910:, contrast these Christians with the earlier official Christianity of the Visigoths, by Reccared, the previous bishop of Córdoba, who counseled tolerance and mutual forbearance with the Muslim authorities. However, since then Christians became increasingly alienated not only because they could not build new churches or ring church bells, but primarily because they were excluded from most positions of political, military, or social authority and suffered many other indignities as unequals under the Islamic law. By the mid-9th century, as the episode of the Córdoba martyrs reveals, there was a clear Christian opposition against the systematic pressure by a variety of legal and financial instruments of Islam, resisting their conversion and absorption into Muslim culture.
140:
824:
744:
682:, who visited the country in the middle of the 10th century, spoke of frequent revolts by Mozarab peasants employed on large estates, probably those of the ruling aristocracy. There is also substantial evidence that Mozarabs fought in the defense of the thaghr (front line fortress towns), participating in raids against Christian neighbours and struggles between Muslim factions. For instance, in 936, a significant number of Christians holed up in
612:
763:'s major offensives was to annihilate the Moorish frontier by taking Zaragoza, which was an important Mozarab stronghold. However, the offensive failed because the Mozarabs of the city refused to cooperate with the Catholic emperor. Vives concludes that the Mozarabs were primarily a self-absorbed group. They understood that they could gain a great deal by remaining in close contact with the Moors.
974:
890:
43:
702:
rulers. Unlike
Andalusi Muslims and Jews, Mozarabs had little interest in commerce because of their general perception of trade as lowly and despicable. This was in stark contrast to the greater respect accorded to merchants in Jewish and Muslim societies, where trade was frequently combined with other callings, such as politics, scholarship, or medicine.
706:
commerce with their abandoned homeland. Most traffic between Al-Andalus and
Christian regions remained in the hands of Jewish and Muslim traders until the dramatic shifts initiated by European commercial expansion throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. With the development of Italian maritime power and the southward expansion of the Christian
1273:'s policy of allowing the ethnic Arab politico-military elite to practice agriculture further encouraged economic and cultural contact and cohesion. Moreover, the interaction of foreign and native elements, fostered by intermarriage and contact in day-to-day commercial and social life rapidly stimulated acculturation between the two groups.
1296:) were scandalized at the treatment of Christians, and began encouraging the public declarations of the faith as a way to reinforce the faith of the Christian community and protest the Islamic laws that Christians saw as unjust. Eulogius composed tractates and martyrologies for Christians during this time.
604:. Many Mozarabs converted to Islam to avoid the heavy jizyah tax which they were subjected to as dhimmi. Conversion to Islam also opened up new horizons to the Mozarabs, alleviated their social position, ensured better living conditions, and broadened scope for more technically skilled and advanced work.
881:
concludes that
Eulogius was not the instigator of these persecutions but merely a hagiographer. This is consistent with other historical records of two Christians executed in 860, and shortly after a third one. The subsequent executions were in 888–912 and 913–920. Still more executions were recorded
729:
For most of the 9th and 10th centuries, Iberian
Christian culture in the north was stimulated by the learning of Mozarab immigrants, who helped to accentuate its Christian identity and apparently played a major role in development of Iberian Christian ideology. The Mozarab scholars and clergy eagerly
725:
influence to the northeast. The level of literary culture among the northern
Christians was inferior to that of their Mozarab brethren in the historic cities to the south, due to the prosperity of Al-Andalus. For that reason, Christian refugees from Al-Andalus were always welcomed in the north, where
1479:
supported the idea that the indigenous
Christian community of Al-Andalus formed the majority of the population. Other historians argue that the work of Simonet and those who preceded him in studying this question did not use sources properly, and that there is no historical evidence that can be used
1470:
There is a long-running debate about how many of the population of Al-Andalus were
Mozarabs. Some maintain that the Mozarabs were part of a historical continuum of Latinized Christians that represented the majority of the population of Al-Andalus, while others argue that the Christian population was
1238:
was supplemented by the local solar calendar, which were more useful for agricultural and navigational purposes. Like the local
Mozarabs, the Muslims of Al-Andalus were notoriously heavy drinkers. Muslims also celebrated traditional Christian holidays sometimes with the sponsorship of their leaders,
1404:
In 1126, a great number of
Mozarabs were expelled to North Africa by the Almoravids. Other Mozarabs fled to Northern Iberia. This constituted the end of the Mozarabic culture in Al-Andalus. For a while, both in North Africa and in Northern Iberia, the Mozarabs managed to maintain their own separate
874:, and criticizing Islam. The Arabization of the Christians was opposed by Eulogius himself, who called for a more purely Christian culture stripped of Moorish influences. To this end, he led a revolt of the Mozarabs at Córdoba in which Christians martyred themselves to protest against Muslim rule.
