728:
740:
176:
169:
771:
755:
344:
complex, called the South Wall Fe
Chimney, vents water with temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F) in massive vents. The hydrothermal activity influences the waters within the crater, making them turbid and warmer than the water in the free ocean. Low temperature hydrothermal vents are found on the western ridge of Vailuluʻu as well.
704:. The last eruption, between 2001 and 2004, went unobserved and formed the Nafanua volcanic cone; for the most part, the shape of the volcano has not changed over time. Repeated eruptions like the one that formed Nafanua could cause Vailuluʻu to emerge from the sea. The summit of Vailuluʻu is shallow enough that
668:
Vailuluʻu is an active volcano, with earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and hydrothermal activity recorded. In particular, the seamount is a site with common earthquakes in this otherwise mostly aseismic part of the
Pacific Plate and away from the earthquakes of the Tonga Trench, recording an average 4
300:
and reaches a depth of 593 metres (1,946 ft) and features a 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide and 0.4 kilometres (0.25 mi) deep crater; the shallowest part of the seamount is located on the western crater rim which has a scalloped appearance. Two additional summits and three breaches can be
231:
Eruptions at
Vailuluʻu were recorded in 1973. An earthquake swarm in 1995 may have been related to an eruption from the seamount. Turbid water above the summit shows evidence of ongoing hydrothermal plume activity. Vailuluʻu may breach the surface of the ocean and officially become an island if a
343:
vents are found at a number of sites within the crater with varied characteristics, including high and low temperature vents. The bulk of the venting occurs through the a complex known as the
Northern Moat Hydrothermal Complex and reaches temperatures of 80 °C (176 °F), while another
435:
influenced by the Tonga Trench or by cracking of the
Pacific crust; today the preferred theory is that the Samoan chain is a hotspot-generated volcanic chain while the "anomalous" younger volcanism is produced through an interaction between the islands and the Tonga Trench and a neighboring
387:
of rocks taken from it. Young rock ages have also been observed on
Malumalu Seamount, implying that the hotspot is currently feeding both volcanoes and forming two separate volcanic chains. These two volcanoes are the endpoints of two separate volcano lineaments in the Samoa islands.
1979:
Sims, Kenneth W. W.; Hart, S. R.; Reagan, M. K.; Blusztajn, J.; Staudigel, H.; Sohn, R. A.; Layne, G. D.; Ball, L. A.; Andrews, J. (2008). "238U-230Th-226Ra-210Pb-210Po, 232Th-228Ra, and 235U-231Pa constraints on the ages and petrogenesis of
Vailuluʻu and Malumalu Lavas, Samoa".
240:
The seamount was first discovered in 1975 after seismic activity, including earthquakes, was noted in the area and was originally known as either Rockne
Volcano or Faʻafafine seamount. The name Vailuluʻu refers to a sacred rain that supposedly fell with every gathering for the
1496:
Seabrook, Sarah; Mackay, Kevin; Watson, Sally J.; Clare, Michael A.; Hunt, James E.; Yeo, Isobel A.; Lane, Emily M.; Clark, Malcolm R.; Wysoczanski, Richard; Rowden, Ashley A.; Kula, Taaniela; Hoffmann, Linn J.; Armstrong, Evelyn; Williams, Michael J. M. (30 November 2023).
2127:
Workman, R. K.; Hart, S. R.; Jackson, M.; Regelous, M.; Farley, K. A.; Blusztajn, J.; Kurz, M.; Staudigel, H. (2004). "Recycled metasomatized lithosphere as the origin of the
Enriched Mantle II (EM2) end-member: Evidence from the Samoan Volcanic Chain".
463:
have been dredged from the volcano. The volcanic rocks on
Vailuluʻu reflect a magma suite called "end-member magma type 2" (EM2) although there are noticeable differences between the geochemistries of various volcanic units at Vailuluʻu.
1759:
Hart, S. R.; Coetzee, M.; Workman, R. K.; Blusztajn, J.; Johnson, K. T. M.; Sinton, J. M.; Steinberger, B.; Hawkins, J. W. (30 October 2004). "Genesis of the Western Samoa seamount province: age, geochemical fingerprint and tectonics".
