294:
the perceived balance of powers in the existing security environment." The peace and cohesion of the international structure may possibly be negatively affected with a continuing military-focused development of nanotechnology in warfare. Ambiguity and a lack of transparency in research increases difficulty of regulation in this area. Similarly, arguments put forward from a scientific standpoint, highlight the limited information known, concerning the implications of creating such powerful technology, in regards to reaction of the nano-particles themselves. "Although great scientific and technological progress has been made, many questions about the behaviour of matter at the nanoscale level remain, and considerable scientific knowledge has yet to be learned."
131:. This initial US proposal has now grown to coordinate application of nanotechnology in numerous defence programs, as well as all military factions including Air Force, Army and Navy. From the financial year 2001 through to 2014, the US government contributed around $ 19.4 billion to nano-science, moreover the development and manufacturing of nano-weapons for military defence. The 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act (2003), envisions the United States continuing its leadership in the field of nanotechnology through national collaboration, productivity and competitiveness, to maintain this dominance.
233:, provided an opportunity to focus funding and research activities purely on developing armour to increase soldier survival. Each of seven teams produces innovative enhancements for different aspects of a future U.S. soldier bodysuit. These additional characteristics include energy-absorbing material protecting from blasts or ammunition shocks, engineered sensors to detect chemicals and toxins, as well as built in nano devices to identify personal medical issues such as haemorrhages and fractures. This suit would be made possible with advanced nano-materials such as
106:
repercussions, as well as regulation to combat these effects. dem impacts give rise to issues concerning global security, the safety of society, and the environment. Legislation may need to be constantly monitored to keep up with the dynamic growth and development of nano-science, due to the potential benefits or dangers of its use. Anticipation of such impacts through regulation, would 'prevent irreversible damages' of implementing defence related nanotechnology in warfare.
246:
the coating and material set limitations on its use and longevity. The drive for this research is finding more efficient and cost effective uses in application of nanotechnology for
Airforce and Navy military groups. Integration of fibre-reinforced nano-materials in structural features, such as missile casings, can limit overheating, increase reliability, strength and ductility of the materials used for such nanotechnology.
80:
2003:
1978:
2015:
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nanotechnology will threaten privacy, global equity and fairness, while giving rise to patent and property right disputes. An overarching social and humanitarian issue, branches from the creative intention of these developments. 'The power to kill or capture debate', highlights the unethical purpose and function of destruction these nanotechnological weapons supply to the user.
1990:
25:
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consumption, light weight, efficiency of power, as well as smaller and cheaper to manufacture. Specific military uses of this technology include aerospace applications such as; solid oxide fuel cells to provide three times the energy, surveillance cameras on microchips, performance monitors, and cameras as light as 18g.
370:
National
Nanomaterial Registry, is a more updated version in which information is collated from a range of these sources and multiple additional data resources. It translates a greater range of content regarding; comparison tools with other materials, encouraging standard methods, alongside compliance rating features.
245:
Creation of sol-gel ceramic coatings has protected metals from; wear, fractures and moisture, allowing adjustability to numerous shapes and sizes, as well as aiding "materials that cannot withstand high temperature". Current research focuses on resolving durability issues, where stress cracks between
207:
Between 2001 and 2004, approximately 60 countries globally implemented national nanotechnology programmes. According to R.D Shelton, an international technology assessor, research and development in this area "has now become a socio-economic target...an area of intense international collaboration and
114:
Historical use of nanotechnology in the area of warfare and defence has been rapid and expansive. Over the past two decades, numerous countries have funded military applications of this technology including; China, United
Kingdom, Russia, and most notably the United States. The US government has been
329:
International regulation for such concerns surrounding issues of nanotechnology and its military application, are non existent. There is currently no framework to enforce or support international cooperation to limit production or monitor research and development of nanotechnology for defensive use.
115:
considered a national leader of research and development in this area, however now rivalled by international competition as appreciation of nanotechnology's eminence increases. Therefore, the growth of this area in the use of its power has a dominant platform in the front line of military interests.
293:
Difficulty in categorisation of nano-weapons, and their intended purposes (defensive or offensive) compromises the balance of stability and trust in the global environment. "A lack of transparency about an emerging technology not only negatively effects public perception but also negatively impacts
284:
Nanotechnology and its use in warfare promises economic growth however comes with the increased threat to international security and peacekeeping. The rapid emergence of new nanotechnologies have sparked discussion surrounding the impacts such developments will have on geo-politics, ethics, and the
102:(1-100 nm). The application of such technology, specifically in the area of warfare and defence, has paved the way for future research in the context of weaponisation. Nanotechnology unites a variety of scientific fields including material science, chemistry, physics, biology and engineering.
