Movie projector - Knowledge (XXG)

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12,000-foot (3,700 m) capacity or about 133 minutes at 24 frame/s. This large capacity alleviates the need for a changeover on an average-length feature; all of the reels are spliced together into one giant one. The tower is designed with four spools, two on each side, each with its own motor. This allows the whole spool to be immediately rewound after a showing; the extra two spools on the other side allow for a film to be shown while another is being rewound or even made up directly onto the tower. Each spool requires its own motor in order to set proper tensioning for the film, since it has to travel (relatively) much further between the projector film transport and the spools. As each spool gains or loses film, the tension must be periodically checked and adjusted so that the film can be transported on and off the spools without either sagging or snapping.

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appropriate point, manually stop the first projector, shutting off its light, and start the second projector, which the projectionist had ready and waiting. Later the switching was partially automated, although the projectionist still needed to rewind and mount the bulky, heavy film reels. (35mm reels as received by theaters came unrewound; rewinding was the task of the operator who received the reel.). The two-reel system, using two identical projectors, was used almost universally for movie theaters before the advent of the single-reel system. Projectors were built that could accommodate a much larger reel, containing an entire feature. Although one-reel long-play systems tend to be more popular with the newer multiplexes, the two-reel system is still in significant use to this day.

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still briefly while the shutter opens and closes. The gate is where the film is held still prior to the opening of the shutter. This is the case for both filming and projecting movies. A single image of the series of images comprising the movie is positioned and held flat within the gate. The gate also provides a slight amount of friction so that the film does not advance or retreat except when driven to advance the film to the next image. The intermittent mechanism advances the film within the gate to the next frame while the shutter is closed. Registration pins prevent the film from advancing while the shutter is open. In most cases the registration of the frame can be manually adjusted by the projectionist, and more sophisticated projectors can maintain registration automatically.

862:" cinema – a single site typically containing from 8 to 24 theaters with only a few projection and sound technicians, rather than a platoon of projectionists. The multiplex also offers a great amount of flexibility to a theater operator, enabling theaters to exhibit the same popular production in more than one auditorium with staggered starting times. It is also possible, with the proper equipment installed, to "interlock", i.e. thread a single length of film through multiple projectors. This is very useful when dealing with the mass crowds that an extremely popular film may generate in the first few days of showing, as it allows for a single print to serve more patrons. 1240:

magnetic soundtracks to serve as a back-up in case the digital sound was unreadable. Another disadvantage of not having an analog back-up track is that CDS required extra film prints be made for the theaters equipped to play CDS. The three formats that followed, Dolby Digital, DTS and SDDS, can co-exist with each other and the analog optical soundtrack on a single version of the film print. This means that a film print carrying all three of these formats (and the analog optical format, usually Dolby SR) can be played in whichever format the theater is equipped to handle. CDS did not achieve widespread use and ultimately failed. It premiered with the film

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between the optical sound tracks and the actual picture, and is read by an optical LED ahead of the gate. The time code is actually the only sound system which is not offset within the film from the picture, but still needs to be physically set offset ahead of the gate in order to maintain continuous motion. Each disc can hold slightly over 90 minutes of sound, so longer films require a second disc. Three types of DTS sound exist: DTS-ES (Extended Surround), an 8 channel digital system; DTS-6, a 6 track digital system, and a now-obsolete 4 channel system. DTS-ES derives a back surround channel from the left surround and right surround channels using

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opposed to 8 mm film which has perforations along one edge, and most other film formats which have perforations on each side of the image. It became very popular in Europe over the next few decades and is still used by a small number of enthusiasts today. Over 300,000 projectors were produced and sold mainly in France and England, and many commercial features were available in the format. In the sixties the last projectors of this format were being produced. The gauge is still alive today. 16 mm projectors are converted to 9,5mm and it is still possible to buy film stock (from the French Color City company).

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length, enabling the theater to have multiple showings throughout the day and evening, each showing with a feature, commercials, and intermission to allow the audiences to change). In the "old days" (i.e., ca. 1930–1960), "going to the movies" meant seeing a short subject (a newsreel, short documentary, a "2-reeler," etc.), a cartoon, and the feature. Some theaters would have movie-based commercials for local businesses, and the state of New Jersey required showing a diagram of the theater showing all of the exits.

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or "changeover shutter"). Some projectors have a third, mechanically controlled douser that automatically closes when the projector slows down (called a "fire shutter" or "fire douser"), to protect the film if the projector stops while the first douser is still open. Dousers protect the film when the lamp is on but the film is not moving, preventing the film from melting from prolonged exposure to the direct heat of the lamp. It also prevents the lens from scarring or cracking from excessive heat.

254:. After investing much time, effort and means in a slow and troublesome development of a definitive system, Le Prince eventually seemed satisfied with the result and had a demonstration screening scheduled in New York in 1890. However, he went missing after boarding a train in France and was declared dead in 1897. His widow and son managed to draw attention to Le Prince's work and eventually he came to be regarded as the true inventor of film (a claim also made for many others). 962:, this film stock uses very small sprocket holes close to the edge that allow more of the film stock to be used for the images. This increases the quality of the image. The unexposed film is supplied in the 8 mm width, not split during processing as is the earlier 8 mm. Magnetic stripes could be added to carry encoded sound to be added after film development. Film could also be pre-striped for direct sound recording in suitably equipped cameras for later projection. 1464:

in the foreground. Owing to the great area covered by the picture it is not as bright as seen with flat screen projection, but the immersive qualities are quite convincing. While there are not many theaters capable of displaying this format there are regular productions in the fields of nature, travel, science, and history, and productions may be viewed in most large urban regions. These dome theaters are mostly located in large and prosperous science and technology museums.

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rate produces a better looking picture, but costs more as film stock is consumed faster. When Warner Bros. and Western Electric were trying to find the ideal compromise projection speed for the new sound pictures, Western Electric went to the Warner Theater in Los Angeles, and noted the average speed at which films were projected there. They set that as the sound speed at which a satisfactory reproduction and amplification of sound could be conducted.

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to analog; this can happen either in a separate Dolby Digital processor that feeds signals to the cinema sound processor, or digital decoding can be built into the cinema processor. One disadvantage of this system is if the digital printing is not entirely within the space between the sprocket holes; if the track was off a bit on either the top or the bottom, the sound track would be unplayable, and a replacement reel would have to be ordered.

650: 140: 996:. The most popular home content were comedic shorts (typically less than 20 minutes in length in the original release) and bundles of cartoons previously seen in movie theaters. 16 mm enjoys widespread use today as a format for short films, independent features and music videos, being a relatively economical alternative to 35 mm. 16 mm film was a popular format used for the production of TV shows well into the HDTV era. 1049: 806: 4055: 732:

below) in a showing. Certain countries also divide their film reels up differently; Russian films, for example, often come on 1,000-foot (300 m) reels, although it's likely that most projectionists working with changeovers would combine them into longer reels of at least 2,000 feet (610 metres), to minimize changeovers and also give sufficient time for threading and any possibly needed troubleshooting time.

295:, a flickerfree duplex construction, from 1 to 31 November 1895. They started to tour with their motion pictures, but after catching the second presentation of the Cinématographe Lumière in Paris on 28 December 1895, they seemed to choose not to compete. They still presented their motion pictures in several European cities until March 1897, but eventually the Bioscop had to be retired as a commercial failure. 230:. He demonstrated his photographic motion from March 1887 until at least January 1890 to circa 4 or 5 people at a time, in Berlin, other large German cities, Brussels (at the 1888 Exposition Universelle), Florence, Saint Petersburg, New York, Boston and Philadelphia. Between 1890 and 1894 he concentrated on the exploitation of an automatic coin-operated version that was an inspiration for Edison Company's 757:(3.2 m) of film is shown (seven seconds at 24 frames/sec), the changeover cue should appear, which signals the projectionist to actually make the changeover. When this second cue appears, the projectionist has one and a half feet (460 mm), or one second, to make the changeover. If it does not occur within one second, the film will end and blank white light will be projected on the screen. 4066: 538: 1207:

the oxide layer wore out faster than the film itself, and magnetic tracks were prone to damage and accidental erasure. Because of the high cost of installing magnetic sound reproduction equipment only a minority of movie theaters ever installed it and the magnetic soundheads needed considerable maintenance to keep their performance up to standard. As a consequence the use of the

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film can acquire diagonal scratches on it if proper care is not taken while threading film from platter to projector, and the film has more opportunity to collect dust and dirt as long lengths of film are exposed to the air. A clean projection booth kept at the proper humidity is of great importance, as are cleaning devices that can remove dirt from the film print as it plays.