692:
isotopes of rock samples taken from the seamount indicate that Vailuluʻu was frequently active in the last 8,000 years and that eruptions within the summit crater took place in the last hundred years. Dredge samples showed fresh rocks;
727:
1931:
Koppers, Anthony A. P.; Russell, Jamie A.; Roberts, Jed; Jackson, Matthew G.; Konter, Jasper G.; Wright, Dawn J.; Staudigel, Hubert; Hart, Stanley R. (July 2011). "Age systematics of two young en echelon Samoan volcanic trails".
411:
origin of the Samoa islands. However, the islands' formation shows an eastward trend and evidence of age progression, which has been interpreted as reflecting an age progressive chain of volcanoes that begins at Vailuluʻu and at
1677:
Kennedy, David M.; Marsters, T. Helene; Woods, Josephine L. D.; Woodroffe, Colin D. (1 March 2012). "Shore platform development on an uplifting limestone island over multiple sea-level cycles, Niue, South Pacific".
304:
The seamount has a star-like shape, with two prominent ridges east and west and a somewhat less prominent ridge south of the volcano; it also features smaller ridges at its foot and amphitheatre-shaped scars from
355:
have been observed in the vented fluids. Particles emitted by the vents in some places reduce visibility underwater to less than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), and the vented fluids are subject to complicated
770:
739:
309:. The total volume of the volcano is estimated to be about 1,050 cubic kilometres (250 cu mi) and its height above the seafloor is comparable with that of major isolated volcanoes such as
2090:
Sudek, Lisa A.; Templeton, Alexis S.; Tebo, Bradley M.; Staudigel, Hubert (30 November 2009). "Microbial Ecology of Fe (hydr)oxide Mats and Basaltic Rock from Vailuluʻu Seamount, American Samoa".
324:
A 300 metres (980 ft) high cone in the crater bears the name Nafanua, and formed in 2004 in the western half of the crater. Prior to the formation of the cone, the crater contained several
2035:
Staudigel, H.; Hart, S. R.; Koppers, A. a. P.; Constable, C.; Workman, R.; Kurz, M.; Baker, E. T. (2004). "Hydrothermal venting at Vailuluʻu Seamount: The smoking end of the Samoan chain".
475:
chimneys with sizes measured in centimetres to metres have been formed by low temperature hydrothermal venting. A total mass flux of 5.5 tonnes per day (0.063 long ton/ks) of
1722:
Connell, Laurie; Barrett, Anne; Templeton, Alexis; Staudigel, Hubert (30 November 2009). "Fungal Diversity Associated with an Active Deep Sea Volcano: Vailuluʻu Seamount, Samoa".
2183:
Young, Craig M.; Zierenberg, Robert; Templeton, Alexis S.; Tebo, Bradley M.; Pietsch, Theodore W.; Lee, Ray; Konter, Jasper; Koppers, Anthony A. P.; Jones, Daniel (2006-04-25).
228:. Two principal rift zones extend east and west from the summit, parallel to the trend of the Samoan hotspot. A third less prominent rift extends southeast of the summit.
641:
on older rocks. The eel populations have given that part of the volcano the nickname "Eel City"; the eels subsist on food species transported by ocean currents, such as
416:. The Malulu Seamount and Rose Island east of Vailuluʻu do not appear related to the Samoa hotspot system,. On the other side of the volcanic chain are the seamounts
648:
There are differences between the animal fauna in various parts of the volcano. For example, the oxygenated waters and availability of shrimp as food source attract
317:. The seafloor around Vailuluʻu lies at a depth of about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi); the foot of the seamount has a diameter of about 35 kilometres (22 mi). A
249:. It was coined by the American Samoa student Taulealo Vaofusi, the winner of a naming competition, and assigned in 2000. The Nafanua cone is named after a Samoan
403:. This proximity to the trench is probably the reason why the older volcanic islands all display recent volcanic activity, such as activity from 1905 to 1911 on
258:
224:
seamount is considered to mark the current location of the Samoa hotspot. The summit of Vailuluʻu contains a 2 km wide, 400 m deep oval-shaped
2252:
Herrera, Santiago; Chadwick, William W.; Jackson, Matthew G.; Konter, Jasper; McCartin, Luke; Pittoors, Nicole; Bushta, Emily; Merle, Susan G. (2023).