365:
The registry was developed to assist in the standardisation, formatting, and sharing of data. With more compliance and cooperation this data sharing model may "simplify the community level of effort in assessing nanomaterial data from environmental and biological interaction studies." Analysis of
333:
Producing legislation to keep-up with the rapid development of products and new materials in the scientific spheres, would pose as a hindrance to constructing working and relevant regulation. Productive regulation should assure public health and safety, account for environmental and international
320:
Controversy surrounding the innovation and application of nanotechnology in warfare highlights dangers of not pre-determining risks, or accounting for possible impacts of such technology. "The threat of nuclear weapons led to the cold war. The same trend is foreseen with nanotechnology, which may
307:
added to fuel, possible absorption of nanoparticles from sensors into the skin, water, air or soil, dispersion of particles from blasts through the environment (via wind), alongside disposal of nano-tech batteries potentially affecting ecosystems. Applications for materials or explosive devices,
263:
The United States, along with countries such as Russia and
Germany, are utilising the convenience of small nanotechnologies, adhering it to nuclear "mini-nuke" explosive devices. This weapon would weigh 5 lbs, with the force of 100 tonnes of TNT, giving it the possibility to annihilate and
316:
It is unknown the full extent of consequences that may arise in social and ethical areas. Estimates can be made on the associated impacts as they may mirror similar progression of technological developments and affect all areas. The main ethical uncertainties entail the degree to which modern
302:
The introduction of nanotechnology into everyday life enables potential benefits of use, yet carries the possibility of unknown consequences for the environment and safety. Possible positive developments include creation of nano-devices to decrease remaining radio-activity in areas, as well as
254:
Nanotechnology designed for advanced communication is expected to equip soldiers and vehicles with micro antenna rays, tags for remote identification, acoustic arrays, micro GPS receivers and wireless communication. Nanotech facilitates easier defence related communications due to lower energy
220:
Most recent research into military nanotechnological weapons includes production of defensive military apparatus, with objectives of enhancing existing designs of lightweight, flexible and durable materials. These innovative designs are equipped with features to also enhance offensive strategy
369:
However, this idea of a specific nonmaterial registry is not original, as several databases have been developed previously including the caNanoLab and InterNano which are both engaging and accessible to the public, informatively curated by experts, and detail tools of nano manufacturing . The
169:
In the sub-category of nano materials China secures second place behind the United States in the amount of research publications they have released. Conjecture stands over the purpose of China's quick development to rival the U.S., with 1/5 of their government budget spent on research (US$
321:
lead to the so-called nanowars, a new age of destruction", stated by the U.S. Department of
Defense. Similarly a report released by Oxford University, warns of the pre-eminent extinction of the human race with a 5% risk of this occurring due to development of 'molecular nanotech weapons'.
105:
Advancements in this area, have led to categorised development of such nano-weapons with classifications varying from; small robotic machines, hyper-reactive explosives, and electromagnetic super-materials. With this technological growth, has emerged implications of associated risks and
271:
Engineers and scientists alike, realise some of these proposed developments may not be feasible within the next two decades as more research needs to be undertaken, improving models to be quicker and more efficient. Particularly
160:
planning to continue with this priority throughout the 21st century. In response to
America's assertive public funding of defence purposed nanotechnology, numerous global actors have since created similar programmes.
330:"Even if a transnational regulatory framework is established, it is impossible to determine if a nation is non-compliant if one is unable to determine the entire scope of research, development, or manufacturing."
204:'s Vice President Chunli Bai, has stated the need to focus on closing the gap between "basic research and application," in order for China to advance its global competitiveness in nanotechnology.
156:
The United States government has had military purposed development of nanotechnology at the forefront of its national budget and policy throughout the
Clinton and Bush administrations, with the
358:
A United States
National Registry for Nanotechnology has enabled a public sphere where reports are available for curated data on physico-chemical characteristics and interactions of
342:
Approaches to development of legislation, possibly include progression towards classified non-disclosive information pertaining to military use of nanotechnology. A paper written by
170:
337million). In 2018, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, released their findings where they have enhanced carbon nanotubes to now withstand the weight of over 800 tonnes, requiring just 1
1509:
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such a registry would be carried out with expertise by professional nano-scientists, creating a filtering mechanism for any potentially newly developed or dangerous materials.
362:. Requiring further development and more frequent voluntary additions, the register could initiate global regulation and cooperation regarding nanotechnology in warfare.
346:, discusses laws that would revolve around specific export controls and discourage civilian or private research into nano-materials. This proposal suggests mimicking the
763:
Bai Y, Zhang R, Ye X, Zhu Z, Xie H, Shen B, Cai D, Liu B, Zhang C, Jia Z, Zhang S, Li X, Wei F (July 2018). "Carbon nanotube bundles with tensile strength over 80 GPa".