1134:, where the electrical impulses are turned into air vibrations and thus, sound waves. In 16 mm, this optical soundtrack is a single mono track placed on the right side of the projected image, and the sound head is 26 frames after the gate. In 35 mm, this can be mono or stereo, on the left side of the projected image, with the sound head 21 frames after the gate. 1411: 837: 507: 402:. The exact neurological principles are not yet entirely clear, but the retina, nerves and/or brain create the impression of apparent movement when presented with a rapid sequence of near-identical still images and interruptions that go unnoticed (or are experienced as flicker). A critical part of understanding this 422:, and is dependent on the level of illumination and the condition of the eyes of the viewer. Generally, the frame rate of 16 frames per second (frame/s) is regarded as the lowest frequency at which continuous motion is perceived by humans. This threshold varies across different species; a higher proportion of 234:. From 28 November 1894 to at least May 1895 he projected his recordings from two intermittently rotating discs, mostly in 300-seat halls, in several German cities. During circa 5 weeks of screenings at the old Berlin Reichstag in February and March 1895, circa 7.000 paying visitors came to see the show. 909:

moves while the shutter is blocking the lamp, so that the motion of the film cannot be seen. It also moves in a discrete amount at a time, equal to the number of perforations that make up a frame (4 for 35 mm, 5 for 70 mm). The intermittent movement in these projectors is usually provided by a

1489:, the images were projected onto an extremely wide, curved screen. Some seams were said to be visible between the images but the almost complete filling of the visual field made up for this. This showed some commercial success as a limited location (only in major cities) exhibition of the technology in 1463:

dome projection method (called "OMNIMAX") uses 70 mm film running sideways through the projector to maximize the image area and extreme wide angle lenses to obtain an almost hemispherical image. The field of view is tilted, as is the projection hemisphere, so one may view a portion of the ground

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Usually there's a one-frame audio POP that plays 48 film frames (2 seconds at 24 frames per second) before the first frame of action (FFOA). The POP is used to line up and synchronize audio and picture/video during printing processes or postproduction. The POP is in editorial (level) synchronization

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Magnetic sound is no longer used in commercial cinema, but between 1952 and the early 1990s (when optical digital movie sound rendered it obsolete) it provided the highest fidelity sound from film because of its wider frequency range and superior signal to noise ratio compared to optical sound. There

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can be constructed in different ways. For smaller gauge projectors (8 mm and 16 mm), a pawl mechanism engages the film's sprocket hole one side, or holes on each side. This pawl advances only when the film is to be moved to the next image. As the pawl retreats for the next cycle it is drawn

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In the early years, with no automation, errors were far from unknown: these included starting a movie that had not been rewound, and getting reels confused, so they were projected in the wrong order. Correcting either of these, assuming that someone could tell that the reels were confused, required a

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During the initial operation of a changeover, the two projectors use an interconnected electrical control connected to the changeover button so that as soon as the button is pressed, the changeover douser on the outgoing projector is closed in sync with the changeover douser on the incoming projector

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The film being wound on the takeup reel is being wound "head in, tails out." This means that the beginning (or "head") of the reel is in the center, where it is inaccessible. As each reel is taken off of the projector, it must be re-wound onto another empty reel. In a theater setting there is often a

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In the two-reel system the projector has two reels–one is the feed reel, which holds the part of the film that has not been shown, the other is the takeup reel, which winds the film that has been shown. In a two-reel projector the feed reel has a slight drag to maintain tension on the film, while the

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uses special optics to squeeze a high aspect ratio image onto a standard Academy frame thus eliminating the need to change the costly precision moving parts of the intermittent mechanisms. A special anamorphic lens is used on the camera to compress the image, and a corresponding lens on the projector

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One way that aspect ratios are set is with the appropriate aperture plate, a piece of metal with a precisely cut rectangular hole in the middle of equivalent aspect ratio. The aperture plate is placed just behind the gate, and masks off any light from hitting the image outside of the area intended to

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Most lamp houses in a professional theatrical setting produce sufficient heat to burn the film should the film remain stationary for more than a fraction of a second. Because of this, absolute care must be taken in inspecting a film so that it should not break in the gate and be damaged, particularly

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digital projection reduced pixel visibility. The systems became more compact over time. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing film projectors with digital projectors. In 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theaters in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In

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in 1879 and gave many lectures with the machine from 1880 to 1894. It projected images from rotating glass disks. The images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by

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Most motion picture lenses are of the spherical variety. Spherical lenses do not distort the image intentionally. Used alone for standard and cropped wide screen projection, and in conjunction with an anamorphic adapter for anamorphic wide screen projection, the spherical lens is the most common and

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DTS actually stores the sound information on separate CD-ROMs supplied with the film. The CDs are fed into a special, modified computer which syncs up with the film through the use of DTS time code, decompresses the sound, and passes it through to a standard cinema processor. The time code is placed

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located either above the projector or in the regular analog sound head below the film gate, a digital delay within the processor allowing correct lip-sync to be achieved regardless of the position of the reader relative to the picture gate. The information is then decoded, decompressed and converted

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35 mm four-track magnetic sound format decreased significantly during the course of the 1960s and received stiff competition from the Dolby SVA optical encoding format. However, 70 mm film continued to be used for prestigious "roadshow" screenings until the introduction of digital sound on

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Striped magnetic film is motion picture film in which 'stripes' of magnetic oxide are placed on the film between the sprocket holes and the edge of the film, and sometimes also between the sprocket holes and the image. Each of these stripes has one channel of the audio recorded on it. This technique

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In 35 mm and 70 mm projectors, there usually is a special sprocket immediately underneath the pressure plate, known as the intermittent sprocket. Unlike all the other sprockets in the projector, which run continuously, the intermittent sprocket operates in tandem with the shutter, and only

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A spring-loaded pressure plate functions to align the film in a consistent image plane, both flat and perpendicular to the optical axis. It also provides sufficient drag to prevent film motion during the frame display, while still allowing free motion under control of the intermittent mechanism. The

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As with motion picture cameras, the intermittent motion of the gate requires that there be loops above and below the gate in order to serve as a buffer between the constant speed enforced by the sprockets above and below the gate and the intermittent motion enforced at the gate. Some projectors also

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of the projection booth operations, given the proper auxiliary equipment. Since films are still transported in multiple reels they must be joined together when placed on the projector reel and taken apart when the film is to be returned to the distributor. It is the complete automation of projection

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The advantage of a platter is that the film need not be rewound after each show, which can save labor. Rewinding risks rubbing the film against itself, which can cause scratching of the film and smearing of the emulsion which carries the pictures. The disadvantages of the platter system are that the

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audio cartridge. Film is unwound from the center of the platter through a mechanism called a payout unit which controls the speed of the platter's rotation so that it matches the speed of the film as it is fed to the projector. The film winds through a series of rollers from the platter stack to the

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Once the changeover has been made, the projectionist unloads the full takeup reel from projector "A," moves the now-empty reel (that used to hold the film just unloaded) from the feed spindle to the takeup spindle, and loads reel #3 of the presentation on projector "A." When reel 2 on projector "B"

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A metal or asbestos blade which cuts off light before it can get to the film. The douser is usually part of the lamphouse, and may be manually or automatically operated. Some projectors have a second, electrically controlled douser that is used for changeovers (sometimes called a "changeover douser"

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created a need for a steady playback rate to prevent dialog and music from changing pitch and distracting the audience. Virtually all film projectors in commercial movie theaters project at a constant speed of 24 frame/s. This speed was chosen for both financial and technical reasons. A higher frame

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SMPTE leader is placed at the head of film release prints or video masters containing information for the projectionist or video playback tech. The numbers count down in seconds from 8 to 2 at 24-frame intervals ending at the first frame of the "2" followed by 47 film frames of dark gray or black.