2346:
1351:"Marine Mineral Resources of Pacific Islands - A Review of the Exclusive Economic Zones of Islands of U.S. Affiliation, Excluding the State of Hawaii"
367:
The total flow is estimated at 0.13 cubic kilometres per day (1,500 m/s). The total power of the hydrothermal system is estimated to be 610-760
328:; it is possible that the crater was once occupied by a higher cone, which might have risen to shallow depths. The Nafanua cone consists mostly of
541:
with thicknesses of 2–4 centimetres (0.79–1.57 in) (though possibly thicker in depressions) have been found at Vailuluʻu; they often contain
42:
168:
2326:
189:
677:
of these earthquakes appear to coincide with the hydrothermal areas and the earthquakes correlate with the southeastern ridge, which is a
553:
by microorganisms may not only serve to make iron available to them but also to reduce the trapping of the organisms within iron oxides.
535:
have been identified in deposits from the Nafanua Cone and in iron mats and might play important roles in the ecosystems of Vailuluʻu.
906:
754:
1797:
Hart, S. R.; Staudigel, H.; Koppers, A. a. P.; Blusztajn, J.; Baker, E. T.; Workman, R.; Jackson, M.; Hauri, E.; Kurz, M. (2000).
589:
have been observed in breaches of the crater rim and presumably rely on incoming nutrient-rich water from the ocean, while
2341:
2331:
516:
87:
379:
Vailuluʻu lies at the eastern end of the Samoan volcanic chain and is considered to be the present-day location of the
94:
2336:
371:
and it forms substantial hydrothermal plumes in the crater; the altered water extends some distance from the volcano.
1841:
652:
to the summit of Nafanua, while the crater floor displays a high animal mortality and is called the "moat of death";
1499:"Volcaniclastic density currents explain widespread and diverse seafloor impacts of the 2022 Hunga Volcano eruption"
1548:
208:
discovered in 1975. It rises from the sea floor to a depth of 593 m (1,946 ft) and is located between
2304:
781:
2309:
1842:"Seafloor seismic monitoring of an active submarine volcano: Local seismicity at Vailuluʻu Seamount, Samoa"
445:
301:
found in the crater rim; the deepest breach lies in the southeast and is 795 metres (2,608 ft) deep.
2286:
1144:"A fluorescein tracer release experiment in the hydrothermally active crater of Vailuluʻu volcano, Samoa"
2254:"From basalt to biosphere: Early non-vent community succession on the erupting Vailulu'u deep seamount"
508:
656:
feeding on dead fish have been found on the crater floor. This is due to the very low availability of
417:
2196:
2137:
2099:
2044:
1989:
1941:
1856:
1810:
1769:
1731:
1683:
1155:
282:
580:
209:
2171:
2115:
2078:
2023:
1967:
1894:
Koppers, Anthony; Staudigel, Hubert; Hart, Stanley; Young, Craig; Konter, Jasper (1 March 2010).
1747:
733:
The summit of Nafanua is covered with thick microbial mats, indicative of low-temperature venting
705:
701:
694:
306:
421:
2275:
2232:
2214:
2163:
2070:
2015:
1882:
1828:
1785:
1699:
1530:
1173:
638:
524:
432:
413:
408:
347:
The hydrothermal fluids vented at the Northern Moat Hydrothermal Complex appear to be rich in
318:
286:
246:
2265:
2222:
2204:
2153:
2145:
2107:
2060:
2052:
2005:
1997:
1957:
1949:
1917:
1907:
1874:
1864:
1818:
1777:
1773:
1739:
1691:
1520:
1510:
1163:
670:
572:
441:
868:
437:
314:
2200:
2141:
2103:
2048:
1993:
1945:
1860:
1814:
1735:
1687:
1525:
1498:
1159:
2227:
2184:
568:
542:
512:
352:
270:
47:
41:
2320:
1751:
538:
500:
456:
396:
384:
380:
361:
242:
217:
129:
80:
2175:
2119:
2082:
2027:
1971:
1695:
626:
392:
340:
1142:
Hart, S. R.; Staudigel, H.; Workman, R.; Koppers, A. a. P.; Girard, A. P. (2003).
1066:
1064:
1062:
605:
have been found on the western rift zone of Vailuluʻu. In non-hydrothermal areas,
816:
814:
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
745:
550:
329:
278:
250:
2299:
2270:
2253:
1781:
1515:
1467:
1465:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1096:
1094:
1081:
1079:
448:
and also changes its upwelling flux. This interaction has only begun recently.
277:
is located 43 kilometres (27 mi) west of Vailuluʻu. Even farther west lie
17:
2111:
1743:
697:
produced ages of less than ten years according to 1984 and 1999 publications.
