around the mining area had higher concentrations of silica, aluminum, inorganic lithogenic components and organic matter. A comparison study that surveyed residents from both the MTR mining community and non-mining community reported that people living near the MTR site experienced more symptoms of respiratory disease. Many studies conclude that exposure to MTR environments can lead to impaired respiratory health issues. Laboratory experiments on mice also suggested that PM collected from the
Appalachian MTR site can damage microvascular function that may contribute to cardiovascular disease found in the area.
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environment. Fragmentation results in an increase in edge forests and a decrease in interior forests. This is an important distinction because forest conditions vary from both classifications. Edge forests are warmer, drier, more susceptible to windier conditions and can be better suited for invasive species. As edge forests become more prevalent, biodiversity is threatened. Forest communities as well as flora and fauna diversity depend on habitats provided by old growth forests. For example, a reduction in salamander populations on reclaimed sites can be attributed to an overall loss in
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suggests that such methods can decrease the biodiversity over time. Studies comparing the characteristics of natural and constructed channels find that constructed channels are higher in specific conductance, temperature, ion concentration and lower in organic matter, leaves breakdown rate, invertebrate density and richness. Researchers have concluded that MTR has detrimental impacts on the aquatic system and the current assessments cannot adequately evaluate the quality of the constructed channels and failed to address the functional importance of the natural stream.
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201:, where typically a narrow shaft is dug which allows miners to collect seams using various underground methods, while leaving the vast majority of the overburden undisturbed. The overburden from MTR is either placed back on the ridge, attempting to reflect the approximate original contour of the mountain, and/or is moved into neighboring valleys. When excess rock and soil containing mining byproducts are disposed into nearby valleys, the valleys are called "holler fills" or "valley fills".
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layered over the overburden layer. Next, grass seed is spread in a mixture of seed, fertilizer, and mulch made from recycled newspaper. Depending on the surface land owner wishes the land will then be further reclaimed by adding trees if the pre-approved post-mining land use is forest land or wildlife habitat. If the land owner has requested other post-mining land uses the land can be reclaimed to be used as pasture land, economic development or other uses specified in SMCRA.
807:) on mountaintop removal sites in Kentucky are eating tree seedlings. The new ecosystem differs from the original forest habitat and can have lower diversity and productivity. A study conducted in 2017 found that herpetofaunal (reptiles and amphibians) habitat generalists are associated with all habitats, while habitat specialists are only associated with forest sites. Reclaimed grassland and shrub land are unsuitable for habitat specialists in the near future. Consequently,
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also have effects on all ecosystems. Air pollution contributes to issues such as water and soil acidification, chemicals bioaccumulation in the food web and eutrophication. Operations of valley fills buried more than 2,000 km of headwater and streams in the
Appalachians. MTR reduces the freshwater resource that supports biodiversity. In addition, the operation provides opportunities for contamination leaching. Ca, Mg and SO
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613:, a 2015 regulation published by EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers, "...more precisely defines waters protected under the Clean Water Act". The Energy Information Administration (EIA) stated that the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), EPA and the Army are collaborating to prepare an environmental impact statement, "analyzing environmental impacts of coal surface mining in the Appalachian region".
710:. Mine-affected streams also have high selenium concentrations, which can bioaccumulate and produce toxic effects (e.g., reproductive failure, physical deformity, mortality), and these effects have been documented in reservoirs below streams. Because of higher pH balances in mine-affected streams, metals such as selenium and iron hydroxide are rendered insoluble, bringing attendant chemical changes to the stream.
662:. Selenium is toxic and can bioaccumulate. Land disturbance from forestry cutting, soil and bedrock displacement/removal and use of heavy machinery can decrease soil infiltration rate, terrestrial habitat and carbon sequestration, increase in runoff and sediment weathering. As the consequence, hydrology, geochemistry and the ecosystem's health can be permanently impacted.
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has declined over 60% from 1979 to 2006 (from 47,190 to 17,959 workers). The industry overall lost approximately 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR and other more mechanized underground mining methods became more widely used. The coal industry asserts that surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, are safer for miners than sending miners underground.
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mortality, lung cancer, as well as chronic heart, lung and kidney disease are also increased. A 2011 study found that counties in and near mountaintop mining areas had higher rates of birth defects for five out of six types of birth defects, including circulatory/respiratory, musculoskeletal, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and urogenital defects.
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mortality, lung cancer, as well as chronic heart, lung and kidney disease are also increased. A 2011 study found that counties in and near mountaintop mining areas had higher rates of birth defects for five out of six types of birth defects, including circulatory/respiratory, musculoskeletal, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and urogenital defects.
729:, Ca and Mg downstream from VF sites. These elevated concentrations are driving factors contributing to overall increases in water conductivity. Measured conductivity values ranging from 159 to 2720 ÎĽS/cm were recorded downstream. In comparison, the reference site that did not experience MTM measured conductivity values that ranged from 30 to 260ÎĽS/cm.
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areas. Poverty rates in MTM areas were found to be significantly higher than in non-mining areas. In 2007, adult poverty rates in MTM areas were 10.1% greater than adult poverty rates in non-mining areas in
Appalachia. Mortality rates show a similar relationship. Economic and health disparities are concentrated in MTM areas.
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717:(SAB) released its first draft review of EPA's research into the water quality impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop mining, agreeing with EPA's conclusion that valley fills are associated with increased levels of conductivity threatening aquatic life in surface waters. A 2012 review published in
409:(AMD) increases the concentration of sulfate, iron, aluminum and manganese in surrounding streams. Some of the most common treatments include plugging mine openings, altering the landscape to divert incoming water from at-risk ecosystems, alkaline inputs, limestone channels and treatment ponds or wetlands.
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and Maria
Lambert dedicated their efforts to protect their families and their land from the adverse effects of MTM. Gunnoe and Lambert both organized and led grassroots efforts to educate their communities on the human health risks of MTM, with an emphasis on safe drinking water. Gunnoe advocated for
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rates from the watershed and ultimately leads to an increase in average discharge rates. Changes in flow can also be attributed to the formation of aquifers from VF that can store water entering from groundwater sources, surface run-off and precipitation. Compaction of VF sites from MTM equipment can
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which is very labor-intensive. In MTR, through the use of explosives and large machinery, more than two and a half times as much coal can be extracted per worker per hour than in traditional underground mines, thus greatly reducing the need for workers. In
Kentucky, for example, the number of workers
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Current remediation methods may vary, but expensive treatment costs persist. The cost efficiency of treatments can be increased through the use of models that are able to accurately predict ecosystem responses to various inputs; thus enabling restoration groups to determine the overall most effective
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then removes the coal, where it is transported to a processing plant. Once coal removal is completed, the mining operators back stack overburden from the next area to be mined into the now empty pit. After backstacking and grading of overburden has been completed, topsoil (or a topsoil substitute) is
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imagery report the extent of newly mined land from 1985 to 2015 to be 2,900 km. Considering surface mining sites prior to 1985, the cumulative total of mined land was calculated to be 5,900 km. Further studies calculated that 12 m of mined land produced one metric ton of coal. There are many MTR site
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The
Appalachian region has a long history characterized by poverty. From 2013 to 2017, 6.5% to 41.0% of the population in Appalachia was impoverished. The average poverty rate for this region is 16.3%, above the national average of 14.6%. Poverty rates are directly proportional to mountaintop mining
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Streams are reclaimed by regrading mine land, reconfiguring the mine drain, or building new stream channels in an effort to resemble the buried ones. Although the mitigation focuses on rebuilding the structure, it has not successfully restored the ecological function of the natural streams. Evidence
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MTR negatively impacts the environment. Practices of explosion and digging release many pollutants to the surrounding environment and community and alternation of the ecosystem. Associated air pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide not only raise health concerns, they
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practices, the FRA focuses on five main reclamation components: (1) establish suitable soil deeper than four feet to enhance root growth, (2) ensure non-compacted topsoil is present, (3) plan vegetative ground cover to support tree growth (4) include tree species that support local wildlife, as well
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Research has shown that MTR increases human exposure to particulate matters, PAHs and crustal-derived elements. Other than occupational exposure, data and models suggested that deposits of such pollutants in lungs of the residents are significantly higher in mining areas. PM samples collected
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Advocates of MTR claim that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the area can provide flat land suitable for many uses in a region where flat land is at a premium. They also maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better suited to support populations of game