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located in a unit above the projector reads the two SDDS tracks. The information is decoded and decompressed before being passed along to the cinema sound processor. By default, SDDS units use an onboard Sony Cinema Sound Processor, and when the system is set up in this manner, the theatre's entire

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Regardless of the sound format, any sound represented on the film image itself will not be the sound for the particular frame it occupies. In the gate of the projector head, there is no space for a reader, and the film is not travelling smoothly at the gate position. Consequently, all optical sound

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Film format introduced by Pathé Frères in 1922 as part of the Pathé Baby amateur film system. It was conceived initially as an inexpensive format to provide copies of commercially made films to home users. The format uses a single, central perforation (sprocket hole) between each pair of frames, as

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This system makes it possible to project a film multiple times without needing to rewind it. As the projectionist threads the projector for each showing, the payout unit is transferred from the empty platter to the full platter and the film then plays back onto the platter it came from. In the case

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In a platter system the individual 20-minute reels of film are also spliced together as one large reel, but the film is then wound onto a horizontal rotating table called a platter. Three or more platters are stacked together to create a platter system. Most of the platters in a platter system will

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The size of the reels can vary based on the projectors, but generally films are divided and distributed in reels of up to 2,000 feet (610 metres), about 22 minutes at 24 frames/sec). Some projectors can even accommodate up to 6,000 feet (1,800 metres), which minimizes the number of changeovers (see

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or gated cylindrical shutter interrupts the emitted light during the time the film is advanced to the next frame. The viewer does not see the transition, thus tricking the brain into believing a moving image is on screen. Modern shutters are designed with a flicker-rate of two times (48 Hz) or

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If a roll of film is continuously passed between the light source and the lens of the projector, only a continuous blurred series of images sliding from one edge to the other would be visible on the screen. In order to see an apparently moving clear picture, the moving film must be stopped and held

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After years of development, Edison eventually introduced the coin-operated peep-box Kinetoscope movie viewer in 1893, mostly in dedicated parlours. He believed this was a commercially much more viable system than projection in theatres. Many other film pioneers found chances to study the technology

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The oldest known successful screenings of stroboscopic animation were performed by Ludwig Döbler in 1847 in Vienna and taken on a tour to several large European cities for over a year. His Phantaskop had a front with separate lenses for each of the 12 pictures on a disc and two separate lenses were

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SDDS runs on the outside of 35 mm film, between the perforations and the edges, on both edges of the film. It was the first digital system that could handle up to eight channels of sound. The additional two tracks are for an extra pair of screen channels (Left Center and Right Center) located

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Modern theatrical systems use optical representations of digitally encoded multi-channel sound. An advantage of digital systems is that the offset between the sound and picture heads can be varied and then set with the digital processors. Digital sound heads are usually above the gate. All digital

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Although magnetic audio was of excellent quality it also had significant disadvantages. Magnetic sound prints were expensive, 35 mm magnetic prints cost roughly twice as much as optical sound prints, whilst 70 mm prints could cost up to 15 times as much as 35 mm prints. Furthermore,

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In the 1970s and early 1980s, optical sound Super-8 mm copies were produced mainly for airline in-flight movies. Even though this technology was soon made obsolete by video equipment, the majority of small-gauge films used magnetic sound rather than optical sound for a higher frequency range.

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Because a single film reel does not contain enough film to show an entire feature, the film is distributed on multiple reels. To prevent having to interrupt the show when one reel ends and the next is mounted, two projectors are used in what is known as a "changeover system". A human would, at the

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and a magazine's suggestion that it could be combined with projection of stereoscopic photography, Donisthorpe stated that he could do even better and announce that he would present such images in motion. His original Kinesigraph camera gave unsatisfactory results. He had better results with a new

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flat screen system uses large format film, a wide and deep screen, and close and quite steep "stadium" seating. The effect is to fill the visual field to a greater degree than is possible with conventional wide screen systems. Like the IMAX dome, this is found in major urban areas, but unlike the

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Created by Kodak and ORC (Optical Radiation Corporation), Cinema Digital Sound was the first attempt to bring multi-channel digital sound to first-run theaters. CDS was available on both 35 mm and 70 mm films. Film prints equipped with CDS did not have the conventional analog optical or

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Long used for home movies before the video camera, this uses double sprocketed 16 mm film, which is run through the camera, exposing one side, then removed from the camera, the takeup and feed reels are switched, and the film run through a second time, exposing the other side. The 16 mm

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High-end movie productions were often produced in this film gauge in the 1950s and 1960s and many very large screen theaters are still capable of projecting it in the 21st century. It is often referred to as 65/70, as the camera uses film 65 mm wide, but the projection prints are 70 mm

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Twelve feet before the "first frame of action," countdown leaders have a "START" frame. The projectionist positions the "START" in the gate of the projector. When the first cue is seen, the motor of the starting projector is started. Seven seconds later the end of the leader and start of program

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In most cases this is a reflective surface which may be either aluminized (for high contrast in moderate ambient light) or a white surface with small glass beads (for high brilliance under dark conditions). A switchable projection screen can be switched between opaque and clear by a safe voltage

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Using an aperture plate to accomplish a wider aspect ratio is inherently wasteful of film, as a portion of the standard frame is unused. One solution that presents itself at certain aspect ratios is the "2-perf" pulldown, where the film is advanced less than one full frame in order to reduce the

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Although usually more expensive than film projectors, high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely, are relatively compact and have no film to break, scratch or

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70 mm, which had no optical sound, used the 5 millimeters gained between the 65 mm negative and the final release print to place three magnetic tracks outside of the perforations on each side of the film for a total of six tracks. Until the introduction of digital sound, it was fairly

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In interlock, since the sound is on a separate reel, it does not need to be offset from the image. Today, this system is usually used only for very low-budget or student productions, or for screening rough cuts of films before the creation of a final married print. Sync between the two reels is

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system presented widescreen movies in which the film moved horizontally, allowing much more film to be used for the image as this avoided the anamorphic reduction of the image to fit the frame width. As this required specific projectors it was largely unsuccessful as a presentation method while

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When the projectionist removes a finished reel from the projector it is "tails out," and needs to be rewound before the next show. The projectionist usually uses a separate rewind machine and a spare empty reel, and rewinds the film so it is "head out," ready to project again for the next show.

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The first cue appears twelve feet (3.7 metres) before the end of the program on the reel, equivalent to eight seconds at the standard speed of 24 frames per second. This cue signals the projectionist to start the motor of the projector containing the next reel. After another ten and a half feet

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It is possible to view the black space between frames and the passing of the shutter by rapidly blinking ones eyes at a certain rate. If done fast enough, the viewer will be able to randomly "trap" the darkness between frames, or the motion of the shutter. This will not work with (now obsolete)

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filming uses only special lenses, and requires no other modifications to the camera, projector and intermediate gear. The intended wide screen image is compressed optically, using additional cylindrical elements within the lens so that when the compressed image strikes the film, it matches the

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Academy leader is placed at the head of film release prints containing information for the projectionist and featuring numbers which are black on a clear background, counting from 11 to 3 at 16-frame intervals (16 frames in 35 mm film = 1 ft). At −12 feet there is a START frame. The

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track, in which a clear, vertical waveform against black represents the sound, and the width of the waveform is equivalent to the amplitude. Variable area does have slightly less frequency response than variable density, but because of the grain and variable infrared absorption of various film

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On some projectors, the operator would be alerted to the time for a change by a bell that operated when the feed reel rotation exceeded a certain speed (the feed reel rotates faster as the film is exhausted), or based on the diameter of the remaining film (Premier Changeover Indicator Pat. No.

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Films are identified as "short subjects," taking one reel or less of film, "two-reelers," requiring two reels of film (such as some of the early Laurel & Hardy, 3 Stooges, and other comedies), and "features," which can take any number of reels (although most are limited to 1½ to 2 hours in

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The tower system largely resembles the two-reel system, except in that the tower itself is generally a separate piece of equipment used with a slightly modified standard projector. The feed and takeup reels are held vertically on the axis, except behind the projector, on oversized spools with

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was introduced in Germany in 1957 and in the US in 1963. After film platters became commonplace in the 1970s, Xenon lamps became the most common light source, as they could stay lit for extended periods of time, whereas a carbon rod used for a carbon arc could last for an hour at the most.

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The first form of optical sound was represented by horizontal bands of clear (white) and solid (black) area. The space between solid points represented amplitude and was picked up by the photo-electric cell on the other side of a steady, thin beam of light being shined through it. This

1083:. Some productions intended for 35 mm anamorphic release were also released using 70 mm film stock. A 70 mm print made from a 35 mm negative is significantly better in appearance than an all-35 mm process, and allowed for a release with 6 track magnetic audio. 1154:

Optical stereo is recorded and read through a bilateral variable area track. Dolby MP matrix encoding is used to add extra channels beyond the stereo pair. Left, center, right and surround channels are matrix-encoded into the two optical tracks, and decoded using licensed equipment.