794:
kingdoms; there were several parishes in Toledo when the
Christians occupied the city in 1085, and abundant documentation in Arabic on the Mozarabs of this city is preserved. An apparently still significant Mozarab group, which is the subject of a number of passages in the Arabic chronicles dealing
705:
It is often mistakenly assumed that Mozarab merchants forged a vital commercial and cultural link between the north and south across the Iberian frontiers. Mozarab refugees may have had influence in northern Iberian trade at places like Toledo, but there is no reason to believe that they engaged in
913:
The initial official reaction to the Córdoba martyrs was to round up and imprison the leaders of the Christian community. Towards the end of the decade of the martyrs, Eulogius's martyrology begins to record the closing of Christian monasteries and convents, which to Muslim eyes had proved to be a
516:
to be judged by their own judges, under their own law: Mozarabs had their own tribunals and authorities. Some of them even held high offices in the Islamic administration under some rulers. A prominent example being that of Rabi ibn Zayd, a palace official, who, sometime between 961 and 976, wrote
1502:. Many continued to live under Christian rule while keeping their distinctive rite down to the 14th century. The switch from a predominantly Latinate culture to an Arabic one was already well underway in the mid-9th century. The use of Arabic by Mozarabs rapidly declined in the late 13th century.
1396:
was under constant pressure to eradicate the Mozarabic Rite. A popular legend states that Alfonso VI submitted the Mozarab liturgy and its Roman counterpart to ordeal by fire, putting the fix in for the Catholic rite. Hence, the Mozarab liturgy was abolished in 1086. The Mozarabic Chapel in the
766:
There was a steady rate of decline among the Mozarab population of Al-Andalus towards the end of the Reconquista. This was mainly caused by conversions, emigration towards the northern part of the peninsula during the upheavals of the 9th and early 10th centuries and also by the ethno-religious
282:
Most of the Mozarabs were descendants of local Christians and were primarily speakers of Romance varieties under Islamic rule. They also included those members of the former Visigothic ruling elite who did not convert to Islam or emigrate northwards after the Muslim conquest. Spanish Christians
1443:, aware of the Mozarabic liturgy historical value and liturgical richness, undertook the task of guaranteeing its continuation, and to this end gathered all the codices and texts to be found in the city. After they had been carefully studied by specialists, they were classified and in 1502 the
1276:
The heterodox features of Mozarabic culture inevitably became more prominent. However, Christian women often married Muslim men and their children were raised as Muslims. Even within Mozarab families, legal divorce eventually came to be practised along Islamic lines. Some Mozarab men were even
838:
Christians did not enjoy equal rights under Islamic rule, and their original guarantees, at first fairly broad, steadily diminished. They were still allowed to practice their own religion in private, but found their cultural autonomy increasingly reduced. Mozarabs inevitably lost more and more
701:
Although Mozarab merchants traded in Andalusi markets, they were neither influential nor numerous before the middle of the 12th century. This stemmed from commercial disinterest and disorganization in the early Middle Ages, rather than any specific or religious impediments set up by the Muslim
1376:
called the council of Burgos, where it was agreed to unify the Latin liturgical rite in all Christian lands. In 1085, Toledo was reconquered and there was a subsequent attempt to reintroduce the ecumenical standards of Rome. The reaction of the Toledan people was such that the king refused to
283:
initially portrayed Muslims primarily as military or political enemies, but with time, Islam came to be seen as a religion and not merely a threat. Spanish Christians sought to discourage apostasy from Christianity and to defend Christian beliefs, but they increasingly became connected to the
1438:
did not recognize the Mozarabs as a separate legal community, and thus accentuated a steady decline which led to the complete absorption of the Mozarabs by the general community by the end of the 15th century. As a result, the Mozarabic culture had been practically lost. Cardinal
501:, a personal tax, and abide with a number of religious, social, and economic restrictions that came with their status. Despite their restrictions, the dhimmi were fully protected by the Muslim rulers and did not have to fight in case of war, because they paid the jizya.
1427:, who was himself the principal buyer of Mozarab property in the early 13th century fomented a segregationalist policy under the cloak of religious nationalism. Jiménez de Rada's bias is symbolized in his coining of the semi-erudite etymology of the word Mozarab from
294:
Christians coupled with Muslim converts to Christianity who, as Arabic speakers, felt at home among the original Mozarabs. A prominent example of a Muslim who became a Mozarab by embracing Christianity is the Andalusi rebel and anti-Umayyad military leader,
1408:
Over the course of the 12th and 13th centuries, there unrolled a steady process of the impoverishment of Mozarab cultivators, as more and more land came under control of magnates and ecclesiastical corporations. The latter, under the influence of the
1260:
The Arab and mostly Berber immigrants who settled in the existing towns were drawn into broad contact with natives. Their immigration, though limited in numbers, introduced new agricultural and hydraulic technologies, new craft industries, and
1311:. Jessica A. Coope says that while it would be wrong to ascribe a single motive to all forty-eight, she suggests that it reflects a protest against the process of assimilation. They demonstrated a determination to assert Christian identity.
726:
their descendants came to form an influential element. Though impossible to quantify, the emigration of Mozarabs from the south was probably a significant factor in the growth of the Christian principalities and kingdoms of northern Iberia.
651:
as overlord and to pay tribute consisting of a yearly cash payment supplemented with specific agricultural products. In exchange, Theodomir received Abd al-Aziz' promise to respect both his property and his jurisdiction in the province of
1303:
were martyred between the years 850 and 859, being decapitated for publicly proclaiming their Christian beliefs. Dhimmi (non-Muslims living under Muslim rule) were not allowed to speak of their faith to Muslims under penalty of death.