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The
Appalachian region is characterized by its high biodiversity and steep topography. The varying elevations from mountains to valleys results in subsequent varying of forest ecosystem distributions. Forest loss and fragmentation exacerbate forest community distribution by altering the terrestrial
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A Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) and Interagency Action Plan (IAP) were signed by officials of EPA, the Corps, and the Department of the Interior on June 11, 2009. The MOU and IAP outlined different administrative actions that would help decrease "the harmful environmental impacts of mountaintop
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Different organizations have tried to revise a stream buffer rule placed in 1977. The rule states that certain conditions must be met, or the mining operation must take place "within 100 feet of a stream". The Obama
Administration, in July 2015, wrote up a draft "Stream Protection Rule". This
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from overburden. Wastewater from the coal cleaning process contains surfactants, flocculants, coal fines, benzene and toluene, sulfur, silica, iron oxide, sodium, trace metals and other chemicals. Wastewater is often injected and stored underground and has the potential to contaminate other water
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On Tuesday, April 9, 2019, the House Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources held a legislative hearing, "Health and Environmental Impacts of Mountaintop Removal Mining". This hearing involved the H.R. 2050 (Rep. Yarmuth) bill. This bill stated that "until health studies are conducted by the
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A federal judge has also ruled that using settling ponds to remove mining waste from streams violates the Clean Water Act. He also declared that the Army Corps of Engineers has no authority to issue permits allowing discharge of pollutants into such in-stream settling ponds, which are often built
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seams beneath. The overburden is then moved by various mechanical means to areas of the ridge previously mined. These areas are the most economical area of storage as they are located close to the active pit of exposed coal. If the ridge topography is too steep to adequately handle the amount of
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In addition, increases in metal ions, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids due to elevated concentrations of sulfate are closely linked to the extent of mining in West Virginia watersheds. Declines in stream biodiversity have been linked to the level of mining disturbance in West
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Reclamation projects designed in conjunction with community needs can aid local economic development. Previously mined land can be reclaimed as sustainable agricultural land and solar farms. These efforts can help to diversify and stimulate the local economy by providing jobs and other economic
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and Cal Kent identified significant state-level tax losses attributable to lower levels of mining (notably the studies did not examine potential environmental costs, which the authors acknowledge may outweigh commercial benefits). Mountaintop removal sites are normally restored after the mining
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Historically, reforested mining sites have been characterized by seedling mortality, slow growth and poor production. Challenges associated with returning forests to their pre-mining state enabled grassland conversion to become standard. The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI),
229:. At current rates, MTR in the U.S. will mine over 1.4 million acres (5,700 km) by 2010, an amount of land area that exceeds that of the state of Delaware. More than 500 mountains in the US have been destroyed by this process, resulting in the burial of 3,200 km (2,000 mi) of streams.
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These defect rates were more pronounced in the most recent period studied, suggesting the health effects of mountaintop mining-related air and water contamination may be cumulative. Another 2011 study found "the odds for reporting cancer were twice as high in the mountaintop mining environment
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Headwater streams play a major role in the physicochemical quality of larger rivers and streams because of their close association to the surrounding landscape. They function to retain floodwaters, store nutrients and reduce sediment accumulation. VF processes limit these functions, negatively
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These defect rates were more pronounced in the most recent period studied, suggesting the health effects of mountaintop mining-related air and water contamination may be cumulative. Another 2011 study found "the odds for reporting cancer were twice as high in the mountaintop mining environment
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reviews current peer-reviewed studies and water quality data and explores the consequences of mountaintop mining. It concludes that mountaintop mining has serious environmental impacts that mitigation practices cannot successfully address. For example, the extensive tracts of deciduous forests
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is supposed to be removed and set aside for later reclamation. However, coal companies are often granted waivers and instead reclaim the mountain with "topsoil substitute". The waivers are granted if adequate amounts of topsoil are not naturally present on the rocky ridge top. Once the area is
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The Alliance for Appalachia was established in 2006, with the mission to promote a healthy Appalachia centered around community empowerment. Today, The Alliance for Appalachia includes fifteen different member organizations working directly with impacted communities throughout Appalachia and
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Published studies also show a high potential for human health impacts. These may result from contact with streams or exposure to airborne toxins and dust. Adult hospitalization for chronic pulmonary disorders and hypertension are elevated as a result of county-level coal production. Rates of
836:: "Some of the main problems associated with MTR include soil depletion, sedimentation, low success rate of tree regrowth, lack of successful revegetation, displacement of native wildlife, and burial of streams." The ecological benefits after MTR are far below the level of the original land.
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Published studies also show a high potential for human health impacts. These may result from contact with streams or exposure to airborne toxins and dust. Adult hospitalization for chronic pulmonary disorders and hypertension are elevated as a result of county-level coal production. Rates of
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destroyed by mountaintop mining support several endangered species and some of the highest biodiversity in North America. There is a particular problem with burial of headwater streams by valley fills which causes permanent loss of ecosystems that play critical roles in ecological processes.
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to quantify restoration progress through modeling efforts focused on mountaintop mining driven changes in adjacent ecosystems. Effectively developed biotic response models can improve and refine restoration efforts by establishing target indicator species population goals and by enabling the
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set up a program "for the regulation of surface mining activities and the reclamation of coal-mined lands". Although U.S. mountaintop removal sites by law must be reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock formations and controlling for
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Burton, Mark L. Michael Hicks and Cal Kent (2001) "The Fiscal Implications of Judicially Imposed Surface Mining Restrictions in West Virginia", West Virginia Legislature, Joint Committee of Government and Finance, June, 2001 Center for Business and Economic Research, Marshall
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impacting surrounding rivers and watersheds. Factors contributing to disturbed stream flow include vegetation removal, subsequent aquifer formation, compaction of fill surface and overall loss of headwater streams. The removal of vegetation for mining sites reduces
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as commercially desired products, (5) ensure that proper planting techniques are utilized. This group also facilitates restoration efforts by educating and training members of the coal industry on their role in promoting and adopting effective management practices.
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has become a symbol for the women of the Appalachian region. It represents their dedication to environmental activism and their tremendous strength to bear the burden of mountaintop mining while sustaining the grassroots fight for change. Activists like
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introduced a bill to ban the use of mountaintop removal coal from coal-fired power plants within North Carolina. This proposed legislation would have been the only legislation of its kind in the United States; however, the bill was defeated.
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the federal Clean Water Protection Act and continues to promote renewable energy efforts for the region. Lambert established the Prenter Water Fund which provides clean water to communities whose water has become polluted due to local MTM.
426:, as their immature forms require unpolluted water. VF and AMD are the leading causes of water chemistry and habitat alterations in this region, the driving factors limiting mayfly populations. Thus, they can be utilized as an effective
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Pericak, Andrew A.; Thomas, Christian J.; Kroodsma, David A.; Wasson, Matthew F.; Ross, Matthew R. V.; Clinton, Nicholas E.; Campagna, David J.; Franklin, Yolandita; Bernhardt, Emily S.; Amos, John F. (2018-07-25). Añel, Juan A. (ed.).
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Reclaimed soil generally has high bulk density and lower in infiltration rate, nutrients content and organic matter; reclaimed sites are generally not successful to reestablish the pre-mining forests that once occupied due to poor
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to the land's pre-mining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow MTR. In such cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining".
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While aquatic ecosystems and resources are vulnerable to pollution and geomorphological changes due to MTM and VF leaching, the terrestrial environment is also negatively impacted. The destruction of mountaintops results in
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In April 2005, a group of Kentucky writers traveled together to see the devastation from mountaintop removal mining, and Wind Publishing produced the resulting collection of poems, essays and photographs, co-edited by
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seams, miners can often repeat the blasting process to mine over a dozen seams on a single mountain, increasing the mine depth each time. This can result in a vertical descent of hundreds of extra feet into the earth.
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are used to remove up to 400 vertical feet (120 m) of mountain to expose underlying coal seams. Excess rock and soil is dumped into nearby valleys, in what are called "holler fills" ("hollow fills") or "valley fills".