674:
653:
642:
606:
586:
546:
472:
425:
400:
325:
310:
290:
213:
2279:
2218:
2167:
2074:
2019:
1886:
1832:
1789:
1703:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1177:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1003:
1001:
109:
96:
2209:
1912:
1895:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1260:
1258:
1228:
1226:
935:
933:
931:
929:
927:
850:
848:
846:
844:
831:
829:
678:
610:
598:
594:
560:
476:
383:; this interpretation is based on both the position of the seamount and the
2236:
1534:
1452:
1450:
1448:
988:
986:
984:
660:
for respiration at the crater floor, unlike at the summit of Nafanua cone.
2185:"Vailuluʻu Seamount, Samoa: Life and death on an active submarine volcano"
1583:
1581:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1049:
1047:
708:
may occur which can affect coastal communities and ships. It appears that
2149:
2056:
2001:
1953:
1869:
1823:
1798:
1168:
1143:
971:
969:
967:
965:
963:
709:
496:
431:
The origin of the Samoan volcanic chain has been explained with either a
368:
357:
297:
205:
1350:
1213:
1211:
761:
713:
712:
effects from the growth of the seamount may have altered shorelines on
689:
685:
669:
earthquakes per day. Seismic swarms were observed in 1973 and 1995; an
634:
630:
590:
576:
480:
460:
348:
321:
at a depth of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) depth connects it to Taʻu.
274:
254:
225:
202:
141:
950:
948:
2010:
1962:
1922:
657:
614:
602:
556:
520:
504:
484:
468:
404:
221:
2292:
2158:
2065:
1878:
1840:
Konter, J. G.; Staudigel, H.; Hart, S. R.; Shearer, P. M. (2004).
532:
528:
1552:
1398:
1386:
1070:
910:
820:
618:
564:
313:, although much smaller than compound volcanic islands such as
1349:
Hein, James R.; McIntyre, Brandie R.; Piper, David Z. (2005).
649:
633:
have been observed in the summit areas. Other animals include
622:
444:
flows triggered by the Tonga Trench, which distort the rising
391:
Samoa is located just northeast of the northern corner of the
1664:
1652:
1190:
1112:
1038:
1026:
854:
835:
1616:
1572:
1483:
1471:
1232:
1129:
1100:
1085:
892:
1439:
1422:
1410:
1374:
1300:
1264:
1007:
939:
1599:
1587:
1336:
1312:
1249:
1053:
975:
293:
and Malulu Seamount are located southeast from Vailuluʻu.
1456:
992:
1640:
1628:
1324:
1288:
1276:
1217:
1202:
954:
907:"Seamounts and Their Role in the Life Cycle of Species"
700:
The seismic swarm in 1973 appears to have been a major
780:, photographed off the northern shore of Tau Island,
748:, colored red by iron oxide, inside Vailuluʻu crater.
364:and mixing processes once they enter the seawater.
155:
150:
140:
135:
125:
86:
75:
70:
62:
54:
34:
2189:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
428:which are older products of the Samoa hotspot.
1549:"NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer: 2017 Expeditions"
2287:NOAA Ocean Explorer Vailuluʻu 2005 Expedition
467:Evidence of hydrothermal alteration includes
440:. This hotspot is under the influence of the
8:
1148:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1799:"Vailuluʻu undersea volcano: The New Samoa"
259:National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa
2295:, information about the Vailuluʻu seamount
483:and oxide deposits may become targets for
31:
2269:
2226:
2208:
2157:
2064:
2009:
1961:
1921:
1911:
1868:
1822:
1524:
1514:
1167:
407:and originally led to proposals of a non-
764:living on the western summit of Vailulʻu
794:
723:
549:deposits. The widespread production of
27:Volcanic seamount in the Samoa Islands
571:in organism metabolism at Vailuluʻu;
507:, which are related to bacteria from
7:
2130:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
2037:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1982:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1934:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1849:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1803:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1355:U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1286
257:. Today the seamount is part of the
1762:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
216:islands at the eastern end of the
25:
479:has been estimated. Hydrothermal
289:is located south of Ofu-Olosega.
232:high rate of eruptions continue.
175:
2347:Eastern Samoan Volcanic Province
776:Swimming elasipod sea cucumber,
769:
753:
738:
726:
499:live on Vailuluʻu, including in
174:
167:
40:
1896:"Spotlight: Vailuluʻu Seamount"
867:Lippsett, Lonny (1 June 2001).