778:
data as furnished by scholarly biographical dictionaries, concluded that it was only in the 10th century when the Andalusi emirate was firmly established and developed into the greatest power of the western Mediterranean under Caliph
1117:
The use of Arabic cognomens by the Mozarab communities of Al-Andalus is emblematic of the adoption by the Christians of the outward manifestations of Arab-language Islamic culture. The Mozarabs employed Arabic-style names such as
689:
There is very little evidence of any Christian resistance at Al-Andalus in the 9th century. Evidence points to a rapid attrition in the North. For instance, during the 1st centuries of Muslim rule, the Mozarab community of
1246:
In the earliest period of Muslim domination of Iberia, there is evidence of extensive interaction between the two communities attested to by shared cemeteries and churches, bilingual coinage, and the continuity of late
1257:, the self-contained and deliberately isolated city camps set up alongside existing settlements elsewhere in the Muslim world with the intention of protecting Muslim settlers from corrupting indigenous influences.
710:, Andalusi international trade came increasingly under the control of Christian traders from northern Iberia, southern France, and Italy. By the middle of the 13th century, it was an exclusively Christian concern.
786:
The expansion of the Caliphate had come primarily through conversion and absorption, and only very secondarily through immigration. The remaining Mozarab community shrank into an increasingly fossilized remnant.
865:
It is supposed that the Mozarabs were tolerated as dhimmi and valued taxpayers, and no Mozarab was condemned to death until the formation of the party led by the Christian leaders Eulogius (beheaded in 859) and
783:, that the numerical ratio of Muslims and Christians in Al-Andalus was reversed in favour of the former. Prior to the middle of this century, he asserts, the population of Al-Andalus was still half Christian.
1544:
in 889. Although it survives in only one manuscript, it was a popular text and is quoted by Muslim and Jewish authors. Ḥafṣ also wrote a book of Christian answers to Muslim questions about their faith called
1505:
Among the Latin works of early Mozarabic culture, historiography is especially important, since it constitutes the earliest record from al-Andalus of the conquest period. There are two main works, the
1265:
techniques of shipbuilding. They were accompanied by an Arabic-language culture that brought with it the higher learning and science of the classical and post-classical Levantine world. The emir of
1480:
to make a definitive pronouncement on the ethnic composition of Al-Andalus society. According to scholar Josephine Labanyi, at the end of the 11th century there were about 75,000 Christians in the
751:
The ability of the Mozarabs to assimilate into Moorish culture while maintaining their Christian faith has often caused them to be depicted by Western scholars as having a strong allegiance to
1462:, written in the 11th century. The Mozarab community in Toledo continues to thrive to this day. It is made of 1,300 families whose genealogies can be traced back to the ancient Mozarabs.
936:
induced Mozarab settlers by promising them lands and rewards. His importation of Mozarab settlers from Al-Andalus was very unusual because of its startling nature. According to the
811:
region towards the end of the 11th century. Until the reconquest of Seville by the Christians in 1248, a Mozarab community existed there, though in the course of the 12th century
1385:
1314:
The Mozarab population was badly affected by the hardening of relations between the Christians and the Muslims during the Almoravid period. In 1099, the people of
862:
that had sheltered the only holdouts in 711, and nine monasteries and convents in the city and its environs; nevertheless, their existence soon became precarious.
1230:
There is evidence of a limited cultural borrowing from the Mozarabs by the Muslim community in Al-Andalus. For instance, the Muslims' adoption of the Christian
921:
advanced, the Mozarabs integrated into the Christian kingdoms, where the kings privileged those who settled the frontier lands. They also migrated north to the
839:
status, but they long maintained their dignity and the integrity of their culture, and they never lost personal and cultural contact with the Christian world.
2409:
2302:
Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de la Viuda e Hijos de M. Tello, 1897-1903, edición facsímil, Valladolid: Maxtor, 2005, LVIII + 976 Págs. En dos tomos.
2404:
1498:
The literature of the Mozarabs is bilingual in Latin and Arabic. Mozarabs were originally those Christians living under Islamic rule following their own
1349:
and appointed northerners as bishops for the reconquered sees. Nowadays, the Mozarabic Rite is allowed by a papal privilege at the Mozarab Chapel of the
1307:
Wolf points out that it is important to distinguish between the motivations of the individual martyrs, and those of Eulogius and Alvarus in writing the
2399:
906:
Eulogius's writings documenting stories of the Córdoba martyrs of 851–59, encouraged by him to defy Muslim authorities with blasphemies and embrace
886:
and submit to the caliph's sexual advances), and Argentea in 931. According to Wolf, there is no reason to believe that they stopped even then.
1788:
1708:
1533:
1114:
conquerors led the Christian polemicist Petrus Alvarus of Córdoba to famously lament the decline of spoken Latin among the local Christians.
1103:
origin. The northward migration of Mozarabs explains the presence of Arabic toponyms in places where the Muslim presence did not last long.
1471:
relatively small in the areas under Muslim rule. The former camp bases their position on the work of Francisco Javier Simonet, whose works
1421:
139:
2394:
1451:
were printed. They revitalized the faith and a chapel was instituted at the cathedral, with its own priests which still exists today.