151:. In its most common setup it had a concave mirror behind a light source to help direct as much light as possible through a painted glass picture slide and a lens, out of the lantern onto a screen. Simple mechanics to have the painted images moving were probably implemented since 60: 310:, a system that took, printed, and projected film. In late 1895 in Paris, father Antoine Lumière began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public, beginning the general conversion of the medium to projection. They quickly became Europe's main producers with their 1381:

Each number is held on the screen for 24 frames while an animated sweep-arm moves clockwise behind the number. As the sweep arm moves across the background field, the color changes from light gray to dark gray. Unlike the other numbers, the "2" only appears for one frame.

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change reels of. They also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content. All-electronic distribution eliminates all physical media shipments. There is also the ability to display live broadcasts in theaters equipped to do so.

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dome system it is practical to reformat existing movie releases to this method. Also, the geometry of the theater and screen are more amenable to inclusion within a newly constructed but otherwise conventional multiple theater complex than is the dome style theater.

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noise reduction, thus these prints are known as Dolby SR-D prints. Dolby Digital produces 6 discrete channels. In a variant called SR-D EX, the left and right surround channels can be dematrixed into left, right, and back surround, using a matrix system similar to

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Some anamorphic formats utilized a more squarish aspect ratio (1.18:1, vs. the Academy 1.375:1 ratio) on-film in order to accommodate more magnetic and/or optical tracks. Various anamorphic implementations have been marketed under several brand names, including

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On certain stocks of Super 8 and 16 mm an iron-oxide sound recording strip was added for the direct synchronous recording of sound which could then be played by projectors with a magnetic sound head. It has since been discontinued by Kodak on both gauges.

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at the upper-right corner of the picture. Usually these are dots or circles, although they can also be slashes. Some older films occasionally used squares or triangles, and sometimes positioned the cues in the middle of the right edge of the picture.

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In the 1910s a new consumer commodity was introduced aiming at familial activity, the silent home cinema. Hand-cranked tinplate toy movie projectors, also called vintage projectors, were used taking standard 35 mm 8 perforation silent cinema films.

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unexposed area between frames. This method requires a special intermittent mechanism in all film handling equipment throughout the production process, from the camera to the projector. This is costly, and prohibitively so for some theaters. The

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under 36V AC and is viewable from both sides. In a commercial theater, the screen also has millions of very small, evenly spaced holes in order to allow the passage of sound from the speakers and subwoofer which often are directly behind it.

797:, and a delay of a minute or so while the projectionist corrected the error and restarted a projector. These highly visible gaffes, which embarrassed the theater operators, were eliminated with the single-reel and digital systems. 1095:

formats must be offset from the image because the sound reader is usually located above (for magnetic readers and most digital optical readers) or below (for analog optical readers and a few digital optical) the projector head.

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have a sensitive trip pin above the gate to guard against the upper loop becoming too big. If the loop hits the pin, it will close the dousers and stop the motor to prevent an excessively large loop from jamming the projector.

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with the "2" frame on the SMPTE and EBU leader, and with the "3" frame on the Academy leader. On most theatrical release prints, the POP is removed by the laboratory to avoid any accidental playing of it during a screening.

449:

usually were not projected at constant speeds, but could vary throughout the show because projectors were hand-cranked at the discretion of the projectionist, often following some notes provided by the distributor. When the

788:

One advantage of this system (at least for the theatre management) was that if a programme was running a few minutes late for any reason, the projectionist would simply omit one (or more) reels of film to recover the time.

991:

This was a popular format for audio-visual use in schools and as a high-end home entertainment system before the advent of broadcast television. In broadcast television news, 16 mm film was used before the advent of

454:

supplanted hand cranking in both movie cameras and projectors, a more uniform frame rate became possible. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up – sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed (24 frame/s).

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remaining attractive as filming, intermediate, and source for production printing and as an intermediate step in special effects to avoid film granularity, although the latter is now supplanted by digital methods.

348:

projectors were being tried out in some movie theaters. These early projectors played the movie stored on a computer, and sent to the projector electronically. Due to their relatively low resolution (usually only

414:

for the human eye or brain. Instead, the eye/brain system has a combination of motion detectors, detail detectors and pattern detectors, the outputs of all of which are combined to create the visual experience.

426:

in the retina will create a higher threshold level. Because the eye and brain have no fixed capture rate, this is an elastic limit, so different viewers can be more or less sensitive in perceiving frame rates.

1199:. Four tracks are present on the film: Left, Center, Right and Surround. This 35 mm four-track magnetic sound format was used from 1954 through 1982 for "roadshow" screenings of big-budget feature films. 63: 67: 66: 62: 61: 68: 1430:

standard frame size of the camera. At the projector a corresponding lens restores the wide aspect ratio to be seen on the screen. The anamorphic element can be an attachment to existing spherical lenses.

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IMAX projectors use what is known as the rolling loop method, in which each frame is sucked into the gate by a vacuum, and positioned by registration pins in the perforations corresponding to that frame.

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and Superscope, with Technirama implementing a slightly different anamorphic technique using vertical expansion to the film rather than horizontal compression. Large format anamorphic processes included

1364:. Datasat Digital Entertainment, purchaser of DTS's cinema division in May 2008, now distributes Datasat Digital Sound to professional cinemas worldwide. A consumer version of DTS is available on some 813:

There are two largely used single-reel systems (also known as long-play systems) today: the tower system (vertical feed and takeup) and the platter system (non-rewinding; horizontal feed and takeup).

273:

family, was demonstrated for members of the press on 21 April 1895 and opened to the paying public on May 20, in a lower Broadway store with films of the Griffo-Barnett prize boxing fight, taken from

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sound system can be equalized in the digital domain. The audio data in an SDDS track is compressed in the 20-bit ATRAC2 compression scheme at a ratio of about 4.5:1. SDDS premiered with the film

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Alan D. Kattelle, The evolution of amateur motion picture equipment 1895-1965, in: Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 38, No. 3/4, Home Movies and Amateur Filmmaking (Summer-Fall 1986), pp. 47-57.

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wide. The extra five millimeters of film accommodated the soundtrack, usually a six track magnetic stripe. The most common theater installation would use dual gauge 35/70 mm projectors.

65: 1324:, often at higher data rates than the original film. A bit for bit version is used on Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs called Dolby TrueHD. Dolby Digital officially premiered with the film 1225:

sound systems currently in use have the ability to instantly and gracefully fall back to the analog optical sound system should the digital data be corrupt or the whole system fail.

1060:(grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby "Double-D" logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the 612:

It is the gate and shutter that gives the illusion of one full frame being replaced exactly on top of another full frame. The gate holds the film still while the shutter is open. A

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engage perforations punched into one or both edges of the film stock. These serve to set the pace of film movement through the projector and any associated sound playback system.

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takeup reel is constantly driven with a mechanism that has mechanical 'slip,' to allow the film to be wound under constant tension so the film is wound in a smooth manner.

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opening. If done properly, a changeover should be virtually unnoticeable to an audience. In older theaters, there may be manually operated, sliding covers in front of the

1309:. The audio data in a Dolby Digital track is compressed in the 16-bit AC-3 compression scheme at a ratio of about 12:1. The images between each perforation are read by a 3970: 2426: 1368:, and was used to broadcast stereo TV prior to DTV. A bit for bit version of the DTS soundtrack is on Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs called DTS-HD MA (DTS-HD Master Audio). 1317:

In 2006, Dolby discontinued the sale of their external SR-D processor (the DA20), but included Dolby Digital decoding in their CP500 and later CP650 cinema processors.

1142:

form of sound was eventually phased out because of its incompatibility with color stocks. The alternative and ultimately the successor of variable density has been the

728:

separate machine for rewinding reels. For the 16 mm projectors that were often used in schools and churches, the projector could be re-configured to rewind films.

1187:. If the two reels are synced, there should be one frame of "beep" sound exactly on the "2" frame of the countdown – 2 seconds or 48 frames before the picture start. 1278:. SDDS was the least commercially successful of the three competing digital sound systems for 35 mm film. Sony ceased the sale of SDDS processors in 2001–2002. 241:

applied for a US patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. In 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the

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Dolby Digital data is printed in the spaces between the perforations on the soundtrack side of the film, 26 frames before the picture. Release prints with

1203:

common for 35 mm films to be blown up to 70 mm often just to take advantage of the greater number of sound tracks and the fidelity of the audio.

1179:, holding six tracks of stereophonic sound. Stereophonic releases throughout 1953 also used an interlocked full-coat for three-channel stereophonic sound. 3750: 1086:

The advent of 35 mm prints with digital soundtracks in the 1990s largely supplanted the widespread release of the more expensive 70 mm prints.