527:. A number of mostly pigmented
1696:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.12.041
1:
269:Vailuluʻu is located east of
245:, the paramount chief of the
193:Location in the Pacific Ocean
66:4,200 m (13,800 ft)
2327:Volcanoes of American Samoa
2258:Frontiers in Marine Science
617:dominate the surfaces, and
265:Geography and geomorphology
2363:
2289:, Retrieved 30 August 2007
2271:10.3389/fmars.2023.1110062
1782:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.005
1516:10.1038/s41467-023-43607-2
58:590 metres (1,940 ft)
2112:10.1080/01490450903263400
1744:10.1080/01490450903316174
782:Vailuluʻu Expedition 2005
517:Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
273:; the easternmost island
236:Name and research history
39:
2305:Global Volcanism Program
673:took place in 2000. The
2310:Smithsonian Institution
2210:10.1073/pnas.0600830103
2092:Geomicrobiology Journal
1913:10.5670/oceanog.2010.80
1774:2004E&PSL.227...37H
1724:Geomicrobiology Journal
583:have been encountered.
296:Vailuluʻu is a conical
575:, iron, manganese and
110:14.21500°S 169.05833°W
1503:Nature Communications
1486:, pp. 6451–6452.
1113:Staudigel et al. 2004
1039:Staudigel et al. 2004
869:"Voyage to Vailulu'u"
115:-14.21500; -169.05833
2150:10.1029/2003GC000623
2057:10.1029/2003GC000626
2002:10.1029/2007GC001651
1954:10.1029/2010GC003438
1870:10.1029/2004GC000702
1824:10.1029/2000GC000108
1169:10.1029/2002JB001902
190:class=notpageimage|
2342:Submarine volcanoes
2332:Calderas of Oceania
2201:2006PNAS..103.6448S
2142:2004GGG.....5.4008W
2104:2009GmbJ...26..581S
2049:2004GGG.....5.2003S
1994:2008GGG.....9.4003S
1946:2011GGG....12.7025K
1861:2004GGG.....5.6007K
1815:2000GGG.....1.1056H
1736:2009GmbJ...26..597C
1688:2012Geomo.141..170K
1617:Koppers et al. 2011
1457:Koppers et al. 2010
1399:Connell et al. 2009
1387:Connell et al. 2009
1337:Workman et al. 2004
1313:Workman et al. 2004
1233:Koppers et al. 2011
1160:2003JGRB..108.2377H
1071:Connell et al. 2009
993:Koppers et al. 2010
976:Workman et al. 2004
821:Connell et al. 2009
746:Broken pillow lavas
706:explosive eruptions
581:Gammaproteobacteria
106: /
2337:Submarine calderas
2293:Vailuluʻu web site
1600:Konter et al. 2004
1588:Konter et al. 2004
1250:Konter et al. 2004
1054:Konter et al. 2004
702:submarine eruption
695:radiometric dating
351:, and droplets of
336:Hydrothermal vents
2195:(17): 6448–6453.
1573:Young et al. 2006
1484:Young et al. 2006
1472:Young et al. 2006
1440:Sudek et al. 2009
1423:Sudek et al. 2009
1411:Sudek et al. 2009
1375:Sudek et al. 2009
1130:Young et al. 2006
1101:Young et al. 2006
1086:Young et al. 2006
1008:Sudek et al. 2009
940:Sudek et al. 2009
893:Young et al. 2006
684:Disequilibria in
525:East Pacific Rise
509:Tangaroa Seamount
471:in rock samples.
414:Malumalu Seamount
287:Malumalu Seamount
163:
162:
16:(Redirected from
2354:
2313:
2283:
2273:
2240:
2230:
2212:
2179:
2161:
2123:
2086:
2068:
2031:
2013:
1975:
1965:
1927:
1925:
1915:
1890:
1872:
1846:
1836:
1826:
1793:
1755:
1708:
1707:
1682:. 141–142: 214.
1674:
1668:
1665:Hart et al. 2000
1662:
1656:
1653:Hart et al. 2000
1650:
1644:
1641:Sims et al. 2008
1638:
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1629:Sims et al. 2008
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1614:
1603:
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1362:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1325:Sims et al. 2008
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1301:Hart et al. 2004
1298:
1292:
1289:Sims et al. 2008
1286:
1280:
1277:Sims et al. 2008
1274:
1268:
1265:Hart et al. 2004
1262:
1253:
1247:
1236:
1230:
1221:
1218:Sims et al. 2008
1215:
1206:
1203:Sims et al. 2008
1200:
1194:
1191:Hart et al. 2000
1188:
1182:
1181:
1171:
1139:
1133:
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1116:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1089:
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1074:
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1057:
1051:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1027:Hart et al. 2000
1024:
1011:
1005:
996:
990:
979:
973:
958:
955:Sims et al. 2008
952:
943:
937:
922:
921:
919:
917:
905:Sudek, Mareike.