730:
sought manuscripts, relics and traditions from the towns and monasteries of central and southern Iberia that had been the heartland of
1365:. Since Toledo was the most deeply rooted centre where they remained firm, the Gothic rite was identified and came to be known as the
2284:
Kassis, Hanna. "Arabic-speaking Christians in al-Andalus in an age of turmoil (fifth/eleventh century until A.H. 478/A.D. 1085)", in
2307:
2275:
2095:
2014:
1989:
1964:
1939:
1676:
1633:
1021:
126:
1525:
1289:
867:
858:
during the decade after 850, it was apparent that at least four Christian basilicas remained in the city, including the church of
1440:
1873:
470:, now sometimes applied broadly to all Christians in al-Andalus, is imprecise; many Christians living in Islamic Spain resisted
2310:; fue reimpresa en Ámsterdam: Oriental Press, 1967, y luego en cuatro volúmenes por Madrid, Turner, 1983, véase a continuación.
635:
document must stand for many such agreements to render tribute in exchange for the protection of traditional liberties; in it,
284:
2300:
Historia de los mozárabes de España deducida de sus mejores y más auténticos testimonios de los escritores cristianos y árabes
1110:, but as time passed, young Mozarabs studied and even excelled at Arabic. The implantation of Arabic as the vernacular by the
823:
2389:
1914:
1195:
999:
914:
hotbed of disruptive fanaticism rather than a legitimate response against a slow but systematic elimination of Christianity.
64:
1208:
There are but few remains of Christian scholarly discourse in Muslim Iberia. What remains in Arabic are translations of the
1146:
were not mere aliases adopted to facilitate their movement within Muslim society. Conversely, some Christian names such as
2191:
Koningsveld, Pieter Sjoerd van (1994). "Christian Arabic Literature from Medieval Spain: An Attempt at Periodization". In
1381:, which awarded them privileges. He specified that it applied only to the Castilians, Mozarabs, and Franks of the city.
1688:
107:
984:
79:
2358:
1182:(The Goth), and some may have been actual descendants from the family of the Pre-Islamic Visigothic Christian king,
1424:
31:
1142:(Fernandez), in purely Christian contexts. This demonstrates that they had acculturated thoroughly and that their
1003:
988:
53:
1041:
995:
842:
In the generations that followed the conquest, Muslim rulers promulgated new statutes clearly disadvantageous to
244:
60:
1532:, defending the martyrs and decrying the movement towards Arabic among his fellow Mozarabs. A generation later,
1285:, and various Muslim sources claim that concubinage and fornication among the clergy was extremely widespread.
86:
2384:
1330:
828:
632:
205:
299:. The Mozarabs of Muslim origin were descendants of those Muslims who converted to Christianity following the
2341:
La era mozárabe: los mozárabes de Toledo (siglos XII y XIII) en la historiografía, las fuentes y la historia
1361:, La Inmaculada y San Pascual, also holds weekly Mozarabic masses. A Mozarab brotherhood is still active in
1224:
698:(count) and had its own judiciary, but there is no evidence of any such administration in the later period.
627:, were relatively cordial. Christian resistance to the first wave of Muslim conquerors was unsuccessful. In
1687:
Morillas, Consuelo López (2000-08-31), Menocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells, Michael (eds.),
656:. There was no change in the composition of the people on the land, and in cases like this one, even their
608:, however, for one who had been raised as a Muslim or had embraced Islam, was a crime punishable by death.
1346:
1293:
851:
566:
562:
402:
300:
247:, with an important contribution of Arabic and spoken by Christians and Muslims alike, are referred to as
164:
144:
93:
2139:
2222:
1435:
1393:
1389:
933:
2236:
de Epalza, Mikel. "Mozarabs: an emblematic Christian minority in Islamic al-Andalus", in Jayyusi (ed.)
2165:
2112:
1521:
1300:
1057:
This archaic Romance language is first documented in writing in the Peninsula in the form of choruses (
855:
743:
601:
497:(Islamic law). Dhimmi were allowed to live within Muslim society, but were legally required to pay the
1859:
1431:, connoting the contamination of this group by overexposure to infidel customs, if not by migration.
713:
There were frequent contacts between the Mozarabs in Al-Andalus and their co-religionists both in the
307:. These Mozarabs of Muslim origin who converted en masse at the end of the 11th century, many of them
2327:
Historia de los mozárabes de España, 3: Hasta la conquista de Toledo por Alfonso VI (años 870 a 1085)
2172:. Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 420–434.
2119:. Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. 418–420.
1846:
1493:
1282:
807:
clearly indicate the existence of a relatively large rural Christian population in some parts of the
790:
Relatively large numbers of Mozarab communities did, however, continue to exist up to the end of the
648:
636:
75:
1729:
MacKechnie, Johan (22 May 2020). "Envisioning Islam: Syriac Christians and the Early Muslim World".
423:
was not used by Muslims to describe Christians. Contemporary Arabic sources described Christians as
1566:
1350:
1092:
893:
878:
714:
590:
450:
414:
375:
367:
304:
176:
2192:
1904:
1746:
1639:
1481:
1243:. The Muslims also hedged their metaphysical bets through the use of Roman Catholic sacraments.
1220:
1217:
1050:
1035:
957:
756:
731:
686:
with the rebel Mutarraf, only to be massacred in a desperate stand against the Caliphate forces.
668:
513:
252:
217:
1227:. To this should be added literary remains in Latin which remained the language of the liturgy.