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be occupied by film prints; whichever platter happens to be empty serves as the "take-up reel" to receive the film that is playing from another platter.

64: 829:

projector, through the projector, through another series of rollers back to the platter stack, and then onto the platter serving as the take-up reel.

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thought of lantern projection when they independently introduced stroboscopic animation in 1833 with a stroboscopic disc (which became known as the

163:

were usually adopted soon after their introduction. Magic lantern presentations may often have had relatively small audiences, but the very popular

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be shown. All films, even those in the standard Academy ratio, have extra image on the frame that is meant to be masked off in the projection.

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film is then split lengthwise into two 8 mm pieces that are spliced to make a single projectable film with sprockets holes on one side.

226:

images were attached to the edge of a large rotating wheel and thrown on a small opal-glass screen by very short synchronized flashes from a

833:

of a double feature, each film plays from a full platter onto an empty platter, swapping positions on the platter stack throughout the day.

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Of the three digital formats currently in use, DTS is the only one that has been used with 70 mm presentations. DTS was premiered on

1485:

One wide screen development during the 1950s used non-anamorphic projection, but used three side by side synchronised projectors. Called

2201: 4091: 3960: 3512: 2400: 1014:, was designed to use this film stock and was originally intended to be used for test shots by movie directors and cinematographers. 3721: 2115: 2074: 1669: 1512:

survives as implemented by the documentary production, limited release locations, and long running exhibitions of IMAX dome movies.

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in the early 60s). Anamorphic is sometimes called "scope" in theater projection parlance, presumably in reference to CinemaScope.

1010:

The most common film size for theatrical productions during the 20th century. In fact, the common 35 mm camera, developed by

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is finished, the changeover switches the live show from projector "B" back to projector "A," and so on for the rest of the show.

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playing a 35 mm reel of a full-coat, or film completely coated with magnetic iron-oxide. This was introduced in 1952 with

31: 1118:

based on the amount of light that is projected through a soundtrack area on a film using an illuminating light or laser and a

617:

even sometimes three times (72 Hz) the frame rate of the film, so as to reduce the perception of screen flickering. (See

3653: 3136: 2923: 2139: 2109: 1936: 196:

patented ideas for a cinematographic film camera and a film presentation system in 1876. In reply to the introduction of the

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light projectors, because they refresh the image instantly with no blackout intervals as with traditional film projectors.

353:) compared to later digital cinema systems, the images at the time had visible pixels. By 2006, the advent of much higher 3562: 3494: 3247: 2769: 2410: 2405: 2395: 2283: 1388:

EBU leader (European Broadcast Union) is very similar to the SMPTE leader but with some superficial graphics differences.

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Each frame of regular 24 fps movies are shown twice or more in a process called "double-shuttering" to reduce flicker.

458:

16 frame/s – though sometimes used as a camera shooting speed – was inadvisable for projection, due to the risk of the

3995: 3272: 2774: 1855: 1497: 625:.) Higher rate shutters are less light efficient, requiring more powerful light sources for the same light on screen. 155:

introduced the apparatus around 1659. Initially candles and oil lamps were used, but other light sources, such as the

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Simulated wide screen image with 1.96 to 1 ratio as it would be seen in a camera viewfinder or on a theater screen

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The first form of magnetic sound was the double-head system, in which the movie projector was interlocked with a

993: 635:

Outer sprockets rotate continuously while the frame advance sprockets are controlled by the mechanism shown – a

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shows were usually performed in proper theatres, large tents or especially converted spaces with plenty seats.

669:

with multiple optical elements directs the image of the film to a viewing screen. Projector lenses differ in

104:. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in 3859: 3663: 3567: 3431: 3282: 3114: 3019: 2662: 2580: 2546: 2239: 1823: 1212:

35 mm film in the early 1990s removed one of the major justifications for using this expensive format.

1126:. As the photocell picks up the light in varying intensities, the electricity produced is intensified by an 324: 48: 1801: 1355:. The audio data in a DTS track is compressed in the 20-bit APTX-100 compression scheme at a ratio of 4:1. 4070: 3914: 3889: 3698: 3683: 3618: 3598: 3504: 3426: 3257: 3176: 3171: 3146: 3074: 3064: 3014: 3004: 2938: 2901: 2829: 2804: 2336: 2086: 2001: 1574: 1345: 1061: 901: 284:

1910s 35mm hand-cranked tinplate toy movie projector manufactured by Leonhard Müller in Nuremberg, Germany

266: 193: 1755: 3975: 3770: 3678: 3673: 3658: 3648: 3623: 3608: 3469: 3402: 3372: 3332: 3242: 3232: 3069: 2948: 2911: 2834: 2223: 2217: 1611: 1310: 1268: 1148: 545: 387: 274: 246: 3527: 1052:

A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or "quad track") – from left to right:

761:

material on the new reel should just reach the gate of the projector when the changeover cue is seen.

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back and does not engage the film. This is similar to the claw mechanism in a motion picture camera.

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plate also has spring-loaded runners to help hold film while in place and advance it during motion.

4096: 3765: 3738: 3708: 3362: 3277: 3181: 3059: 3039: 3029: 3024: 2994: 2886: 2799: 2627: 2622: 2374: 2278: 2185: 2068: 2029: 1956: 1448: 1444: 1029:

35 mm film is typically run vertically through the camera and projector. In the mid-1950s the

613: 383: 215: 552:

were the first light sources used in film projection. In the early 1900s up until the late 1960s,

3909: 3572: 3522: 3347: 3202: 3161: 3141: 3079: 3034: 2999: 2974: 2531: 2496: 2416: 2290: 2212: 2207: 2170: 1638: 794: 666: 495:

was shot at 48 frames/sec and projected at the higher frame rate at specially equipped theaters.

399: 370:. The decision ensured that Kodak's 35 mm film production would continue for several years. 204: 152: 1017: 628: 3879: 3815: 3802: 3733: 3397: 3322: 3312: 3302: 3287: 3151: 3119: 2979: 2814: 2585: 2369: 2165: 2097: 1665: 825: 774: 699: 686: 576:

A curved reflector redirects light that would otherwise be wasted toward the condensing lens.

403: 363: 359: 307: 223: 219: 1838: 1659: 1079:

projection system. In IMAX the film is transported horizontally in the film gate, similar to

3934: 3884: 3842: 3827: 3810: 3780: 3775: 3419: 3377: 3327: 3089: 3049: 2989: 2844: 2421: 2160: 1962: 1908: 1491: 1274: 1192: 1101: 1005: 770: 510: 432: 288: 270: 168: 52: 1422:

Simulated anamorphed image with 1.33 to 1 ratio (4:3) as it would appear on a frame of film

649: 472:(1988), a fictional film which partly revolves around a projectionist and his apprentice. 139: 3939: 3847: 3464: 3212: 3094: 2789: 2736: 2699: 2684: 2642: 2326: 2263: 2024: 1624: 1520:

For techniques used to display pictures with a three-dimensional appearance (3D), see the

1352: 1306: 953: 526: 468: 238: 183: 109: 38: 1168:

are two forms of magnetic sound in conjunction with projection: double-head and striped.

462:-base prints catching fire in the projector. Nitrate film stock began to be replaced by 3716: 3542: 3484: 3252: 2933: 2839: 2824: 2819: 2714: 2521: 2511: 2501: 1930: 1886: 1878: 1579: 1509: 1326: 1172: 560: 459: 451: 395: 345: 312: 242: 179: 175: 164: 113: 42: 1048: 805: 366:—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase a minimum amount of 35 mm film from 4085: 3869: 3837: 3822: 3787: 3547: 3392: 3357: 3307: 2943: 2916: 2896: 2864: 2809: 1569: 1293: 1287: 1057: 859: 580: 391: 354: 350: 227: 208: 148: 258:

of the kinetoscope and further developed it for their own movie projection systems.

131: 123:

and not all movie projectors are film projectors since the use of film is required.

4035: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3874: 3760: 3755: 3409: 3129: 3099: 2881: 2876: 2859: 2704: 2526: 2516: 2506: 2180: 1410: 1297: 1011: 926: 910: 674: 658: 636: 446: 105: 101: 73: 1418: 491:) which project at higher rates—60 frames/sec for Showscan and 48 for Maxivision. 201:

camera in 1889 but never seems to have been successful in projecting his movies.

4040: 3904: 3899: 3832: 3745: 3582: 3557: 3387: 3382: 3367: 3222: 3104: 3084: 2953: 2854: 2746: 2709: 2679: 2632: 2600: 2595: 2556: 2477: 2295: 2258: 1979: 1553: 1545: 1525: 1502: 1435: 1208: 1196: 1184: 1131: 1080: 1030: 1022: 971: 677:

to suit different needs. Different lenses are used for different aspect ratios.