902:
896:
890:
884:
883:
881:
879:
864:
858:
855:Hart et al. 2000
852:
839:
836:Hart et al. 2000
833:
824:
818:
778:Paleopatides sp.
773:
757:
742:
730:
671:earthquake swarm
664:Eruption history
573:hydrogen sulfide
418:Lalla Rookh Bank
178:
177:
171:
121:
120:
118:
117:
116:
111:
107:
104:
103:
102:
99:
44:
32:
21:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2317:
2316:
2298:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2182:
2126:
2089:
2034:
1978:
1930:
1893:
1844:
1839:
1796:
1758:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1711:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1667:, pp. 5–6.
1663:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1606:
1598:
1594:
1586:
1579:
1575:, p. 6452.
1571:
1567:
1557:
1555:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:, p. 6451.
1470:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1438:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1360:
1358:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1256:
1248:
1239:
1231:
1224:
1216:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1132:, p. 6450.
1128:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1103:, p. 6448.
1099:
1092:
1088:, p. 6449.
1084:
1077:
1069:
1060:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1014:
1006:
999:
991:
982:
974:
961:
953:
946:
938:
925:
915:
913:
904:
903:
899:
895:, p. 6453.
891:
887:
877:
875:
866:
865:
861:
853:
842:
834:
827:
819:
796:
791:
784:
774:
765:
758:
749:
743:
734:
731:
722:
666:
569:electron donors
493:
454:
438:transform fault
377:
338:
267:
238:
196:
195:
194:
192:
186:
185:
184:
183:
179:
114:
112:
108:
105:
100:
97:
95:
93:
92:
50:
28:
23:
22:
18:Nafanua Volcano
15:
12:
11:
5:
2360:
2358:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2247:
2246:External links
2244:
2242:
2241:
2180:
2124:
2098:(8): 581–596.
2087:
2032:
1976:
1928:
1906:(1): 164–165.
1891:
1837:
1794:
1756:
1730:(8): 597–605.
1718:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1669:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1604:
1592:
1577:
1565:
1540:
1488:
1476:
1461:
1459:, p. 165.
1444:
1442:, p. 593.
1427:
1425:, p. 590.
1415:
1413:, p. 581.
1403:
1401:, p. 604.
1391:
1389:, p. 601.
1379:
1377:, p. 592.
1367:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1305:
1293:
1281:
1269:
1254:
1237:
1222:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1134:
1117:
1105:
1090:
1075:
1073:, p. 599.
1058:
1043:
1031:
1012:
1010:, p. 583.
997:
995:, p. 164.
980:
959:
944:
942:, p. 582.
923:
897:
885:
859:
840:
825:
823:, p. 598.
793:
792:
790:
787:
786:
785:
775:
768:
766:
759:
752:
750:
744:
737:
735:
732:
725:
721:
718:
665:
662:
543:iron hydroxide
539:Microbial mats
513:Kermadec Ridge
501:microbial mats
492:
489:
457:Alkali basalts
453:
450:
385:isotope ratios
376:
373:
353:carbon dioxide
337:
334:
271:American Samoa
266:
263:
247:Manuʻa Islands
237:
234:
188:
187:
181:
180:
173:
172:
166:
165:
164:
161:
160:
157:
156:Discovery date
153:
152:
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147:
144:
138:
137:
133:
132:
127:
123:
122:
90:
84:
83:
77:
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72:
68:
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64:
60:
59:
56:
52:
51:
48:American Samoa
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2359:
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2250:
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2017:
2012:
2007:
2003:
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1995:
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1983:
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1973:
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1964:
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1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
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1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1855:(6): Q06007.
1854:
1850:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
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1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
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1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:Geomorphology
1673:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1643:, p. 21.
1642:
1637:
1634:
1631:, p. 12.
1630:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1602:, p. 14.
1601:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1569:
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1550:
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1428:
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1395:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
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1352:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1306:
1303:, p. 52.