944:, some 10,000 Mozarabs were sent by Alfonso for settlement on the Ebro. Mozarabs were scarce in
1550:
2379:
2303:
2271:
2091:
2056:
2010:
1985:
1960:
1935:
1910:
1784:
1704:
1672:
1629:
1553:, who praises Ḥafṣ' command of Arabic as the best among the Mozarabs. The 11th-century writer
1319:
1266:
812:
780:
623:
Until the mid-9th century, relations between Muslims and the majority Christian population of
605:
594:
522:
509:
331:
213:
197:
1170:). In the witness lists, Mozarabs identified themselves with undeniably Arabic names such as
734:
Catholicism. Many Mozarabs also took part in the many regional revolts that formed the great
419:'Arabized') is first documented in Christian sources from the 11th century; the term
2263:
2173:
2120:
2068:
2031:
1776:
1738:
1696:
1664:
1621:
1513:
1507:
1417:
1398:
1373:
1096:
803:, was also to be found there during this same period. Similarly, the memoirs of the emir of
388:
380:
362:
354:
248:
2032:"The Preservation and Restoration of Paper Records and Books: A RAMP Study with Guidelines"
1877:
243:
customs and knowledge, and sometimes acquired greater social status in doing so. The local
1455:
1270:
1203:
1100:
1068:
1064:
1048:
by the general population. These closely related historic dialects are today known as the
945:
941:
800:
771:
752:
718:
393:
296:
256:
155:
1499:
1342:
1235:
1231:
1199:
898:
859:
616:
611:
260:
2291:
Miller, H D; Kassis, Hanna. "The Mozarabs", in Menocal, Scheindlin & Sells (eds.)
100:
2373:
2336:
1750:
1643:
1362:
1337:– highly influential in northern Christian Iberia, and conserved in their masses the
937:
534:
327:
2323:
Historia de los mozárabes de España, 2: De Abderramán I a Mohamed I (años 756 a 870)
2007:
Art, Liturgy, and Legend in Renaissance Toledo: The Mendoza and the Iglesia Primada
1957:
Art, Liturgy, and Legend in Renaissance Toledo: The Mendoza and the Iglesia Primada
1658:
1410:
1278:
1248:
832:
736:
228:
2177:
2124:
1906:
The Martyrs of Cordoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion
1742:
1700:
1668:
1251:
pottery types. Furthermore, in the peninsula the conquerors did not settle in the
1281:. Ordination of the clergy ultimately drifted far from canonical norms, breaking
2353:
2260:
Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain: Identities and Influences (1st ed.)
1554:
1414:
1354:
1334:
1234:
and holidays was an exclusively Andalusi phenomenon. In Al-Andalus, the Islamic
1143:
973:
918:
889:
760:
707:
471:
209:
42:
2331:
Historia de los mozárabes de España, 4: Los últimos tiempos (años 1085 a 1492)
1073:
1045:
882:
in Córdoba in 923 (Eugenia), a boy Pelagius in 925 (for refusal to convert to
775:
679:
624:
482:
326:
Separate Mozarab enclaves were located in the large Muslim cities, especially
316:
193:
189:
2037:. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. p. 3
1405:
cultural identity. However, in North Africa, they were eventually Islamized.
323:
who converted gradually to Christianity between the 12th and 17th centuries.
239:—an estimated 50% by the year 951—and was influenced, in varying degrees, by
2215:
Religious polemic and the intellectual history of the Mozarabs, c. 1050–1200
2072:
1827:
1338:
1085:
953:
949:
683:
657:
597:
530:
505:
312:
287:(land of Islam), through shared culture, language, and regular interaction.
276:
1770:
1615:
808:
675:
and most of Portugal, Mozarabs constituted the majority of the population.
308:
2267:
1780:
1625:
1571:
1448:
871:
644:
570:
554:
550:
526:
434:
335:
320:
271:
being confessional and only applying to Muslims, the Christians paid the
221:
2348:
Cristianos bajo el islam: los mozárabes hasta la reconquista de Valencia
1823:
224:, the Christian population of much of Iberia came under Muslim control.
2057:"Les Mozarabes de Valence et d'Al-Andalus entre l'histoire et le mythe"
1541:
1315:
1239:
despite the fact that such fraternisation was generally opposed by the
1183:
804:
759:
offers another view of the Mozarabs. He states that one of the Emperor
672:
558:
542:
339:
315:
Iberians previously converted to Islam), are totally distinct from the
291:
275:
tax, the only relevant Islamic law obligation, and kept Roman-derived,
201:
17:
815:
persecution had forced many Mozarabs in Al-Andalus to flee northward.
1537:
1444:
1358:
1262:
1213:
1209:
1082:
1078:
1059:
922:
907:
843:
796:
722:
691:
653:
628:
583:
494:
439:
264:
1590:
Spanish: mozárabes ; Portuguese: moçárabes ; Catalan: mossàrabs
1459:
1323:
1253:
1240:
1111:
1107:
888:
883:
822:
791:
742:
664:
610:
578:
574:
498:
272:
240:
236:
232:
138:
27:
Christians living under Muslim rule in Medieval Spain and Portugal
2197:
Christian Arabic Apologetics during the Abbasid Period (750–1258)
1326:, destroyed the main Mozarab church of the Christian community.