1245:, 2012) is based on the story of Jeremy Davidson, age 3, who was killed by a mountaintop mining accident in 2004. She was inspired to write the song after reading an editorial about mountaintop removal written by
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While some of the land is able to be turned into grassland which game animals can live in, the amount of grassland is minimal. The land does not retake the form it had before the MTR. As stated in the book
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Parton, Chris. “Dave Matthews Joins Nashville Stars in Rallying Against Mountaintop Removal Mining: Music Saves Mountains Concert Calls Attention to Destruction in Appalachia.” CMT, CMT, 20 May 2010.
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Wickham, James; Wood, Petra Bohall; Nicholson, Matthew C.; Jenkins, William; Druckenbrod, Daniel; Suter, Glenn W.; Strager, Michael P.; Mazzarella, Christine; Galloway, Walter; Amos, John (May 2013).
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against the issue. Stephens says: "My hope for this film, is that in addition to it being a compelling story, it will inspire and raise awareness in groups of people not normally associated with the
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MTR has negative effects on surface and ground water quality. Surface water in MTM regions has higher concentrations of arsenic, selenium, lead, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, manganese, sulfates and
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treatment combination. Biotic indicators present within stream ecosystems impacted by valley fill (VF) activity and AMD are valuable assets to increase the cost efficiency of restoration efforts.
1005:(2007), focuses on Mountain Justice Summer activists, coal field residents, and coal industry officials. On April 18, 2008, the film received the Reel Current award selected and was presented by
443:. MTR accounted for less than 5% of U.S. coal production as of 2001. In some regions, however, the percentage is higher, for example, MTR provided 30% of the coal mined in West Virginia in 2006.
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established in 2004, works to promote the growth of hardwood trees on reclaimed mining sites. The ARRI operates utilizing the Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA). In an effort to apply specific
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Boyles, Abee L.; Blain, Robyn B.; Rochester, Johanna R.; Avanasi, Raghavendhran; Goldhaber, Susan B.; McComb, Sofie; Holmgren, Stephanie D.; Masten, Scott A.; Thayer, Kristina A. (Oct 2017).
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Pumure, I.; et al. (2011). "The interstitial location of selenium and arsenic in rocks associated with coal mining using ultrasound extractions and principal component analysis (PCA)".
1034:(2011), directed by Bill Haney, details the effects on the land and people living near mountaintop removal and coal burning sites. Maria Gunnoe, the 2009 Goldman Environmental Prize winner,
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Pond, P.J.; et al. (2008). "Downstream effects of mountaintop coal mining: comparing biological conditions using family- and genus-level macro invertebrate bio-assessment tools".
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Griffith, Michael; et al. (2012). "The effects of mountaintop mines and valley fills on the physicochemical quality of stream ecosystems in the central Appalachians: A review".
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Griffith, Michael; et al. (2012). "The effects of mountaintop mines and valley fills on the physicochemical quality of stream ecosystems in the central Appalachians: A review".
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allow the only access to thin seams of coal that traditional underground mining would not be able to mine. MTR is sometimes the most cost-effective method of extracting coal.
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appealed a 2007 ruling, but was allowed to continue mining while the appeal was pending, because "most of the substantial harm has already occurred," according to the judge.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement," issued 2005 June 25, available at
2596:"The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians: Mountaintop mining impacts on aquatic ecosystems"
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operation is complete, but "reclaimed soils characteristically have higher bulk density, lower organic content, low water-infiltration rates, and low nutrient content".
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The practice of MTM has been controversial. While there are economic benefits to this practice, there are also concerns for environmental and human health costs.
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Dr. Rebecca Scott, another native West Virginian, examined the sociological relationship of identity and natural resource extraction in central Appalachia in her book,
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In February 2017, newly-elected president Donald Trump signed a bill that did away with the stream protection rule previously administered by the Obama Administration.
87:, above the seams. This process is considered to be safer compared to underground mining because the coal seams are accessed from above instead of underground. In the
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Lovett, Gary M.; Tear, Timothy H.; Evers, David C.; Findlay, Stuart E.G.; Cosby, B. Jack; Dunscomb, Judy K.; Driscoll, Charles T.; Weathers, Kathleen C. (Apr 2009).
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The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 and 2001. On September 28, 2010, the EPA
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1038:, and others present the devastation, confront the politicians and corporate interests, and offer wind power as one solution for Coal River Mountain, West Virginia.
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3191:"Impacts of mountaintop mining on terrestrial ecosystem integrity: identifying landscape thresholds for avian species in the central Appalachians, United States"
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Hendryx, M.; Wolfe, L.; Luo, J.; Webb, B. (2011). "Self-Reported Cancer Rates in Two Rural Areas of West Virginia with and Without Mountaintop Coal Mining".
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Hendryx, M.; Wolfe, L.; Luo, J.; Webb, B. (2011). "Self-Reported Cancer Rates in Two Rural Areas of West Virginia with and Without Mountaintop Coal Mining".
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and Neela Vaswani is a novel for middle grade readers that deals with issues of mountaintop removal and is set over the course of one school year 2008–2009.
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videographer Trip Jennings highlights communities at risk of MTR and emphasizes the importance of reviving the economy in order to create a healthy future.
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mining". The plan also includes near and long-term actions that highlight "specific steps, improved coordination, and greater transparency of decisions".
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prepared by EPA stated that streams near some valley fills from mountaintop removal contain higher levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic
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Knuckles, Travis L.; Stapleton, Phoebe A.; Minarchick, Valerie C.; Esch, Laura; McCawley, Michael; Hendryx, Michael; Nurkiewicz, Timothy R. (Feb 2013).
2692:"Landscape-Scale Disturbance: Insights into the Complexity of Catchment Hydrology in the Mountaintop Removal Mining Region of the Eastern United States"
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of the affected area. However, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 list "the restoration of land and water resources" as a priority.
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methods involving hundreds of workers, triggering the first widespread use of MTR. Its prevalence expanded further in the 1990s to retrieve relatively
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1295:'s song "Paradise" addresses the impacts of strip mining in Appalachia, referencing the impacts of the technique on the Green River area in Kentucky.
1201:(2010), wherein a major character helps to secure land for surface mining with the promise that it will be restored and turned into a nature reserve.
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3323:"Structural and functional characteristics of natural and constructed channels draining a reclaimed mountaintop removal and valley fill coal mine"
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Valley fill sites can be characterized by high sulfur concentrations from the weathering process of mountaintop sulfur-rich debris. Additionally,
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appealed one of these rulings in 2001 because the Act had not explicitly defined "fill material" that could legally be placed in a waterway. The
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Purtle, Joshua R. "Mingo Logan Coal Co. V. Epa." Harvard Environmental Law Review 37.1 (2013): 283-300. Environment Complete. Web. 18 Feb. 2014.
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2984:"The effects of mountaintop mines and valley fills on the physicochemical quality of stream ecosystems in the central Appalachians: A review"
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increase the surface run-off contribution. The overall loss of headwater streams from VF practices reduces surface- groundwater connections.
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conditions. These conditions are not present in emerging edge forests. Additionally, terrestrial changes have transformed natural forest
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1740:"Bringing Down the Mountains: the Impact of Mountaintop Removal Surface Coal Mining on Southern West Virginia Communities, 1970–2004"
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compared to the non mining environment in ways not explained by age, sex, smoking, occupational exposure, or family cancer history".
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compared to the non mining environment in ways not explained by age, sex, smoking, occupational exposure, or family cancer history".
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1961:"Predicting mayfly recovery in acid mine-impaired streams using logistic regression models of in-stream habitat and water chemistry"
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Several studies of the impact of restrictions to mountaintop removal were authored in 2000 through 2005. Studies by Mark L. Burton,
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Digest of Federal Resource Laws of Interest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act | url=
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Fritz, Ken M.; Fulton, Stephanie; Johnson, Brent R.; Barton, Chris D.; Jack, Jeff D.; Word, David A.; Burke, Roger A. (Jun 2010).