1302:
1297:
1294:
1291:, p. 20.
1290:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1270:
1267:, p. 38.
1266:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1220:, p. 14.
1219:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1205:, p. 13.
1204:
1199:
1196:
1193:, p. 10.
1192:
1187:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1115:, p. 19.
1114:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1067:
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1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
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989:
987:
985:
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970:
968:
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956:
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863:
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845:
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826:
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772:
767:
763:
756:
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747:
741:
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729:
724:
719:
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691:
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632:
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624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
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592:
588:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
567:may serve as
566:
562:
558:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
534:
530:
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522:
518:
514:
510:
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458:
451:
449:
447:
443:
439:
434:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
406:
402:
398:
397:Pacific Plate
394:
389:
386:
382:
381:Samoa hotspot
374:
372:
370:
365:
363:
362:ocean current
359:
354:
350:
345:
342:
335:
333:
331:
327:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
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280:
276:
272:
264:
262:
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256:
252:
248:
244:
235:
233:
229:
227:
223:
219:
218:Samoa hotspot
215:
211:
207:
204:
200:
191:
170:
158:
154:
149:
145:
143:
142:Last eruption
139:
134:
131:
130:United States
128:
124:
119:
91:
89:
85:
82:
81:Pacific Ocean
78:
74:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2303:
2261:
2257:
2192:
2188:
2133:
2129:
2095:
2091:
2040:
2036:
1985:
1981:
1937:
1933:
1903:
1900:Oceanography
1899:
1852:
1848:
1806:
1802:
1768:(1): 37–56.
1765:
1761:
1727:
1723:
1679:
1672:
1660:
1655:, p. 7.
1648:
1636:
1624:
1619:, p. 5.
1595:
1590:, p. 4.
1568:
1556:. Retrieved
1543:
1506:
1502:
1491:
1479:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1370:
1359:. Retrieved
1354:
1344:
1339:, p. 6.
1332:
1327:, p. 6.
1320:
1315:, p. 9.
1308:
1296:
1284:
1279:, p. 2.
1272:
1252:, p. 3.
1235:, p. 3.
1198:
1186:
1151:
1147:
1137:
1108:
1056:, p. 2.
1041:, p. 3.
1034:
1029:, p. 6.
978:, p. 5.
957:, p. 3.
914:. Retrieved
900:
888:
876:. Retrieved
872:
862:
857:, p. 5.
838:, p. 3.
777:
699:
683:
667:
647:
585:
555:
551:siderophores
537:
494:
466:
455:
430:
395:, where the
393:Tonga Trench
390:
378:
366:
346:
341:Hydrothermal
339:
330:pillow lavas
323:
303:
295:
268:
239:
230:
198:
197:
55:Summit depth
46:Location of
29:
2300:"Vailuluʻu"
1809:(12): n/a.
675:hypocentres
654:polychaetes
643:crustaceans
607:echinoderms
587:Demosponges
579:-oxidizing
523:and in the
452:Composition
326:pit craters
279:Ofu-Olosega
251:war goddess
220:chain. The
113: /
88:Coordinates
2321:Categories
2136:(4): n/a.
2043:(2): n/a.
1988:(4): n/a.
1940:(7): n/a.
1558:8 February
1361:2019-02-08
916:8 February
789:References
627:octocorals
611:octocorals
599:ophiuroids
595:gorgonians
547:iron oxide
531:and other
473:Iron oxide
426:Alexa Bank
422:Combe Bank
401:subducting
307:landslides
291:Rose Atoll
243:Tui Manuʻa
101:169°3′30″W
98:14°12′54″S
2280:2296-7745
2219:0027-8424
2168:1525-2027
2075:1525-2027
2020:1525-2027
2011:1912/3263
1963:1912/4769
1923:1912/3549
1887:1525-2027
1833:1525-2027
1790:0012-821X
1752:128549578
1704:0169-555X
1178:2156-2202
1154:(B8): 9.
710:isostatic
679:rift zone
631:octopuses
561:manganese
477:manganese
369:megawatts
199:Vailuluʻu
182:Vailuluʻu
35:Vailuluʻu
2237:16614067
2176:13987904
2159:1912/462
2120:85954222
2083:53631888
2066:1912/460
2028:54637043
1972:54947952
1879:1912/454
1535:38036504
1526:10689732
1509:(1): 6.