929:
847:
546:
486:
268:
1473:
Glosario de voces ibéricas y latinas usadas entre los mozárabes
671:
to the west of Al-Andalus, which included the modern region of
2363:
1345:. The Christian kingdoms of the north, though, changed to the
967:
870:, whose intense faith led them to seek martyrdom by insulting
846:. The construction of new churches and the sounding of church
36:
2147:
Cuaderno Internacional de Estudios Humanísticos y Literatura
1695:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 31–59,
1044:, a set of closely related Romance dialects was spoken in
1329:
The Mozarabs remained apart from the influence of French
1982:
A Companion to Medieval Toledo: Reconsidering the Canons
1932:
A Companion to Medieval Toledo: Reconsidering the Canons
1893:, Chap.3 "The Martyrs of Córdoba and Their Historians".
1299:
The forty-eight Christians (mostly monks) known as the
1162:), and others were adopted in translated form (such as
928:
Significantly large numbers of Mozarabs settled in the
508:
was eroded and replaced by Islamic law in part of the
2164:
Kassis, Hanna E. (2000). "The Mozarabs, Part II". In
1091:
Mozarab had a significant impact in the formation of
303:, and perhaps also following the expeditions of King
1549:. It is lost, but there are excerpts in the work of
1484:
or roughly 15% of the population of Islamic Iberia.
437:'), or imprecisely by their legal-religious status:
407:
169:
2009:. Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 61.
1959:. Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 61.
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2061:Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée
1106:The cultural language of Mozarabs continued to be
569:, while the Christian Abu Umar ibn Gundisalvus, a
2252:Die christliche-arabische Literatur der Mozaraber
2111:Miller, H. D. (2000). "The Mozarabs, Part I". In
1805:Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe
774:, in a work based on the quantitative use of the
2168:; Raymond P. Scheindlin; Michael Sells (eds.).
2115:; Raymond P. Scheindlin; Michael Sells (eds.).
1772:Christian Identity amid Islam in Medieval Spain
587:(Vizier, or the equivalent to prime minister).
512:, Sharia law allowed most ethnic groups in the
1557:also quotes from a lost work of Ḥafṣ al-Qūtī.
227:Initially, the vast majority of Mozarabs kept
30:"Mozarab" redirects here. For other uses, see
2088:Spanish Literature: A Very Short Introduction
1536:, finished a rhymed verse translation of the
8:
1054:, though there never was a common standard.
458:
444:
428:
2343:. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2006.
1392:, both of whom were devout Catholics, King
1002:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
525:, undertook various diplomatic missions in
1764:
1762:
1760:
1660:Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period
952:, but were more common in a place such as
917:As previously with the Muslims, so as the
1401:still uses the Mozarabic Rite and music.
1088:the vowels have had to be reconstructed.
1022:Learn how and when to remove this message
235:. Gradually, the population converted to
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
2030:Crespo, Carmen; Vinas, Vincente (1984).
2090:. Oxford University Press. p. 13.
1603:
1583:
615:León Antiphonary Folio (11th-century),
181:'Arabized'), or more precisely
1817:
1815:
1813:
1379:"Fuero (Code of laws) of the Mozarabs"
1377:implement it, and in 1101 enacted the
1178:. Several Mozarabs also used the name
1099:, transmitting to these many words of
1042:Romance language development in Iberia
755:and its cause. However, the historian
1903:Coope, Jessica A. (January 1, 1995).
1849:, Manuela Marín, BRILL, 1992, p. 158.
1547:The Book of the Fifty-Seven Questions
387:
374:
361:
7:
1890:
1843:The legacy of Muslim Spain, Volume 2
1609:
1607:
1458:is the oldest Western manuscript on
1000:adding citations to reliable sources
850:were eventually forbidden. But when
65:adding citations to reliable sources
2410:People from al-Andalus by ethnicity
2315:Historia de los mozárabes de España
1477:Historia de los mozárabes de España
740:or unrest in the late 9th century.
459:
445:
429:
397:
159:
2405:History of Catholicism in Portugal
2231:Christians in Al-Andalus, 711–1000
1874:"Orthodoxengland.btinternet.co.uk"
1769:Tieszen, Charles L. (2013-05-30).
1657:Bulliet, Richard W. (1979-12-31).
1384:During both his first marriage to
1318:, by order of the Almoravid emir,
1154:entered the local Arabic lexicon (
231:and their dialects descended from
25:
1984:. Brill Publishers. p. 100.
1934:. Brill Publishers. p. 100.
1829:Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain
1617:The Almoravid and Almohad Empires
1614:Bennison, Amira K. (2016-08-01).
925:kingdom in times of persecution.
2400:History of Christianity in Spain
2333:. Madrid Ediciones Turner, 1983.
2321:Madrid, Ediciones Turner, 1983;
2319:1: Los virreyes (años 711 a 756)
2220:Chalmeta, P. "The Mozarabs", in
972:
854:recorded the martyrology of the
643:in Arabic), Visigothic count of
41:
2329:Madrid Ediciones Turner, 1983;
2325:Madrid Ediciones Turner, 1983;
2245:Corpus scriptorum Muzarabicorum
52:needs additional citations for
2346:Torrejón, Leopoldo Peñarroja.
2138:Donoso Jiménez, Isaac (2007).
1980:Beale-Rivaya, Yasmine (2018).
1930:Beale-Rivaya, Yasmine (2018).