537: 262: 231: 156: 17: 4030: 3552: 3532: 3446: 3436: 3297: 3262: 3237: 3166: 2906: 2891: 2871: 2753: 2689: 2605: 2551: 2273: 2268: 2250: 2190: 1535: 1439: 1426: 1123: 1043: 986: 854: 618: 516:

FP30ST movie projector, with parts labeled. (Click thumbnail for larger text.)

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necessary in the era when flammable cellulose nitrate film stock was in use.

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Kodak Film Notes Issue # H-50-03: Projection practices and techniques – see

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The way the film is fed from the platter to the projector is not unlike an

1267:

between the 3 regular screen channels (Left, Center and Right). A pair of

809:

Christie AW3 platter, BIG SKY Industries console, and Century SA projector

3537: 3352: 2849: 2779: 2647: 2568: 2563: 2092: 2063: 1903: 1802:

Collection of restored cinema projectors and lighting by Regal Group, UK.

1691:

1521: 1495:, but the only memorable story-telling film made for this technology was 1486: 1301: 1176: 749: 670: 553: 484: 748:

As the reel being shown approaches its end, the projectionist looks for

3577: 2726: 2672: 2357: 2007: 1972: 765:

411992), although many projectors do not have such an auditory system.

513: 466:

in 1948. A nitrate film fire and its devastating effect is featured in

292: 251: 836: 541:

The 15 kW xenon short-arc lamp used in the IMAX projection system

3124: 2541: 2491: 1991: 1847: 773:

windows. A changeover with this system is often clearly visible as a

89: 506: 1811: 1730:"Tarantino, Nolan, Apatow, Abrams Join Together to Save 35 mm Film" 186:), but neither of them intended to work on projection themselves. 3792: 3207: 2667: 1967: 1639:"Motion Picture Pioneer: Eadweard Muybridge and the Zoopraxiscope" 1603: 1417: 1409: 1047: 1016: 959: 835: 804: 648: 627: 583:

concentrates the reflected and direct light toward the film gate.

536: 505: 367: 279: 138: 130: 58: 47: 925:

Projectors are classified by the size of the film used, i.e. the

1985: 1748:"DOUBLE-BLADED SHUTTER, CRITICAL FLICKER FREQUENCY/FIGURE_01_08" 1473: 1460: 1104:

article for more information on both digital and analog methods.

1076: 633:

Mechanical sequence when image is shown twice and then advanced.

332:, a modified Jenkins' Phantoscope, within less than six months. 299: 97: 2450: 1851: 418:

The frequency at which flicker becomes invisible is called the

2446: 1818: 1365: 1321: 556:

were the source of light in almost all theaters in the world.

436: 1806: 1786: 435:

displays, due to the persistence of the phosphors, nor with

1833: 250:

and other scenes. The pictures were privately exhibited in

1839:

https://books.google.com/books?id=OSQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-

277:'s roof on 4 May. It was the first commercial projection. 1377:

numbers appear as a single frame in opaque black leader.

1320:

A consumer version of Dolby Digital is also used on most

1508:

While neither a technical nor a commercial success, the

1075:

70 mm film is also used in both the flat and domed

1114:

Optical sound constitutes the recording and reading of

793:

complete stop of both projectors, often turning on the

690:

to expand the image back to the intended aspect ratio.

190:

cranked around to direct light through the pictures.

1772:, pp. 446–449. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1996. 30:"Film projector" redirects here. For other uses, see 1661:

Fight Pictures: A History of Boxing and Early Cinema

328:(both 1895). Even Edison, joined the trend with the 4006: 3953: 3858: 3801: 3707: 3591: 3503: 3455: 3195: 2962: 2762: 2484: 2383: 2345: 2304: 2249: 2153: 2134:

Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology

2052: 1947: 1894: 1885: 1330:, but it was earlier tested at some screenings of 853:The single reel system can allow for the complete 147:The main precursor to the movie projector was the 2427:Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays 143:An early projector and seats from a movie theater 1604:"The Exhibition of Moving Pictures before 1896" 1244:and was used with several other films, such as 1056:(blue area to the left of the sprocket holes), 386:that has been traditionally been attributed to 382:The illusion of motion in projected films is a 1664:. University of California Press. p. 46. 222:in 1886. For each scene, 24 glass plates with 108:. Modern movie projectors are specially built 2462: 1863: 1819:The story of the DP70 – The Todd-AO Projector 913:, also known as the Maltese Cross mechanism. 119:Many projectors are specific to a particular 8: 1597: 1595: 1185:SMPTE leader, also known as countdown leader 358:2014, numerous popular filmmakers—including 4014:Conservation and restoration of photographs 2081:Surface-conduction electron-emitter display 1191:was first introduced in September, 1953 by 390:and later often to (misinterpretations of) 3751:Comparison of digital and film photography 2469: 2455: 2447: 1992:Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode 1891: 1870: 1856: 1848: 1712:"Digital cinema is the future … or is it?" 870:Smooth wheels with triangular pins called 657:of an Askania 35 mm movie projector ( 3971:Photographs considered the most important 1829:List of 3000 movie projectors and cameras 849:Automation and the rise of the multiplex 483:There are some specialist formats (e.g. 1591: 1524:article for some movie history and the 1620: 1609: 1333:Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country 529:there are essential optical elements: 135:Simulation of a spinning zoopraxiscope 27:Device for showing motion picture film 1147:stocks, variable density has a lower 291:projected motion pictures with their 7: 2128:Ferroelectric liquid crystal display 76:explains how a film projector works. 3966:Museums devoted to one photographer 2202:Light-emitting electrochemical cell 1528:article for technical information. 1067:(the dashed line to the far right.) 319:Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory 3513:Timeline of photography technology 2401:Large-screen television technology 1770:The Oxford History of World Cinema 1566:for a directory of projector types 1445:Ultra Panavision and MGM Camera 65 840:nonrewind in Royal – Malmö, Sweden 37:For digital movie projectors, see 25: 2075:Organic light-emitting transistor 1256:Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS) 4064: 4054: 4053: 2438:Comparison of display technology 1538: 1402:versatile projection lens type. 4065: 2069:Electroluminescent Quantum Dots 1710:McCarthy, Todd (25 June 1999). 1481:Multiple cameras and projectors 645:Imaging lens and aperture plate 32:Film projector (disambiguation) 2140:Laser-powered phosphor display 1: 3563:Painted photography backdrops 3495:Golden triangle (composition) 2770:35 mm equivalent focal length 2406:Optimum HDTV viewing distance 2396:History of display technology 2284:Computer-generated holography 1768:Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (ed.) 1340:Digital Theater Systems (DTS) 866:Feed and extraction sprockets 858:that has enabled the modern " 1986:Organic light-emitting diode 1980:Light-emitting diode display 1658:Streible, Dan (2008-04-11). 572:Reflector and condenser lens 55:movie projector in operation 3273:Intentional camera movement 1812:American Wide Screen Museum 1392:Types of lenses and screens 599:Film gate and frame advance 406:phenomenon is that the eye 4118: 3961:Most expensive photographs 3318:Multi-exposure HDR capture 2196:Vacuum fluorescent display 1920:Electroluminescent display 1564:Projector (disambiguation) 1501:, widely seen only in its 1343: 1285: 1262:Sony Dynamic Digital Sound 1259: 1250:Terminator 2: Judgment Day 1232: 1229:Cinema Digital Sound (CDS) 1041: 1003: 984: 969: 951: 936: 697: 36: 29: 4092:Film and video technology 4049: 2435: 2043:Liquid crystal on silicon 1787:http://www.film-tech.com/ 1752:cinemathequefroncaise.com 1468:Wide and deep flat screen 1296:always include an analog 1130:, which in turn powers a 994:electronic news-gathering 322:and comic vignettes like 304:Louis and Auguste Lumière 289:Max and Emil Skladanowsky 3895:Digital image processing 2234:Fourteen-segment display 2037:Digital Light Processing 887:Film gate pressure plate 623:Flicker fusion threshold 420:flicker fusion threshold 100:by projecting it onto a 3568:Photography and the law 2240:Sixteen-segment display 1926:Rear-projection display 709:Film transport elements 591:(Also spelled dowser.) 502:Principles of operation 325:The Sprinkler Sprinkled 3915:Gelatin silver process 2939:Science of photography 2924:Photographic processes 2902:Perspective distortion 2087:Field-emission display 2002:Liquid-crystal display 1619:Cite journal requires 1575:Movietone sound system 1423: 1415: 1346:Digital Theater System 1068: 1026: 929:. Typical film sizes: 902:intermittent mechanism 896:Intermittent mechanism 841: 810: 714:Film supply and takeup 662: 641: 542: 517: 285: 267:Eugene Augustin Lauste 194:Wordsworth Donisthorpe 144: 136: 96:device for displaying 77: 56: 3373:Schlieren photography 2912:Photographic printing 2835:Exposure compensation 2224:Eight-segment display 2218:Seven-segment display 1421: 1413: 1149:signal-to-noise ratio 1051: 1020: 839: 808: 652: 631: 579:A positive curvature 546:Incandescent lighting 540: 509: 388:persistence of vision 283: 275:Madison Square Garden 247:Roundhay Garden Scene 142: 134: 72: 51: 3157:Straight photography 2795:Chromatic aberration 2346:Display capabilities 2229:Nine-segment display 1931:Plasma display panel 1559:List of film formats 1498:How the West Was Won 1235:Cinema Digital Sound 464:cellulose triacetate 410:, i.e.: there is no 218:developed his first 4024:photographic plates 3709:Digital photography 2887:Hyperfocal distance 2800:Circle of confusion 2375:See-through display 2279:Holographic display 1957:Quantum dot display 1449:Ultra Panavision 70 1447:(which was renamed 521:Projection elements 384:stroboscopic effect 98:motion picture film 3528:Autochrome Lumière 3523:Analog photography 3348:Pigeon photography 3137:Social documentary 2616:discontinued films 2417:Color Light Output 2411:High Dynamic Range 2213:Dot-matrix display 2208:Lightguide display 1879:Display technology 1455:Fish eye with dome 1424: 1416: 1069: 1027: 842: 811: 801:Single-reel system 771:projection booth's 740:Changeover systems 663: 642: 543: 518: 400:Gestalt psychology 340:Digital projectors 286: 224:chronophotographic 205:Eadweard Muybridge 153:Christiaan Huygens 145: 137: 78: 57: 4079: 4078: 3880:Collodion process 3816:Chromogenic print 3803:Color photography 3313:Multiple exposure 3288:Lo-fi photography 2815:Color temperature 2444: 2443: 2370:Always-on display 2161:Electromechanical 2149: 2148: 1516:Three-dimensional 1021:A diagram of the 700:Projection screen 687:anamorphic format 404:visual perception 364:Christopher Nolan 360:Quentin Tarantino 220:Electrotachyscope 70: 16:(Redirected from 4109: 4068: 4067: 4057: 4056: 3935:Print permanence 3885:Cross processing 3843:CMYK color model 3828:Color management 3781:Foveon X3 sensor 3776:Three-CCD camera 3420:Miniature faking 3378:Sabattier effect 2990:Astrophotography 2845:Zebra patterning 2471: 2464: 2457: 2448: 2422:Flexible display 2384:Related articles 2264:Autostereoscopic 1963:Electronic paper 1909:Cathode-ray tube 1892: 1872: 1865: 1858: 1849: 1789: 1779: 1773: 1766: 1760: 1759: 1754:. Archived from 1744: 1738: 1737: 1734:firstshowing.net 1726: 1720: 1719: 1707: 1701: 1698: 1692: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1655: 1649: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1622: 1617: 1615: 1607: 1599: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1492:This is Cinerama 1300:soundtrack with 1275:Last Action Hero 1193:Hazard E. Reeves 1140:variable density 1006:35 mm movie film 554:carbon arc lamps 433:cathode ray tube 216:Ottomar Anschütz 169:dissolving views 110:video projectors 71: 21: 18:Movie projectors 4117: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4107: 4106: 4102:Display devices 4082: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4045: 4002: 3949: 3940:Push processing 3861: 3854: 3848:RGB color model 3797: 3703: 3587: 3499: 3465:Diagonal method 3451: 3191: 3095:Photojournalism 2958: 2790:Black-and-white 2758: 2737:Slide projector 2732:Movie projector 2611:available films 2480: 2475: 2445: 2440: 2431: 2379: 2341: 2327:Slide projector 2317:Movie projector 2300: 2245: 2145: 2055: 2048: 1949: 1943: 1896: 1881: 1876: 1824:A Cinerama site 1798: 1793: 1792: 1780: 1776: 1767: 1763: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1736:. 30 July 2014. 