639:hydroids
635:anemones
591:crinoids
497:bacteria
495:Various
461:picrites
358:buoyancy
349:sulfides
298:seamount
285:, while
222:basaltic
206:seamount
203:volcanic
76:Location
71:Location
2228:1458904
2197:Bibcode
2138:Bibcode
2100:Bibcode
2045:Bibcode
1990:Bibcode
1942:Bibcode
1857:Bibcode
1811:Bibcode
1770:Bibcode
1732:Bibcode
1715:Sources
1684:Bibcode
1156:Bibcode
878:27 July
873:Oceanus
762:octopus
720:Gallery
714:Tutuila
690:uranium
686:thorium
615:sponges
603:sponges
577:methane
511:in the
505:basalts
491:Biology
481:sulfide
433:hotspot
409:hotspot
375:Geology
255:Nafanua
226:caldera
151:History
136:Geology
126:Country
2278:
2235:
2225:
2217:
2174:
2166:
2118:
2081:
2073:
2026:
2018:
1970:
1885:
1831:
1788:
1750:
1702:
1533:
1523:
1176:
658:oxygen
557:Sulfur
529:yeasts
521:Hawaii
485:mining
469:quartz
442:mantle
405:Savaii
319:saddle
315:Hawaii
79:South
63:Height
2172:S2CID
2116:S2CID
2079:S2CID
2024:S2CID
1968:S2CID
1845:(PDF)
1748:S2CID
619:crabs
533:fungi
446:plume
201:is a
2276:ISSN
2233:PMID
2215:ISSN
2164:ISSN
2071:ISSN
2016:ISSN
1883:ISSN
1829:ISSN
1786:ISSN
1700:ISSN
1560:2019
1553:NOAA
1531:PMID
1357:: 10
1174:ISSN
918:2019
911:NOAA
880:2023
688:and
650:eels
637:and
629:and
623:eels
613:and
601:and
565:iron
563:and
459:and
424:and
311:Fuji
283:Muli
281:and
275:Taʻu
214:Rose
212:and
210:Taʻu
159:1975
146:2003
2266:doi
2223:PMC
2205:doi
2193:103
2154:hdl
2146:doi
2108:doi
2061:hdl
2053:doi
2006:hdl
1998:doi
1958:hdl
1950:doi
1918:hdl
1908:doi
1875:hdl
1865:doi
1819:doi
1778:doi
1766:227
1740:doi
1692:doi
1521:PMC
1511:doi
1164:doi
1152:108
760:An
519:in
503:on
399:is
2323::
2308:.
2302:.
2274:.
2264:.
2262:10
2260:.
2256:.
2231:.
2221:.
2213:.
2203:.
2191:.
2187:.
2170:.
2162:.
2152:.
2144:.
2132:.
2114:.
2106:.
2096:26
2094:.
2077:.
2069:.
2059:.
2051:.
2039:.
2022:.
2014:.
2004:.
1996:.
1984:.
1966:.
1956:.
1948:.
1938:12
1936:.
1916:.
1904:23
1902:.
1898:.
1881:.
1873:.
1863:.
1851:.
1847:.
1827:.
1817:.
1805:.
1801:.
1784:.
1776:.
1764:.
1746:.
1738:.
1728:26
1726:.
1698:.
1690:.
1607:^
1580:^
1551:.
1529:.
1519:.
1507:14
1505:.
1501:.
1464:^
1447:^
1430:^
1353:.
1257:^
1240:^
1225:^
1210:^
1172:.
1162:.
1150:.
1146:.
1120:^
1093:^
1078:^
1061:^
1046:^
1015:^
1000:^
983:^
962:^
947:^
926:^
909:.
871:.
843:^
828:^
797:^
716:.
681:.
645:.
625:,
621:,
609:,
597:,
593:,
559:,
515:,
487:.
420:,
360:,
332:.
261:.
253:,
2312:.
2282:.
2268::
2239:.
2207::
2199::
2178:.
2156::
2148::
2140::
2134:5
2122:.
2110::
2102::
2085:.
2063::
2055::
2047::
2041:5
2030:.
2008::
2000::
1992::
1986:9
1974:.
1960::
1952::
1944::
1926:.
1920::
1910::
1889:.
1877::
1867::
1859::
1853:5
1835:.
1821::
1813::
1807:1
1792:.
1780::
1772::
1754:.
1742::
1734::
1706:.
1694::
1686::
1562:.
1537:.
1513::
1364:.
1180:.
1166::
1158::
920:.
882:.
545:/
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