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789:. Mine sites are often converted to non-native grassland and shrub land habitat with primarily invasive vegetation. Fast-growing,
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In 2010, a concert series titled "Music Saves Mountains" raised funds and awareness for mountaintop removal, featuring artists
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3507:"An examination of the effects of mountaintop removal coal mining on respiratory symptoms and COPD using propensity scores"
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alter water chemistry by increasing pH, salinity and electrical conductivity. Increasing phosphorus and nitrogen can cause
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3562:"Air Pollution Particulate Matter Collected from an Appalachian Mountaintop Mining Site Induces Microvascular Dysfunction"
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Dr. Shirley Stewart Burns, a West Virginia coalfield native, wrote the first academic work on mountaintop removal, titled
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913:, a native wildflower, typically found in the mountains at the end of the summer; characterized by its strong, deep roots
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Department of Health and Human Services", there will be a suspension on permitting for mountaintop removal coal mining.
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Mountaintop removal has been practiced since the 1960s. Increased demand for coal in the United States, sparked by the
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Permits must be obtained to deposit valley fill into streams. On four occasions, federal courts have ruled that the
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3260:"Responses of Terrestrial Herpetofauna to Persistent, Novel Ecosystems Resulting from Mountaintop Removal Mining"
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Griffith, Michael B.; Norton, Susan B.; Alexander, Laurie C.; Pollard, Amina I.; LeDuc, Stephen D. (2012-02-15).
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wrote and performed a song titled "Hills of Tennessee", lamenting the tragedy of mountaintop removal mining near
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draft adds "more protections to downstream waters", but it will also debilitate the current buffer requirements.
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3946:"IDA's 2008 IDA Documentary Awards Competition Nominees Announced | International Documentary Association"
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http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:PSat7Go7bTYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,47
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Zone protection provision from SMCRA allowing coal companies to place mining waste rock and dirt directly into
422:(Order Ephemeroptera) are abundant in streams in the Appalachian Mountain region. They are highly sensitive to
147:
1590:"Mapping the yearly extent of surface coal mining in Central Appalachia using Landsat and Google Earth Engine"
894:
participating in regional and federal-level campaigns. This group has been instrumental in advocating for the
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Brooks, Alexander C.; Ross, Matthew R. V.; Nippgen, Fabian; McGlynn, Brian L.; Bernhardt, Emily S. (2019).
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changed a rule to include mining debris in the definition of fill material, and the ruling was overturned.
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1486:"Mountaintop Mining and Valley Fills in Appalachia (MTM/VF) - Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement"
1076:
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spoil produced then additional storage is used in a nearby valley or hollow, creating what is known as a
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Lost Mountain: A Year in the Vanishing Wilderness—Radical Strip Mining and the Devastation of Appalachia
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Lost Mountain: A Year in the Vanishing Wilderness—Radical Strip Mining and the Devastation of Appalachia
1099:
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3740:"Poverty and Mortality Disparities in Central Appalachia: Mountaintop Mining and Environmental Justice"
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As of 2015, approximately one third of the electricity generated in the United States is produced by
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2969:"Independent Science Advisory Board Draft Review Supports EPA Science on Mountaintop Mining Impacts"
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and fragmentation. The overall loss of forest cover reduces suitable soil for revegetation efforts,
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Additionally, many personal interest stories of coalfield residents have been written, including:
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3238:"Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement"
2106:
1567:"Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement"
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Burns was also a co-editor, with Kentucky author Silas House and filmmaker Mari-Lynn Evans, of
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monitoring and assessment of water chemistry and habitat changes impacting particular species.
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is either sold or burned. According to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (
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2538:"Effects of Air Pollution on Ecosystems and Biological Diversity in the Eastern United States"
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1988:
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Becker, Douglas A.; Wood, Petra B.; Strager, Michael P.; Mazzarella, Christine (2015-02-01).
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1128:(2009), a companion book for the nationally recognized feature-length film of the same name.
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lying atop them, exposing the seams from above. This method differs from more traditional
3796:
Our Roots Run Deep as Ironweed: Appalachian Women and the Fight for Environmental Justice
3611:"Public Drinking Water Violations in Mountaintop Coal Mining Areas of West Virginia, USA"
2145:
2121:
2079:
1959:
Johnson, Kelly S.; Rankin, Ed; Bowman, Jen; Deeds, Jessica; Kruse, Natalie (2018-03-07).
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Once coal removal is completed, final regrading takes place and the area is revegetated."
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2015:
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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2278:"Why Trump just killed a rule restricting coal companies from dumping waste in streams"
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Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also known as mountaintop mining (MTM), is a form of
72:
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1888:"The Forestry Reclamation Approach: guide to successful reforestation of mined lands"
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MTR in the United States is most often associated with the extraction of coal in the
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240:, created incentives for a more economical form of coal mining than the traditional
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2148:. Kentucky Office of Energy Policy, Division of Fossil Fuels & Utility Services
2082:. Kentucky Office of Energy Policy, Division of Fossil Fuels & Utility Services
2000:
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209:
4062:
Hedges, Chris; Sacco, Joe (2012). "3. Days of Devastation: Welch, West Virginia".
3300:"Biology: Plants, Animals, & Habitats - We live in a hot spot of biodiversity"
2906:
2412:
1228:
law firm to a small Appalachian town where she confronts the world of coal mining.
248:, a cleaner-burning form, which became desirable as a result of amendments to the
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contains a moving protest song on the topic called simply "Mountaintop Removal".
1246:
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989:
895:
773:
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519:
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1289:'s song "Black Waters" describes the horror of coal mining in the Appalachians.
1121:(2007), which is loosely based on her 2005 Ph.D. dissertation of the same name.
4918:
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3626:
3426:
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2822:
2486:"Coal production using mountaintop removal mining decreases by 62% since 2008"
2054:
1976:
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1359:
1334:
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On December 2, 2008, the Bush Administration made a rule change to remove the
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The upper seams of coal are removed with spoils placed in an adjacent valley."
226:
194:
84:
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3634:
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3458:"Systematic review of community health impacts of mountaintop removal mining"
3346:
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1984:
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1960:
1314:
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wore a homemade shirt saying "stop mtm/vf" during the band's performance on
345:
190:
100:
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4303:
4213:
Copeland, C. (2004). "Mountaintop removal mining". In Humphries, M. (ed.).
4119:
Moving Mountains: How One Woman and Her Community Won Justice from Big Coal
3924:"Black Diamonds: Mountaintop Removal & The Fight For Coalfield Justice"
3689:
3595:
3538:
3491:
3434:
3079:
3019:
2953:
2914:
2830:
2619:
2569:
2468:
1992:
1859:"Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative Forest Reclamation Advisory"
1715:
1641:
1179:
Moving Mountains: How One Woman and Her Community Won Justice from Big Coal
1164:(2006), which examined the cultural and human costs of mountaintop removal.
282:
Draglines excavate lower layers of coal with spoils placed in spoil piles."
3097:
2389:
1658:
454:
Proponents argue that in certain geologic areas, MTR and similar forms of
4881:
4509:
4364:
3658:"Ecological Integrity of Streams Related to Human Cancer Mortality Rates"
3150:"Terrestrial salamander abundance on reclaimed mountaintop removal mines"
2667:
2642:
981:
Black Diamonds: Mountaintop Removal & The Fight for Coalfield Justice
961:
provides an aerial visual of the extent and scale of the process of MTR.
812:
222:
3393:"Large numbers of birth defects seen near mountaintop mining operations"
2789:"Large numbers of birth defects seen near mountaintop mining operations"
2708:
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1896:
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Layers of rock and dirt above the coal (called overburden) are removed."
4800:
4524:
4241:
100 Arrested at White House Calling for End to Mountaintop Coal Removal
3577:
2428:"Enviro groups tread lightly with Endangered Species Act in Appalachia"
2253:"Mountaintop Removal in Appalachia | Southern Environmental Law Center"
1887:
1006:
646:
634:
376:
353:
325:
316:
3258:
Williams, Jennifer M.; Brown, Donald J.; Wood, Petra B. (2017-12-01).