1353:, where it is held daily. The
1322:, acting on the advice of his
1196:Mozarabic art and architecture
767:conflicts of the same period.
1:
2178:10.1017/chol9780521471596.029
2125:10.1017/chol9780521471596.029
2005:F. Bosch, Lynette M. (2010).
1955:F. Bosch, Lynette M. (2010).
1832:. Cambridge University Press.
1822:Wolf, Kenneth Baxter (1988).
1743:10.1080/09503110.2020.1767876
1701:10.1017/chol9780521471596.004
1669:10.4159/harvard.9780674732810
1441:Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros
1046:Muslim areas of the Peninsula
2359:An Islamic History of Europe
2295:, Cambridge (2000), 418–434.
2293:The literature of al-Andalus
2195:; Jorgen S. Nielsen (eds.).
2170:The Literature of al-Andalus
2140:"Literatura latina mozárabe"
2117:The Literature of Al-Andalus
1693:The Literature of Al-Andalus
1288:Some Christian authorities (
827:Mozarab mural painting from
533:, and was rewarded with the
261:Visigothic or Mozarabic Rite
1528:wrote a treatise in Latin,
1388:and his second marriage to
1040:During the early stages of
504:As the universal nature of
408:
170:
2426:
2395:Christianity in al-Andalus
2313:Francisco Xavier Simonet,
2298:Francisco Xavier Simonet,
2238:The legacy of Muslim Spain
1522:Córdoban martyrs' movement
1491:
1193:
1077:. As they were written in
1033:
694:was apparently ruled by a
557:, the Mozarabic bishop of
29:
2055:Guichard, Pierre (1985).
1919:– via Google Books.
1331:Catholic religious orders
545:). Furthermore, in 1064,
463:'contractual partners').
2288:, vol. 15/1994, 401–450.
1824:"The Martyrs of Córdoba"
1341:rite, also known as the
896:is depicted in the 1660
829:San Baudelio de Berlanga
770:The American historian,
747:The Caliphate of Cordoba
196:, or the territories of
2350:, Madrid, Credos, 1993.
2073:10.3406/remmm.1985.2090
1909:. U of Nebraska Press.
1425:Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada
1223:and a translation of a
279:-influenced civil Law.
255:. Mozarabs were mostly
2226:, 2nd edition, Leiden.
1860:"Al-Andalus. Mozarabs"
1803:McCluskey, Stephen C.
1534:Ḥafṣ ibn Albar al-Qūtī
1347:Latin liturgical rites
903:
835:
748:
721:, the territory under
678:The Muslim geographer
647:, agrees to recognize
620:
593:was encouraged by the
567:Santiago de Compostela
561:, as an envoy to king
514:medieval Islamic world
384:
371:
358:
147:
2390:History of al-Andalus
2362:. video documentary,
2268:10.4324/9781315596204
2258:Hitchcock, R (2008).
2223:Encyclopedia of Islam
1781:10.1163/9789004192294
1626:10.1515/9780748646821
1520:At the height of the
1466:Debates on population
1436:Alfonso VI of Castile
1394:Alfonso VI of Castile
1390:Constance of Burgundy
934:Alfonso VI of Castile
892:
826:
746:
667:controlled region of
631:, a single surviving
614:
142:
2086:Labanyi, Jo (2010).
1847:Salma Khadra Jayyusi
1494:Mozarabic literature
1422:Archbishop of Toledo
1283:apostolic succession
1190:Culture and religion
1124:Pesencano ibn Azafar
996:improve this section
376:[muˈsaɾɐβɨʃ]
363:[moˈθaɾaβes]
290:A few were Arab and
143:Mozarabic church of
61:improve this article
2250:Goussen, Heinrich.
1862:. 18 December 2017.
1807:, Cambridge, p.170.
1530:Indiculus luminosus
1399:Cathedral of Toledo
1351:Cathedral of Toledo
1294:Eulogius of Córdoba
956:, conquered by the
879:Kenneth Baxter Wolf
852:Eulogius of Córdoba
715:Kingdom of Asturias
591:Conversion to Islam
577:), served the same
563:Ferdinand I of León
519:Calendar of Córdoba
489:were designated as
389:[muˈsaɾəps]
305:Alfonso I of Aragon
245:Romance vernaculars
183:Andalusi Christians
145:Santiago de Peñalba
2366:Four: August 2005.
2213:Burman, Thomas E.
2193:Samir Khalil Samir
2166:María Rosa Menocal
2113:María Rosa Menocal
1526:Albarus of Córdoba
1482:Emirate of Granada
1386:Agnes of Aquitaine
1301:Martyrs of Córdoba
1051:Mozarabic language
1036:Mozarabic language
958:Kingdom of Navarre
904:
856:Martyrs of Córdoba
836:
757:Jaume Vicens Vives
749:
669:Al-Garb Al-Andalus
621:
301:conquest of Toledo
253:Mozarabic language
218:Visigothic Kingdom
148:
2243:Gil, Juan (ed.).
1790:978-90-04-19108-2
1710:978-0-521-47159-6
1320:Yusuf ibn Tashfin
1032:
1031:
1024:
868:Alvaro of Córdoba
799:'s dominion over
781:Abd ar-Rahman III
523:Abd ar-Rahman III
510:Iberian Peninsula
418:
406:
180:
168:
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
2417:
2281:
2240:(1994), 148–170.