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woven into fibres, allowing strengthened structural capacities and flexibility, however preparation becomes an issue due to inability to use automated manufacturing.
198:
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Appelbaum RP (2008). "China's bid to become a global nanotech leader: advancing nanotechnology through state-led programs and international collaborations".
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of material. The scientific nanotechnology team hinted at aerospace, and armour boosting applications, showing promise for defence related nano-weapons. The
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allow a greater volume of nano-powders to be packed into a smaller weapon, resulting in a stronger and possibly lethal toxic effect.
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to focus funding towards the development of nano-science and its technology, with a heavy focus on utilising the potential of
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350:, restricting any distribution of information regarding the properties and features of the nanotechnology at creation.
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sensors to detect pollutants and adjust fuel-air mixtures. Associated risks may involve; military personnel inhaling
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The
Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies (ISN), deriving from a partnership between the United States Army and
1622:"The Nanomaterial Registry: facilitating the sharing and analysis of data in the diverse nanomaterial community"
143:
Lifetime of material coatings increased from hours to years, however further development continuing (see below).
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589:"Text of S. 189 (108th): 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act (Passed Congress version)"
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276:, requires further understanding of manipulation and reaction, in order to adapt it to a military arena.
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MEMS and Nanotechnology-Based Sensors and Devices for Communications, Medical and Aerospace Applications
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Baughman RH, Zakhidov AA, de Heer WA (August 2002). "Carbon nanotubes--the route toward applications".
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35:
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1884:
1386:"How Should we do Nanoethics? A Network Approach for Discerning Ethical Issues in Nanotechnology"
1302:
Glenn JC (February 2006). "Nanotechnology: Future military environmental health considerations".
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561:"The National Nanotechnology Initiative: Overview, Reauthorization, and Appropriations Issues"
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by the USA alone, maintaining their position as a leader in nanotechnology for over 20 years.
1058:"Nanotechnology in Communication Engineering: Issues, Applications, and Future Possibilities"
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concerns, yet not restrict innovation of emerging ideas and applications for nanotechnology.
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1153:"A Review of Selected Nanotechnology Topics and their Potential Military Applications"
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1267:"Nanotechnology: The Next Industrial Revolution – Military and Societal Implications"
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268:, however manufactured with nano-materials to allow production to a smaller scale.
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Nano-structured silicate manipulation reducing insulation weight by 980 lbs.
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1242:"Military Applications of Nanotechnology: Implications for Strategic Security I"
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2014:
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1402:
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Carbajal G (2001). "Corrosion-resistant coatings: a nanotechnology approach".
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511:"JOTS v41n1 - Military And National Security Implications Of Nanotechnology"
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840:"China focus: China aims high in nanotechnology - Xinhua | English.news.cn"
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706:
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560:
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24:
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Khan A (2015-08-29). "Ethical and social implications of nanotechnology".
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through sensing devices and manipulation of electromechanical properties.
1510:"Feasibility of Implementing a Mandatory Nanotechnology Product Registry"
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in which molecular systems are designed, produced and created to fit a
1104:
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threaten humanity. The structural integrity would remain the same as
815:"China 'has world's strongest fibre that can haul a space elevator'"
685:
Hullmann A (November 2006). "Who is winning the global nanorace?".
2109:
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Australian Department of Defence: DSTO Systems Sciences Laboratory
1130:"Nearly Invisible Weapons of Mass Destruction Spark New Arms Race"
897:
209:
78:
1712:
1004:
Overview of Nanotechnology in Military and Aerospace Applications
536:"Nanotechnology and National Security: Small Changes, Big Impact"
1029:"Nanotechnology innovation opportunities for tomorrow's defence"
208:
competition." As of 2017, data showed 4725 patents published in
139:
Successful transitions of nanotechnology into defence products:
2034:
1716:
870:"Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal Needs in 2020"
152:(HPM) devices with reduced weight, shape and power consumption.
87:, consisting of a graphite sheet wrapped into a cylinder shape.
18:
1691:
1365:(4). Hamad bin Khalifa University Press (HBKU Press): 57.
1202:
Lele A (April 2009). "Role of Nanotechnology in Defence".
616:"Defense Nanotechnology Research and Development Program"
1517:
Centre for International Economics Canberra & Sydney
1105:"Military Nanotechnology Applications • TheNanoAge.com"
49:
39:
1419:"Nanotechnology and the Future of the Law of Weaponry"
1540:"Nanotechnology and Regulatory Policy: Three Futures"
898:"Top Ten Countries in Nanotechnology Patents in 2017"
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952:"Multifunctional Fabrics of Carbon Nanotube Fibers"
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123:In 2000, the United States government developed a
1083:. USA: Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 37–38.