1932:
446:
Historically in the U.S. the prevalent method of coal acquisition was
4425:
4403:
3923:
3338:
2766:
2643:"Excess Nitrate Export in Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining Watersheds"
1258:
1022:(2008), was awarded the International Documentary Association's 2008
419:
308:
4372:
3166:
217:
locations ranging from Ohio to Virginia. It occurs most commonly in
2211:
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (June 2000).
1112:
Missing Mountains: We went to the mountaintop, but it wasn't there
1084:
1068:
905:
640:
624:
259:
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36:
514:
In the United States, MTR is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the
4291:
2516:"Health and Environmental Impacts of Mountaintop Removal Mining"
329:
4597:
4376:
4360:"Mapping mountaintop coal mining's yearly spread in Appalachia"
3609:
Hendryx, Michael; Fulk, Florence; McGinley, Andrea (Sep 2012).
2518:. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Natural Resources
252:
that tightened emission limits on high-sulfur coal processing.
182:
that involves the topographical alteration and/or removal of a
37:
3993:"New Book on Mountaintop Removal: Bringing Down the Mountains"
2327:"Key players react cautiously to mountaintop removal decision"
1745:. Ph.D. dissertation. West Virginia University. Archived from
1136:
Something's Rising: Appalachians Fighting Mountaintop Removal.
978:
released a feature-length documentary on mountaintop removal,
800:
477:
114:
4013:
Something's Rising: Appalachians Fighting Mountaintop Removal
1680:
Hendryx, Michael; Zullig, Keith J.; Luo, Juhua (2020-01-08).
130:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
30:"Mountaintop Removal" redirects here. For the 2007 film, see
3995:. West Virginia: Sierra Club. September 2007. Archived from
3866:"Communities at Risk: End Mountaintop Removal Now - YouTube"
3369:
Mountaintop mining and sustainable development in Appalachia
4274:. Vol. 39, no. 10. pp. 74–85. Archived from
1142:
We All Live Downstream: Writings about Mountaintop Removal.
1055:, raises awareness on the issue of mountain top removal in
4321:"Mountaintop removal mining is a crime against Appalachia"
4039:
We All Live Downstream: Writings about Mountaintop Removal
3098:"The Overlooked Terrestrial Impacts of Mountaintop Mining"
2854:"The Overlooked Terrestrial Impacts Of Mountaintop Mining"
2474:(Report). U.S. Congressional Research Service. p. 13.
1822:
984:(2006), a selection in the Documentary Fortnight at the
341:. Any streams in a valley are buried by the overburden.
4305:
Mountaintop Mining: Background on Current Controversies
2469:
Mountaintop Mining: Background on Current Controversies
2122:"Taking On a Coal Mining Practice as a Matter of Faith"
1791:
Mitchell, John G. (March 2006). "When Mountains Move".
1157:
Chapter 3. "Days of Devastation: Welch, West Virginia."
880:
Poverty and mortality disparities in Central Appalachia
811:
suffers in a region of the United States with numerous
139:
83:
are extracted from a mountain by removing the land, or
3511:
International Journal of Environmental Health Research
2103:"An Odd Partnership: UMW, Coal Association arm in arm"
1659:"Frequently Asked Questions about Mountaintop Removal"
582:
On January 15, 2008, the environmental advocacy group
2594:
Bernhardt, Emily S.; Palmer, Margaret A. (Mar 2011).
2739:
M.A. Palmer et al. Mountaintop Mining Consequences,
1653:
1651:
387:
Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI)
4869:
4861:
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
4785:
4697:
4635:
4555:
4523:
4487:
4466:
4459:
4411:
4016:. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.
3821:"Coping With Contamination > Appalachian Voices"
3744:
Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice
3327:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
3236:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25).
2755:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
1565:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25).
1393:
Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia
3148:Wood, Petra Bohall; Williams, Jennifer M. (2013).
2357:"Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining"
2232:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
1445:"Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining"
1079:communities. There are relatively few films about
516:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
3656:Hitt, Nathaniel P.; Hendryx, Michael (Aug 2010).
1886:Adams, Mary Beth (2017). Adams, Mary Beth (ed.).
320:cleared, miners use explosives to blast away the
2370:Pear, Robert; Barringer, Felicity (2008-12-03).
2055:"Most Requested Statistics - U.S. Coal Industry"
1847:https://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/surfmin.html
1560:
1558:
1556:
1049:Goodbye Gauley Mountain: An Ecosexual Love Story
4122:. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.
3972:Goodbye Gauley Mountain: An Ecosexual Lovestory
2647:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
1823:"Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative"
1241:'s song "Black Mountain Lullaby" (on the album
1191:Mountaintop removal is a major plot element of
288:Regrading begins as coal excavation continues."
2492:. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
645:The Hobet mine in West Virginia taken by NASA
186:, hill, or ridge to access buried coal seams.
4609:
4388:
4253:Burns, Shirley Stewart (September 30, 2009).
2690:Miller, Andrew; ZĂ©gre, Nicolas (2016-07-05).
307:prior to mining operations and the resultant
128:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3770:"Environmental Justice Now Tour: Appalachia"
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1470:http://www.epa.gov/region03/mtntop/index.htm
4255:"Mountaintop Removal in Central Appalachia"
3895:"The Land of Mountaintop Removal - YouTube"
3505:Hendryx, Michael; Luo, Juhua (2015-05-04).
2308:"Mining battle marked by peaks and valleys"
2301:
2299:
2297:
4616:
4602:
4594:
4463:
4395:
4381:
4373:
3371:, Mining Engineering, March 2007, p.48-55.
3302:. Apalachicola Region Resources on the Web
2735:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2600:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
2542:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1864:. Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation
1841:
1839:
1224:(2014), Samantha Kofer moves from a large
1160:Cultural historian Jeff Biggers published
372:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
366:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
4179:"The Story Behind Black Mountain Lullaby"
3585:
3481:
3275:
3165:
3113:
2869:
2707:
2666:
2392:. NBC News. Associated Press. 2007-06-14.
1895:
1697:
1631:
1613:
1439:
1437:
1388:Environmental impact of the coal industry
166:Learn how and when to remove this message
3712:"Poverty Rates in Appalachia, 2013–2017"
2405:"Mining impact on species review sought"
2390:"Judge rules against mountaintop mining"
1733:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1699:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094104
352:Because coal usually exists in multiple
189:The MTR process involves the removal of
4215:U.S. Coal: A Primer on the Major Issues
3264:Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management
1965:Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
1433:
588:United States Fish and Wildlife Service
225:, the top two coal-producing states in
4897:Land use, land-use change and forestry
3793:Bell, Shannon Elizabeth (2013-10-30).
3091:
3089:
2589:
2587:
2044:, Mining Engineering, May 2007, p.125.
2014:US Energy Information Administration.
1954:
1952:
1914:
1903:
1773:
1762:
1547:
3733:
3731:
3143:
3141:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2372:"Coal Mining Debris Rule Is Approved"
2247:
2245:
2243:
2187:"Reclaiming the Future of Appalachia"
1881:
1879:
1480:
1478:
670:A January 2010 report in the journal
264:US EPA diagram of mountaintop mining:
7:
4846:Managed intensive rotational grazing
4010:House, Silas; Howard, Jason (2009).
3036:. Painesville, OH: Lake County, Ohio
2852:Wickham, James; et al. (2013).
1155:Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt.
780:Environmental effects of reclamation
558:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
4292:"Surface Coal Mining in Appalachia"
4151:Ruth Franklin (23 September 2010).
4065:Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt
2743:, 8 January 2010, Vol. 327, p. 148.
1019:Burning the Future: Coal in America
721:cited elevated concentrations of SO
4722:Soil retrogression and degradation
3615:Water Quality, Exposure and Health
1153:Hedges, Chris; Sacco, Joe (2012).
25:
2448:. North Carolina General Assembly
1808:by John G. Mitchell, March 2006,
935:Laciana Valley, Spain (1994–2014)
4950:Coal mining in the United States
4877:Forest Landscape Integrity Index
4688:
4655:Deforestation and climate change
3799:. University of Illinois Press.
3056:Science of the Total Environment
2988:Science of the Total Environment
2930:Science of the Total Environment
2612:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05986.x
2562:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04153.x
1362:
719:Science of the Total Environment
482:
474:Legislation in the United States
119:
4892:Land surface effects on climate
4041:. Louisville, KY: Motes Books.