2233:, Richmond 2001.
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1971:
1970:
1952:
1946:
1945:
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1876:. Archived from
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1567:Musta'arabi Jews
1514:Chronicle of 754
1508:Chronicle of 741
1434:At Toledo, King
1374:Pope Gregory VII
1120:Zaheid ibn Zafar
1027:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1007:
976:
968:
660:lords remained.
602:emirs of Córdoba
462:
461:
448:
447:
432:
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413:
411:
401:
399:
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378:
365:
249:Andalusi Romance
216:conquest of the
212:. Following the
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132:
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121:
118:
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110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
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2416:
2415:
2414:
2385:Romance peoples
2370:
2369:
2278:
2257:
2247:, Madrid, 1973.
2229:Christys, Ann.
2217:, Leiden, 1994.
2210:
2208:Further reading
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1563:
1540:from the Latin
1496:
1490:
1468:
1456:Missal of Silos
1271:Abd ar-Rahman I
1206:
1204:Mozarabic chant
1194:Main articles:
1192:
1101:Andalusi Arabic
1038:
1028:
1017:
1011:
1008:
993:
977:
966:
942:Orderic Vitalis
821:
772:Richard Bulliet
719:Marca Hispanica
549:Al-Muqtadir of
480:
474:, for example.
449:'people of the
348:
297:Umar ibn Hafsun
133:
122:
116:
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70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
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2199:. E. J. Brill.
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2096:
2078:
2047:
2022:
2015:
1997:
1990:
1972:
1965:
1947:
1940:
1922:
1915:
1895:
1883:
1880:on 2012-05-26.
1865:
1851:
1835:
1809:
1796:
1789:
1756:
1737:(2): 221–223.
1721:
1709:
1677:
1663:. De Gruyter.
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1500:Mozarabic rite
1492:Main article:
1489:
1486:
1467:
1464:
1367:"Toledan rite"
1343:Mozarabic Rite
1333:, such as the
1236:lunar calendar
1232:solar calendar
1225:church history
1200:Mozarabic Rite
1191:
1188:
1095:, Spanish and
1071:lyrics called
1034:Main article:
1030:
1029:
980:
978:
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899:Martyrs Mirror
860:Saint Acisclus
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541:(present-day
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54:verification
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1555:Ibn Gabirol
1524:(850–859),
1475:(1888) and
1429:Mixti Arabi
1411:Benedictine
1335:Cistercians
1279:circumcised
1140:Ibn Faranda
1074:muwashshahs
940:historian,
930:Ebro valley
919:Reconquista
761:Charlemagne
753:Catholicism
717:and in the
708:Reconquista
649:Abd al-Aziz
637:Theodomirus
517:the famous
472:Arabization
398:مُسْتَعْرَب
160:مُسْتَعْرَب
2374:Categories
2041:2013-07-10
1916:0803214715
1716:2023-02-17
1689:"Language"
1598:References
1551:al-Qurṭubī
1488:Literature
1420:, and the
1413:bishop of
1357:church in
1355:Poor Clare
1339:Visigothic
1176:Ibn Uthman
1134:(Garcia),
1093:Portuguese
732:Visigothic
680:Ibn Hawqal
658:Visigothic
625:Al-Andalus
483:Christians
368:Portuguese
277:Visigothic
204:rule from
194:al-Andalus
190:Christians
87:newspapers
76:"Mozarabs"
1891:Wolf 1988
1775:. BRILL.
1751:219451228
1644:189477556
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1309:Memoriale
1263:Levantine
1128:Ibn Gafif
1086:alphabets
983:does not
960:in 1045.
954:Calahorra
950:Zaragossa
908:martyrdom
877:However,
813:Almoravid
776:onomastic
684:Calatayud
619:Cathedral
535:bishopric
531:Byzantium
506:Roman law
466:The term
455:mu‘āhidūn
446:أهل الذمة
435:Nazarenes
409:musta‘rab
403:romanized
385:mossàrabs
372:moçárabes
359:mozárabes
263:. Due to
257:Catholics
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188:were the
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117:July 2017
32:Mozarabic
2380:Mozarabs
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1684:Cited in
1572:Muwallad
1561:See also
1511:and the
1449:Breviary
1212:and the
964:Language
923:Frankish
894:Pelagius
872:Muhammad
801:Valencia
723:Frankish
645:Orihuela
606:Apostasy
571:Saqaliba
555:Paternus
551:Zaragoza
527:Germania
451:covenant
336:Zaragoza
321:Moriscos
317:Mudéjars
222:Hispania
152:Mozarabs
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1097:Catalan
1060:kharjas
1004:removed
989:sources
932:. King
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665:Moorish
663:In the
598:caliphs
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460:معاهدون
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1174:, and
1160:Fortun
1152:Fortun
1083:Hebrew
1079:Arabic
1069:Hebrew
1065:Arabic
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844:dhimmi
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692:Lleida
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495:Sharia
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478:Status
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328:Toledo
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1747:S2CID
1640:S2CID
1578:Notes
1460:paper
1415:Cluny
1324:Ulema
1254:amsar
1249:Roman
1241:Ulema
1168:Felix
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1108:Latin
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795:with
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584:Wazir
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553:sent
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430:نصارى
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237:Islam
233:Latin
108:JSTOR
94:books
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