1620:Ostraat ML, Mills KC, Guzan KA, Murry D (2013).
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1728:
1330:"Opportunities and Risks of Nanotechnologies"
644:Hulla JE, Sahu SC, Hayes AW (December 2015).
8:
1566:"Classification Under the Atomic Energy Act"
1468:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1187:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1006:. NJ, USA: Hoboken. 2017. pp. 137–170.
1485:"A REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY"
1304:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
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1573:United States Foreign Agricultural Service
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1692:"InterNano: Resources for Manufacturing"
922:"MIT Reports to the President 2003–2004"
1440:Sandberg, A. & Bostrom, N. (2008).
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119:U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative
2177:Differential technological development
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1151:Dortmans, Peter J., Wang, Jun (2004).
929:Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies
623:Department of Defense, U.S. Government
489:"Nanotechnology and the New Arms Race"
1626:International Journal of Nanomedicine
1615:
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1594:"Nanomaterial Registry | re3data.org"
1547:Harvard Journal of Law and Technology
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344:Harvard Journal of Law and Technology
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646:"Nanotechnology: History and future"
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2266:Future-oriented technology analysis
1274:Army Environmental Policy Institute
650:Human & Experimental Toxicology
1442:"Global Catastrophic Risks Survey"
125:National Nanotechnology Initiative
14:
1283:from the original on May 17, 2019
1169:from the original on May 30, 2019
2320:
2013:
2001:
1988:
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1976:
413:"What is Nanotechnology? | Nano"
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1246:Georgia Institute of Technology
975:Corrosion Methods and Materials
389:"Nanoscience vs nanotechnology"
1316:10.1016/j.techfore.2005.06.010
956:Journal of Materials Chemistry
568:Congressional Research Service
348:U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1954
1:
2293:Technology in science fiction
1936:Scanning tunneling microscope
1371:10.5339/qproc.2015.elc2014.57
1908:Molecular scale electronics
387:Carruthers T (2018-01-20).
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2298:Technology readiness level
2234:Technological unemployment
202:Chinese Academy of Science
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2281:Technological singularity
2241:Technological convergence
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1923:Scanning probe microscopy
1489:Naval Postgraduate School
1423:International Law Studies
1403:10.1007/s11569-008-0026-y
1240:Kosal M (December 2014).
1216:10.1080/09700160802518700
1132:. Nebraska: PR Newswire.
987:10.1108/00035590110398899
785:10.1038/s41565-018-0141-z
738:Science and Public Policy
487:Nichols G (Summer 2017).
354:The Nanomaterial Registry
92:Nanotechnology in warfare
1946:Molecular nanotechnology
1890:Solid lipid nanoparticle
1875:Self-assembled monolayer
1036:TNO Science and Industry
819:South China Morning Post
750:10.3152/030234208X319366
663:10.1177/0960327115603588
274:molecular nanotechnology
2246:Technological evolution
2219:Exploratory engineering
1931:Atomic force microscope
1880:Supramolecular assembly
1867:Molecular self-assembly
1628:. 8 Suppl 1 (1): 7–13.
1483:Ridge SJ (March 2018).
540:The Heritage Foundation
458:10.1126/science.1060928
38:, as no other articles
2256:Technology forecasting
2251:Technological paradigm
2224:Proactionary principle
2100:Directed-energy weapon
1384:Van De Poel I (2008).
707:10.1038/nnano.2006.110
194:
193:{\displaystyle cm^{3}}
88:
2182:Disruptive innovation
2062:Emerging technologies
2020:Technology portal
1672:cananolab.nci.nih.gov
1128:Del Monte LA (2017).
1062:World Scientific News
1056:Elmustafa AA (2017).
765:Nature Nanotechnology
687:Nature Nanotechnology
250:Communication devices
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158:Department of Defense
82:
16:Branch of nanoscience
2229:Technological change
2172:Collingridge dilemma
2115:Particle-beam weapon
1807:Green nanotechnology
1538:Reynolds GH (2003).
1359:Qscience Proceedings
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150:High Power Microwave
2286:Technology scouting
2261:Accelerating change
2090:Caseless ammunition
1954:Molecular assembler
777:2018NatNa..13..589B
699:2006NatNa...1...81H
559:Sargent JF (2014).
450:2002Sci...297..787B
338:Proposed regulation
2303:Technology roadmap
2142:Stealth technology
2132:Pure fusion weapon
2008:Science portal
1885:DNA nanotechnology
1635:10.2147/IJN.S40722
1204:Strategic Analysis
1027:Simonis F (2006).
515:scholar.lib.vt.edu
312:Social and ethical
241:Enhanced materials
225:Soldier battlesuit
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57:for suggestions.
47:to this page from
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844:www.xinhuanet.com
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