3905:from the original on 2021-12-13
3876:from the original on 2021-12-13
3738:Hendryx, Michael (2012-03-21).
3716:Appalachian Regional Commission
3072:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.042
3004:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.042
2946:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.042
2446:"House Bill 2709-First Edition"
1738:Burns, Shirley Stewart (2005).
1682:"Impacts of Coal Use on Health"
1162:The United States of Appalachia
1140:Howard, Jason (Editor) (2009).
963:The Land of Mountaintop Removal
633:in West Virginia taken by NASA
584:Center for Biological Diversity
413:Biotic stream remediation index
79:or summit ridge of a mountain.
18:Mountaintop removal coal mining
4797:Arid Lands Information Network
4313:Congressional Research Service
4266:McQuaid, John (January 2009).
2895:Journal of Hazardous Materials
2120:Banerjee, Neela (2006-10-28).
1686:Annual Review of Public Health
1051:(2013), by Beth Stephens with
902:Appalachian women-led activism
704:environmental impact statement
99:in the eastern United States.
1:
4095:. New York: Riverhead Books.
3948:. Documentary.org. 2008-10-28
3842:"Featured Hero: Maria Gunnoe"
2907:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.10.032
2060:. National Mining Association
1280:Late Night with Conan O'Brien
940:Art, entertainment, and media
554:George W. Bush administration
3523:10.1080/09603123.2014.938027
3474:10.1016/j.envint.2017.07.002
3367:J.S. Gardner and P Sainato,
2403:Ward Jr., Ken (2008-01-16).
2355:Lazaroff, Cat (2003-02-03).
2016:"Frequently Asked Questions"
1615:10.1371/journal.pone.0197758
1134:& Howard, Jason (2009).
193:by first fully removing the
49:Mountaintop removal site in
4826:Farmer-managed regeneration
4037:Howard, Jason, ed. (2009).
3774:The Alliance for Appalachia
3415:Journal of Community Health
2811:Journal of Community Health
2359:. Environment News Service.
2325:Ken Ward Jr. (2002-05-10).
2306:Laura Parker (2007-04-18).
2276:Plumer, Brad (2017-02-02).
2257:www.southernenvironment.org
1119:Bringing Down The Mountains
1026:award for Best Documentary.
994:Goldman Environmental Prize
834:Bringing Down the Mountains
142:, discuss the issue on the
4966:
4940:Mountaintop removal mining
2467:Copeland, Claudia (2015).
2040:J. O. Britton and others,
1472:(accessed 2006 August 20).
539:US Army Corps of Engineers
57:Mountaintop removal mining
32:Mountaintop Removal (film)
29:
4836:Great Green Wall (Africa)
4686:
3674:10.1007/s10393-010-0297-y
3627:10.1007/s12403-012-0075-x
3462:Environment International
3427:10.1007/s10900-011-9448-5
3207:10.1007/s10980-014-0134-8
3154:Wildlife Society Bulletin
2823:10.1007/s10900-011-9448-5
2022:. US Department of Energy
1977:10.1007/s10661-018-6548-z
1520:10.1007/s10980-006-9040-z
1275:The Dillinger Escape Plan
1016:The feature documentary,
579:just below valley fills.
545:by issuing such permits.
491:This section needs to be
370:Established in 1977, the
4841:Great Green Wall (China)
4712:Historic desertification
1378:Battle of Blair Mountain
41:Mountaintop removal site
4887:Intact forest landscape
4660:Deforestation by region
3277:10.3996/102016-JFWM-079
3115:10.1525/bio.2013.63.5.7
2871:10.1525/bio.2013.63.5.7
1011:Nashville Film Festival
889:Alliance for Appalachia
562:Army Corps of Engineers
518:(SMCRA). Although most
441:coal-fired power plants
354:geologically stratified
4821:Ecological engineering
4343:. 2010. Archived from
4268:"Mining the Mountains"
3968:"Director's statement"
2409:The Charleston Gazette
2331:The Charleston Gazette
2146:"Online KY Coal Facts"
2080:"Online KY Coal Facts"
1913:Cite journal requires
1772:Cite journal requires
1195:'s best-selling novel
1073:environmental movement
1061:environmental activism
1036:Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.
914:
862:Drinking water quality
715:Science Advisory Board
650:
638:
344:A front-end loader or
295:
53:
42:
27:Type of surface mining
4902:List of global issues
4335:"Toxic West Virginia"
3966:Stephens, Elizabeth.
2213:"Postmining Land Use"
1806:"When Mountains Move"
1249:that appeared in the
1059:by bringing together
909:
875:Environmental justice
776:into carbon sources.
681:Virginia watersheds.
644:
628:
621:Environmental impacts
597:State Representative
547:Massey Energy Company
263:
206:Appalachian Mountains
97:Appalachian Mountains
51:Pike County, Kentucky
48:
40:
4806:Conservation grazing
4116:Loeb, Penny (2007).
4089:Reese, Erik (2006).
2668:10.1029/2019JG005174
1810:National Geographic
1661:. Appalachian Voices
1449:www.ens-newswire.com
1255:on 19 February 2011.
1181:(2007) by Penny Loeb
1175:(2006) by Erik Reese
1108:Mary Ann Taylor-Hall
1081:environmental issues
1075:, and especially in
1002:Mountain Top Removal
988:. The film features
986:Museum of Modern Art
918:Appalachian ironweed
911:Appalachian ironweed
758:carbon sequestration
148:create a new article
140:improve this article
95:is conducted in the
4831:Flexible Mechanisms
4670:Mountaintop removal
4451:Mountaintop removal
4217:. Nova Publishers.
4177:Herring, Caroline.
3064:2012ScTEn.417....1G
3034:"Headwater Streams"
2996:2012ScTEn.417....1G
2938:2012ScTEn.417....1G
2709:10.3390/land5030022
2659:2019JGRG..124.3867B
2554:2009NYASA1162...99L
1897:10.2737/NRS-GTR-169
1793:National Geographic
1606:2018PLoSO..1397758P
992:, who won the 2003
959:Smithsonian Channel
952:Communities at Risk
747:Terrestrial impacts
4717:Moisture recycling
4326:Al Jazeera America
4278:on 16 January 2009
3578:10.1111/micc.12014
2376:The New York Times
2230:"Public Law 95-87
2126:The New York Times
1812:(3 September 2008)
1370:Environment portal
1148:Removing Mountains
1100:Kristin Johannesen
915:
740:evapotranspiration
660:nutrient pollution
651:
639:
448:underground mining
407:acid mine drainage
394:forest restoration
296:
250:U.S. Clean Air Act
242:underground mining
199:underground mining
65:mountaintop mining
54:
43:
4927:
4926:
4907:Natural landscape
4591:
4590:
4551:
4550:
4296:United States EPA
4048:978-1-934894-07-1
4023:978-0-8131-2546-6
3806:978-0-252-09521-4
3195:Landscape Ecology
3058:. 417–418: 1–12.
2990:. 417–418: 1–12.
2932:. 417–418: 1–12.
2653:(12): 3867–3880.
2218:. pp. 12–16.
1508:Landscape Ecology
1092:Non-fiction books
1083:that feature out
1031:The Last Mountain
999:The documentary,
805:Cervus canadensis
796:Lespedeza cuneata
733:Stream ecosystems
685:Published studies
593:On May 25, 2008,
512:
511:
428:indicator species
401:Valley fill sites
379:, and not on the
176:
175:
168:
150:, as appropriate.
91:, this method of
63:), also known as
16:(Redirected from
4957:
4870:Related articles
4692:
4618:
4611:
4604:
4595:
4464:
4446:Hydraulic mining
4397:
4390:
4383:
4374:
4369:
4368:. July 25, 2018.
4355:
4353:
4352:
4330:
4329:. April 7, 2015.
4316:
4310:
4299:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4262:
4249:
4228:
4201:
4196:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4157:The New Republic
4148:
4142:
4141:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4068:. Nation Books.