1728: 1727: 1723: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1657: 1656: 1652: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1618: 1608: 1602:Rossell, Deac. 1601: 1600: 1593: 1588: 1544: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1518: 1483: 1470: 1457: 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1713: 1706: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1688: 1685: 1673: 1671:9780520940581 1667: 1663: 1662: 1654: 1651: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1626: 1613: 1605: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1570:Projectionist 1568: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1547: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1499: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1428: 1420: 1412: 1405: 1403: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1371: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1361:Jurassic Park 1356: 1354: 1347: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1294:Dolby Digital 1289: 1288:Dolby Digital 1282:Dolby Digital 1281: 1279: 1277: 1276: 1270: 1263: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1236: 1228: 1226: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1186: 1183:checked with 1180: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1145: 1144:variable area 1141: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1066: 1063: 1059: 1058:Dolby Digital 1055: 1050: 1045: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1024: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1007: 999: 997: 995: 988: 980: 978: 973: 965: 963: 961: 958:Developed by 955: 947: 945: 940: 932: 930: 928: 920: 918: 914: 912: 906: 903: 895: 893: 886: 884: 877: 875: 873: 865: 863: 861: 856: 848: 846: 838: 834: 830: 827: 822: 818: 814: 807: 800: 798: 796: 790: 786: 782: 778: 776: 772: 766: 762: 758: 754: 751: 746: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 718: 713: 708: 706: 701: 693: 691: 688: 682: 678: 676: 672: 668: 665:A projection 660: 656: 653:Imaging lens 651: 644: 638: 630: 626: 624: 620: 615: 607: 605: 598: 596: 592: 586: 584: 582: 577: 571: 569: 565: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 539: 532: 530: 528: 520: 515: 512: 508: 501: 499: 496: 494: 490: 486: 481: 478: 475:The birth of 473: 471: 470: 465: 461: 456: 453: 448: 444: 442: 438: 434: 428: 425: 421: 416: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 392:beta movement 389: 385: 377: 375: 371: 369: 365: 361: 356: 355:4K resolution 352: 347: 339: 337: 333: 331: 327: 326: 321: 320: 315: 314: 309: 305: 301: 296: 294: 290: 282: 278: 276: 272: 268: 265:, devised by 264: 259: 255: 253: 249: 248: 244: 240: 235: 233: 229: 228:Geissler tube 225: 221: 217: 213: 210: 209:Zoopraxiscope 206: 202: 199: 195: 191: 187: 185: 181: 177: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 149:magic lantern 141: 133: 126: 124: 122: 117: 115: 111: 107: 106:movie cameras 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 75: 54: 50: 44: 40: 33: 19: 4036:Polaroid art 3930:K-14 process 3925:Instant film 3920:Gum printing 3875:C-41 process 3860:Photographic 3761:Image sensor 3756:Film scanner 3410:Sun printing 3343:Print toning 3130:space selfie 3100:Pictorialism 3030:Ethnographic 3010:Conservation 2882:Guide number 2877:Focal length 2731: 2332:Transparency 2316: 2305:Static media 2259:Stereoscopic 1782: 1777: 1769: 1764: 1756:the original 1751: 1742: 1733: 1724: 1715: 1705: 1696: 1687: 1675:. Retrieved 1660: 1653: 1642:. Retrieved 1633: 1612:cite journal 1519: 1507: 1505:re-release. 1496: 1490: 1484: 1471: 1458: 1432: 1425: 1400: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1359: 1357: 1349: 1331: 1325: 1319: 1316: 1298:Dolby Stereo 1291: 1273: 1265: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1223: 1214: 1205: 1201: 1189: 1181: 1170: 1166: 1157: 1153: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1113: 1099: 1093: 1085: 1074: 1070: 1028: 1009: 990: 975: 957: 942: 924: 915: 911:Geneva drive 907: 899: 890: 881: 869: 852: 843: 831: 823: 819: 815: 812: 795:house lights 791: 787: 783: 779: 767: 763: 759: 755: 747: 743: 734: 730: 726: 722: 703: 683: 679: 675:focal length 664: 659:focal length 654: 637:Geneva drive 611: 602: 593: 590: 578: 575: 566: 558: 544: 533:Light source 524: 497: 482: 474: 467: 457: 447:Silent films 445: 429: 417: 407: 381: 372: 343: 334: 323: 317: 311: 297: 287: 260: 256: 245: 236: 214: 203: 192: 188: 173: 146: 127:Predecessors 118: 85: 81: 79: 74:Bill Hammack 4041:Stereoscopy 3905:E-6 process 3900:Dye coupler 3833:color space 3746:Digiscoping 3739:camera back 3654:Philippines 3583:Visual arts 3573:Glass plate 3558:Heliography 3457:Composition 3432:Ultraviolet 3388:Stereoscopy 3383:Slow motion 3368:Scanography 3283:Kite aerial 3223:Contre-jour 3115:Post-mortem 3105:Pornography 3085:Neues Sehen 3020:Documentary 2954:Zone System 2929:Reciprocity 2855:Film format 2785:Backscatter 2763:Terminology 2633:beauty dish 2532:rangefinder 2497:light-field 2478:Photography 2296:Fog display 2269:Multiscopic 2186:Fiber-optic 2098:Quantum dot 1716:variety.com 1554:Film format 1546:Film portal 1526:stereoscopy 1503:Cinemascope 1436:CinemaScope 1209:Cinemascope 1197:Cinemascope 1132:loudspeaker 1081:VistaVision 1031:VistaVision 1023:VistaVision 972:9.5 mm film 927:film format 826:eight-track 398:known from 394:and/or the 263:Eidoloscope 232:Kinetoscope 157:argand lamp 4097:Projectors 4086:Categories 4031:Lomography 3862:processing 3811:Print film 3727:comparison 3694:Uzbekistan 3644:Luxembourg 3604:Bangladesh 3553:Dufaycolor 3533:Box camera 3490:Simplicity 3447:Zoom burst 3442:Xerography 3437:Vignetting 3427:Time-lapse 3415:Tilt–shift 3308:Mordançage 3298:Luminogram 3263:Holography 3258:High-speed 3238:Fill flash 3218:Burst mode 3196:Techniques 3177:Vernacular 3172:Underwater 3167:Toy camera 3147:Still life 3075:Monochrome 3065:High-speed 3015:Cloudscape 3005:Conceptual 2907:Photograph 2892:Lens flare 2872:Film speed 2754:Zone plate 2700:wide-angle 2685:long-focus 2337:Laser beam 2291:Volumetric 2251:3D display 2191:Nixie tube 2171:Split-flap 2056:generation 2030:Blue Phase 1950:generation 1897:generation 1644:2012-12-17 1586:References 1440:Panavision 1427:Anamorphic 1406:Anamorphic 1242:Dick Tracy 1124:photodiode 1044:70 mm film 987:16 mm film 855:automation 619:Frame rate 511:35 mm 493:The Hobbit 489:Maxivision 477:sound film 412:frame rate 378:Physiology 313:actualités 198:phonograph 121:film gauge 112:(see also 94:mechanical 53:35 mm 3981:Norwegian 3945:Stop bath 3890:Developer 3518:Ambrotype 3480:Lead room 3403:Slit-scan 3338:Photogram 3333:Panoramic 3243:Fireworks 3228:Cyanotype 3070:Landscape 2715:telephoto 2663:reflector 2658:monolight 2653:lens hood 2638:cucoloris 2574:safelight 2485:Equipment 2391:Scan line 2365:DisplayID 2322:Neon sign 2312:Monoscope 2154:Non-video 1915:Jumbotron 1807:Film-Tech 1397:Spherical 1128:amplifier 1120:photocell 1116:amplitude 1065:time code 939:8 mm film 878:Film loop 872:sprockets 860:multiplex 750:cue marks 667:objective 550:limelight 548:and even 424:rod cells 344:In 1999, 330:Vitascope 161:limelight 4060:Category 3766:CMOS APS 3664:Slovenia 3592:Regional 3538:Calotype 3475:Headroom 3353:Redscale 3268:Infrared 3213:Brenizer 3187:Wildlife 3110:Portrait 3055:Forensic 3045:Fine-art 2980:Aircraft 2970:Abstract 2850:F-number 2830:Exposure 2805:Clipping 2780:Aperture 2648:hot shoe 2569:enlarger 2564:Darkroom 2274:Hologram 2181:Eggcrate 2166:Flip-dot 2112:display 2093:Laser TV 2064:microLED 1994:(AMOLED) 1948:Current 1904:Eidophor 1532:See also 1522:3-D film 1487:Cinerama 1302:Dolby SR 1177:Cinerama 1163:Magnetic 1100:See the 671:aperture 525:As in a 485:Showscan 269:for the 237:In 1886 88:) is an 4071:Outline 4007:Related 3699:Vietnam 3684:Ukraine 3619:Denmark 3599:Albania 3578:Tintype 3505:History 3470:Framing 3363:Rollout 3328:Panning 3278:Kirlian 3182:Wedding 3060:Glamour 3040:Fashion 3025:Eclipse 2995:Banquet 2917:Albumen 2727:Monopod 2705:fisheye 2673:softbox 2522:pinhole 2512:instant 2502:digital 2358:CEA-861 1988:(OLED) 1973:Gyricon 1783:Manuals 1372:Leaders 1220:Digital 1110:Optical 1062:Datasat 948:Super 8 655:Diastar 608:Shutter 514:Kinoton 460:nitrate 293:Bioscop 252:Hunslet 4069: 4058: 3991:street 3986:Polish 3679:Turkey 3674:Taiwan 3659:Serbia 3649:Norway 3624:Greece 3609:Canada 3203:Afocal 3162:Street 3142:Sports 3125:Selfie 3080:Nature 3035:Erotic 3000:Candid 2975:Aerial 2963:Genres 2865:medium 2742:Tripod 2710:swivel 2623:Filter 2601:holder 2596:format 2492:Camera 2242:(SISD) 2136:(TDEL) 2130:(FLCD) 2077:(OLET) 2045:(LCoS) 2004:(LCD) 1982:(LED) 1959:(QLED) 1933:(PDP) 1677:16 May 1668: 1173:dubber 1025:format 966:9.5 mm 587:Douser 271:Latham 212:hand. 102:screen 3996:women 3954:Lists 3910:Fixer 3793:Pixel 3722:D-SLR 3669:Sudan 3639:Korea 3634:Japan 3629:India 3614:China 3398:Strip 3323:Night 3303:Macro 3208:Bokeh 3152:Stock 3120:Ruins 2860:large 2690:prime 2668:snoot 2628:Flash 2606:stock 2581:Drone 2542:still 2527:press 2517:phone 2507:field 2413:(HDR) 2236:(FSD) 2220:(SSD) 2204:(LEC) 2198:(VFD) 2142:(LPD) 2089:(FED) 2083:(SED) 2054:Next 2039:(DLP) 1968:E Ink 1922:(ELD) 1911:(CRT) 1090:Sound 1038:70 mm 1012:Leica 1000:35 mm 981:16 mm 960:Kodak 921:Types 368:Kodak 316:like 174:Both 4019:film 3734:MILC 3233:ETTR 3090:Nude 3050:Fire 2949:Sync 2747:head 2695:zoom 2680:Lens 2643:gobo 2591:base 2586:Film 2557:view 2353:EDID 2175:Vane 2121:TMOS 2116:IMoD 2110:MEMS 1937:ALiS 1895:Past 1679:2016 1666:ISBN 1625:help 1474:IMAX 1472:The 1461:IMAX 1459:The 1366:DVDs 1322:DVDs 1269:CCDs 1248:and 1195:for 1077:IMAX 1054:SDDS 933:8 mm 900:The 775:wipe 673:and 621:and 581:lens 559:The 487:and 362:and 300:Lyon 261:The 178:and 167:and 159:and 90:opto 84:(or 41:and 3771:CCD 2552:toy 2547:TLR 2537:SLR 2025:LED 2018:IPS 2008:TFT 1785:at 1311:CCD 1122:or 441:DLP 439:or 437:LCD 298:In 116:). 4088:: 2013:TN 1750:. 1732:. 1714:. 1616:: 1614:}} 1610:{{ 1594:^ 1438:, 1336:. 1252:. 1151:. 351:2K 302:, 80:A 2470:e 2463:t 2456:v 1871:e 1864:t 1857:v 1837:[ 1718:. 1681:. 1647:. 1627:) 1623:( 1606:. 639:. 92:- 45:. 34:. 20:)

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Index