4059:
4053:
4052:
4034:
4028:
4027:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3953:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3926:. Bullfrog Films
3920:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3862:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3838:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3828:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3735:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3722:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3589:
3566:Microcirculation
3557:
3551:
3550:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3485:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3389:
3383:
3378:
3372:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3339:10.1899/09-060.1
3318:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3279:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3186:
3180:
3179:
3169:
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3136:
3135:
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3093:
3084:
3083:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3030:
3024:
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2979:
2973:
2972:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2890:
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2883:
2873:
2849:
2843:
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2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2767:10.1899/08-015.1
2750:
2744:
2737:
2722:
2721:
2711:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2670:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2591:
2582:
2581:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
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2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2411:. Archived from
2400:
2394:
2393:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2333:. Archived from
2322:
2316:
2315:
2303:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2249:
2238:
2237:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2105:. Archived from
2098:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2059:
2051:
2045:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1883:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1819:
1813:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1751:
1744:
1735:
1720:
1719:
1701:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1655:
1646:
1645:
1635:
1617:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1562:
1551:
1545:
1532:
1531:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1482:
1473:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1441:
1372:
1367:
1366:
1239:Caroline Herring
1193:Jonathan Franzen
1104:Bobbie Ann Mason
1046:documentary film
1043:autoethnographic
868:hydrogen sulfide
698:Impact statement
611:Clean Water Rule
507:
504:
498:
486:
485:
478:
463:Michael J. Hicks
171:
164:
160:
157:
151:
123:
122:
115:
71:), is a form of
21:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4959:
4958:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4930:
4929:
4928:
4923:
4865:
4811:Desert greening
4781:
4699:Desertification
4693:
4684:
4665:Illegal logging
4631:
4629:desertification
4622:
4592:
4587:
4573:Deep sea mining
4547:
4533:Room and pillar
4519:
4483:
4455:
4407:
4401:
4358:
4350:
4348:
4333:
4319:
4308:
4302:
4298:. 18 June 2022.
4290:
4281:
4279:
4265:
4259:Southern Spaces
4252:
4238:
4235:
4233:Further reading
4225:
4212:
4209:
4204:
4197:
4193:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4161:
4159:
4150:
4149:
4145:
4130:
4115:
4114:
4110:
4103:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4024:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3976:
3974:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3951:
3949:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3929:
3927:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3908:
3906:
3899:www.youtube.com
3893:
3892:
3888:
3879:
3877:
3870:www.youtube.com
3864:
3863:
3859:
3850:
3848:
3840:
3839:
3835:
3826:
3824:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3792:
3791:
3787:
3778:
3776:
3768:
3767:
3763:
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3736:
3729:
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3718:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3608:
3607:
3603:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3375:
3366:
3362:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3303:
3298:
3297:
3293:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3242:
3240:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3167:10.1002/wsb.319
3147:
3146:
3139:
3095:
3094:
3087:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3027:
2981:
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2976:
2966:
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2927:
2926:
2922:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2851:
2850:
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2808:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2782:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2738:
2725:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2593:
2592:
2585:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2521:
2519:
2514:
2513:
2504:
2495:
2493:
2490:Today in Energy
2484:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2340:
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2324:
2323:
2319:
2305:
2304:
2295:
2286:
2284:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2261:
2259:
2251:
2250:
2241:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2205:
2196:
2194:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2151:
2149:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2130:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2085:
2083:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2023:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1941:
1939:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1912:
1902:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1837:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1771:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1737:
1736:
1723:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1657:
1656:
1649:
1600:(7): e0197758.
1586:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1563:
1554:
1548:Copeland (2004)
1546:
1535:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1483:
1476:
1467:
1463:
1453:
1451:
1443:
1442:
1435:
1431:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1264:Back to Forever
1235:
1188:
1094:
1065:performance art
972:
947:
942:
932:
904:
891:
882:
877:
864:
855:
842:
825:
813:endemic species
782:
749:
735:
728:
724:
700:
687:
668:
657:
623:
599:Pricey Harrison
586:petitioned the
543:Clean Water Act
508:
502:
499:
496:
487:
483:
476:
470:opportunities.
437:
415:
403:
389:
368:
363:
324:, the rock and
301:
289:
283:
277:
271:
265:
258:
246:low-sulfur coal
238:1979 oil crises
172:
161:
155:
152:
137:
124:
120:
113:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4963:
4961:
4953:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4932:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4916:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4795:
4789:
4787:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4729:
4727:Water scarcity
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4703:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4680:Slash-and-char
4677:
4675:Slash-and-burn
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4641:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4613:
4606:
4598:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4529:
4527:
4521:
4520:
4518:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4417:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4402:
4400:
4399:
4392:
4385:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4356:
4331:
4317:
4300:
4288:
4263:
4250:
4246:Democracy Now!
4234:
4231:
4230:
4229:
4223:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4202:
4191:
4169:
4143:
4128:
4108:
4101:
4081:
4075:978-1568586434
4074:
4054:
4047:
4029:
4022:
4002:
3999:on 2008-11-20.
3984:
3958:
3937:
3915:
3886:
3857:
3833:
3812:
3805:
3785:
3761:
3727:
3703:
3648:
3621:(3): 169–175.
3601:
3572:(2): 158–169.
3552:
3517:(3): 265–276.
3497:
3448:
3421:(2): 320–327.
3405:
3384:
3373:
3360:
3333:(2): 673–689.
3313:
3291:
3270:(2): 387–400.
3250:
3228:
3201:(2): 339–356.
3181:
3160:(4): 815–823.
3137:
3108:(5): 335–348.
3085:
3046:
3025:
2974:
2959:
2920:
2885:
2864:(5): 335–348.
2844:
2817:(2): 320–327.
2801:
2780:
2761:(3): 717–737.
2745:
2723:
2682:
2633:
2583:
2528:
2502:
2477:
2459:
2437:
2418:
2415:on 2012-03-09.
2395:
2381:
2362:
2347:
2317:
2293:
2268:
2239:
2221:
2203:
2178:
2169:
2159:
2137:
2112:
2109:on 2000-08-18.
2093:
2071:
2046:
2033:
2006:
1948:
1937:arri.osmre.gov
1924:
1915:|journal=
1875:
1850:
1835:
1814:
1798:
1783:
1774:|journal=
1721:
1672:
1647:
1579:
1552:
1533:
1498:
1474:
1461:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1383:Coal phase out
1380:
1374:
1373:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1343:Patty Loveless
1327:Emmylou Harris
1307:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1268:
1256:
1252:New York Times
1234:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1212:
1202:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1176:
1166:
1165:
1158:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1069:queer activism
1053:Annie Sprinkle
1039:
1027:
1014:
997:
971:
968:
967:
966:
955:
946:
943:
941:
938:
937:
936:
931:
928:
903:
900:
890:
887:
881:
878:
876:
873:
863:
860:
854:
851:
841:
840:Health impacts
838:
824:
821:
793:flora such as
781:
778:
748:
745:
734:
731:
726:
722:
699:
696:
686:
683:
667:
664:
655:
622:
619:
595:North Carolina
560:(EPA) and the
522:sites must be
510:
509:
490:
488:
481:
475:
472:
456:surface mining
436:
433:
414:
411:
402:
399:
388:
385:
367:
364:
362:
359:
300:
297:
257:
254:
180:surface mining
174:
173:
134:of the subject
132:worldwide view
127:
125:
118:
112:
109:
73:surface mining
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4962:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4856:Reforestation
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4793:Afforestation
4791:
4790:
4788:
4784:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
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4733:
4732:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
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4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4707:Aridification
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4691:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4650:Deforestation
4648:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4637:Deforestation
4634:
4630:
4626:
4625:Deforestation
4619:
4614:
4612:
4607:
4605:
4600:
4599:
4596:
4584:
4583:Seabed mining
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
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4493:
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4486:
4480:
4477:
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4458:
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4444:
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4418:
4416:
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4410:
4405:
4398:
4393:
4391:
4386:
4384:
4379:
4378:
4375:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4347:on 2014-10-24
4346:
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4332:
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4318:
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4307:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4251:
4248:video report.
4247:
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4242:
4237:
4236:
4232:
4226:
4224:1-59454-047-0
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4206:
4200:
4195:
4192:
4180:
4173:
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4147:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4129:9780813124414
4125:
4121:
4120:
4112:
4109:
4104:
4098:
4094:
4093:
4085:
4082:
4077:
4071:
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4044:
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4019:
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4014:
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3998:
3994:
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3973:
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3962:
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3896:
3890:
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3867:
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3822:
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3813:
3808:
3802:
3798:
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3765:
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3713:
3707:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3668:(1): 91–104.
3667:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
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3306:September 18,
3301:
3295:
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3254:
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3239:
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3133:
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3116:
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3103:
3099:
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2697:
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2637:
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2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2548:(1): 99–135.
2547:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2529:
2517:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2478:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2363:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2337:on 2015-01-15
2336:
2332:
2328:
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2298:
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2269:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2236:. 1977-08-03.
2235:
2233:
2225:
2222:
2214:
2207:
2204:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2170:
2163:
2160:
2147:
2141:
2138:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2097:
2094:
2081:
2075:
2072:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2042:West Virginia
2037:
2034:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1938:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1920:
1907:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1766:
1752:on 2013-10-21
1748:
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1713:
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1471:
1465:
1462:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1428:
1424:
1423:Wendell Berry
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1413:Mount Fubilan
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1348:
1347:Alison Krauss
1344:
1340:
1339:Patty Griffin
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:Dave Matthews
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1297:
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1237:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1221:Gray Mountain
1217:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1205:Same Sun Here
1203:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1186:Fiction books
1185:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1170:
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1163:
1159:
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1152:
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1123:
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1116:
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1105:
1101:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1057:West Virginia
1054:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1040:
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1033:
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1028:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1015:
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1008:
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1003:
998:
995:
991:
987:
983:
982:
977:
974:
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970:Documentaries
969:
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814:
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684:
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618:
614:
612:
607:
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600:
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591:
589:
585:
580:
576:
574:
570:
569:Stream Buffer
565:
563:
559:
555:
550:
548:
544:
541:violated the
540:
535:
532:
528:
525:
521:
517:
506:
494:
489:
480:
479:
473:
471:
467:
464:
459:
457:
452:
449:
444:
442:
434:
432:
429:
425:
424:water quality
421:
412:
410:
408:
400:
398:
395:
386:
384:
382:
381:reforestation
378:
373:
365:
360:
358:
355:
350:
347:
342:
340:
336:
331:
327:
323:
318:
314:
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281:
275:
269:
262:
255:
253:
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239:
235:
230:
228:
224:
220:
219:West Virginia
215:
211:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
170:
167:
159:
156:February 2016
149:
145:
141:
135:
133:
126:
117:
116:
110:
108:
105:
102:
98:
94:
90:
89:United States
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
52:
47:
39:
33:
19:
4911:
4851:Oasification
4450:
4363:
4349:. Retrieved
4345:the original
4338:
4324:
4304:
4295:
4280:. Retrieved
4276:the original
4271:
4258:
4240:
4214:
4194:
4182:. Retrieved
4172:
4162:27 September
4160:. Retrieved
4156:
4153:"Impact Man"
4146:
4138:j.ctt130jn7c
4118:
4111:
4091:
4084:
4064:
4057:
4038:
4032:
4012:
4005:
3997:the original
3987:
3975:. Retrieved
3971:
3961:
3950:. Retrieved
3940:
3928:. Retrieved
3918:
3907:. Retrieved
3898:
3889:
3878:. Retrieved
3869:
3860:
3849:. Retrieved
3845:
3836:
3825:. Retrieved
3823:. 2009-08-25
3815:
3795:
3788:
3777:. Retrieved
3773:
3764:
3747:
3743:
3719:. Retrieved
3715:
3706:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3618:
3614:
3604:
3569:
3565:
3555:
3514:
3510:
3500:
3465:
3461:
3451:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3396:. Retrieved
3387:
3376:
3368:
3363:
3330:
3326:
3316:
3304:. Retrieved
3294:
3267:
3263:
3253:
3241:. Retrieved
3231:
3198:
3194:
3184:
3157:
3153:
3105:
3101:
3055:
3049:
3038:. Retrieved
3028:
2987:
2977:
2967:Isa, Jalil.
2962:
2929:
2923:
2898:
2894:
2888:
2861:
2857:
2847:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2792:. Retrieved
2783:
2758:
2754:
2748:
2740:
2699:
2695:
2685:
2650:
2646:
2636:
2606:(1): 39–57.
2603:
2599:
2545:
2541:
2531:
2520:. Retrieved
2494:. Retrieved
2489:
2480:
2462:
2450:. Retrieved
2440:
2431:
2421:
2413:the original
2408:
2398:
2384:
2375:
2365:
2350:
2339:. Retrieved
2335:the original
2330:
2320:
2311:
2285:. Retrieved
2281:
2271:
2260:. Retrieved
2256:
2231:
2224:
2206:
2195:. Retrieved
2193:. 2019-03-09
2191:The Observer
2190:
2181:
2172:
2162:
2150:. Retrieved
2140:
2129:. Retrieved
2125:
2115:
2107:the original
2096:
2086:December 28,
2084:. Retrieved
2074:
2062:. Retrieved
2049:
2041:
2036:
2024:. Retrieved
2019:
2009:
1968:
1964:
1940:. Retrieved
1936:
1927:
1906:cite journal
1866:. Retrieved
1853:
1828:September 5,
1826:. Retrieved
1817:
1809:
1801:
1792:
1786:
1765:cite journal
1754:. Retrieved
1747:the original
1689:
1685:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1597:
1593:
1582:
1570:. Retrieved
1511:
1507:
1506:"Abstract".
1501:
1489:. Retrieved
1464:
1452:. Retrieved
1448:
1408:Maria Gunnoe
1403:Larry Gibson
1352:
1331:Kathy Mattea
1329:, Gloriana,
1319:Buddy Miller
1300:David Rovics
1287:Jean Ritchie
1278:
1262:
1250:
1242:
1219:
1216:John Grisham
1204:
1196:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1154:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1132:House, Silas
1126:Coal Country
1125:
1118:
1111:
1048:
1029:
1024:Pare Lorentz
1017:
1000:
979:
976:Chet Pancake
962:
951:
945:Short Videos
923:Maria Gunnoe
916:
910:
892:
883:
865:
856:
847:
843:
833:
830:
826:
817:
809:biodiversity
804:
794:
787:soil quality
783:
774:carbon sinks
766:
762:biodiversity
750:
736:
718:
712:
708:biodiversity
701:
692:
688:
679:
671:
669:
652:
615:
608:
604:
592:
581:
577:
566:
551:
536:
533:
529:
513:
500:
492:
468:
460:
453:
445:
438:
416:
404:
390:
369:
351:
343:
338:
334:
328:, to expose
302:
291:
285:
279:
273:
267:
231:
221:and Eastern
210:Google Earth
203:
188:
177:
162:
153:
129:
106:
68:
64:
60:
56:
55:
4945:Coal mining
4913:Terra preta
4816:Ecoforestry
4740:Gobi Desert
4731:By region:
4578:Prospecting
4460:Sub-surface
4272:Smithsonian
4207:Cited texts
4184:11 December
3468:: 163–172.
2901:: 151–158.
2064:December 1,
1692:: 397–415.
1514:: 179–187.
1418:Silas House
1398:Julia Bonds
1271:Liam Wilson
1247:Silas House
1226:Wall Street
1209:Silas House
990:Julia Bonds
930:Other sites
896:RECLAIM Act
853:Air quality
754:forest loss
666:2010 report
575:waterways.
520:coal mining
361:Reclamation
339:hollow fill
335:valley fill
212:Engine and
93:coal mining
4934:Categories
4919:Wilderness
4786:Mitigation
4760:Mauritania
4488:Directions
4406:techniques
4351:2017-09-05
4102:1594489084
3977:22 October
3952:2010-09-27
3909:2020-12-15
3880:2020-12-14
3851:2020-11-08
3827:2020-11-08
3779:2020-12-14
3721:2020-11-08
3243:August 20,
3102:BioScience
3040:2020-11-08
2858:BioScience
2522:2019-04-24
2496:2019-04-24
2341:2015-01-15
2287:2019-04-24
2262:2019-04-24
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