Molecular machine - Knowledge (XXG)

441: 590: 874: 938: 745: 771: 856: 838: 706: 896: 5768: 95: 5743: 5780: 107: 793: 972: 959:) attached to the four corners. In 2011, Feringa and co-workers synthesized the first motorized nanocar which had molecular motors attached to the chassis as rotating wheels. The authors were able to demonstrate directional motion of the nanocar on a copper surface by providing energy from a scanning tunneling microscope tip. Later, in 2017, the world's first-ever 5755: 653:) to switch molecules between different states. However, this comes with the issue of practically regulating the delivery of the chemical fuel and the removal of waste generated to maintain the efficiency of the machine as in biological systems. Though some AMMs have found ways to circumvent this, more recently waste-free reactions such based on 701:, and steric and dispersion interactions. The distinct conformers of a molecular balance can show different interactions with the same molecule, such that analyzing the ratio of the conformers and the energies for these interactions can enable quantification of different properties (such as CH-π or arene-arene interactions, see image). 300:

mimic functions that occur at the macroscopic level. A few prime requirements for a molecule to be considered a "molecular machine" are: the presence of moving parts, the ability to consume energy, and the ability to perform a task. Molecular machines differ from other stimuli-responsive compounds that can produce motion (such as

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desired. This led to the addition of stimuli-responsive moieties in AMM design, so that externally applied non-thermal sources of energy could drive molecular motion and hence allow control over the properties. Chemical energy (or "chemical fuels") was an attractive option at the beginning, given the broad array of

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AMMs are gradually moving from the conventional solution-phase chemistry to surfaces and interfaces. For instance, AMM-immobilized surfaces (AMMISs) are a novel class of functional materials consisting of AMMs attached to inorganic surfaces forming features like self-assembled monolayers; this gives

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examination, metal ion detection, and pharmaceutical studies. The first example of a molecular logic gate was reported in 1993, featuring a receptor (see image) where the emission intensity could be treated as a tunable output if the concentrations of protons and sodium ions were to be considered as

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to produce molecular switches, featuring two distinct configurations for the molecule to convert between. This has been perceived as a step forward from the original molecular shuttle which consisted of two identical sites for the ring to move between without any preference, in a manner analogous to

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Several definitions describe a "molecular machine" as a class of molecules typically described as an assembly of a discrete number of molecular components intended to produce mechanical movements in response to specific stimuli. The expression is often more generally applied to molecules that simply

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The construction of more complex molecular machines is an active area of theoretical and experimental research. Though a diverse variety of AMMs are known today, experimental studies of these molecules are inhibited by the lack of methods to construct these molecules. In this context, theoretical

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A molecule capable of shuttling molecules or ions from one location to another. This is schematically depicted in the image on the right, where a ring (in green) can bind to either one of the yellow sites on the blue macrocyclic backbone. A common molecular shuttle consists of a rotaxane where the

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A molecule that can propel fluids when rotated, due to its special shape that is designed in analogy to macroscopic propellers (see schematic image on right). It has several molecular-scale blades attached at a certain pitch angle around the circumference of a nanoscale shaft. Propellers have been

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can also produce curved shapes. Another common mode of movement is the circumrotation of rings relative to one another as observed in mechanically interlocked molecules (primarily catenanes). While this type of rotation can not be accessed beyond the molecule itself (because the rings are confined

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What would be the utility of such machines? Who knows? I cannot see exactly what would happen, but I can hardly doubt that when we have some control of the arrangement of things on a molecular scale we will get an enormously greater range of possible properties that substances can have, and of the

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are a class of molecules typically described as an assembly of a discrete number of molecular components intended to produce mechanical movements in response to specific stimuli, mimicking macromolecular devices such as switches and motors. Naturally occurring or biological molecular machines are

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Various energy sources are employed to drive molecular machines today, but this was not the case during the early years of AMM development. Though the movements in AMMs were regulated relative to the random thermal motion generally seen in molecules, they could not be controlled or manipulated as

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Most of these applications remain at the proof-of-concept level, and need major modifications to be adapted to the industrial scale. Challenges in streamlining macroscale applications include autonomous operation, the complexity of the machines, stability in the synthesis of the machines and the

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A molecule that can be reversibly shifted between two or more stable states in response to certain stimuli. This change of states influences the properties of the molecule according to the state it occupies at the moment. Unlike a molecular motor, any mechanical work done due to the motion in a

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to analyze complex chemical structures, in the 1950s gave rise to the idea of understanding and controlling relative motion within molecular components for further applications. This led to the design of "proto-molecular machines" featuring conformational changes such as cog-wheeling of the

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macrocycle can move between two sites or stations along the dumbbell backbone; controlling the properties of either site and by regulating conditions like pH can enable control over which site is selected for binding. This has led to novel applications in catalysis and drug delivery.

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This definition generally applies to synthetic molecular machines, which have historically gained inspiration from the naturally occurring biological molecular machines (also referred to as "nanomachines"). Biological machines are considered to be nanoscale devices (such as molecular

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Kudernac, Tibor; Ruangsupapichat, Nopporn; Parschau, Manfred; Maciá, Beatriz; Katsonis, Nathalie; Harutyunyan, Syuzanna R.; Ernst, Karl-Heinz; Feringa, Ben L. (10 November 2011). "Electrically driven directional motion of a four-wheeled molecule on a metal surface".

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Single-molecule vehicles that resemble macroscopic automobiles and are important for understanding how to control molecular diffusion on surfaces. The image on the right shows an example with wheels made of fullerene molecules. The first nanocars were synthesized by

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Biological molecular machines have been known and studied for years given their vital role in sustaining life, and have served as inspiration for synthetically designed systems with similar useful functionality. The advent of conformational analysis, or the study of

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Thomas, C. R.; Ferris, D. P.; Lee, J.-H.; Choi, E.; Cho, M. H.; Kim, E. S.; Stoddart, J. F.; Shin, J.-S.; Cheon, J.; Zink, J. I. (2010). "Noninvasive Remote-Controlled Release of Drug Molecules in Vitro Using Magnetic Actuation of Mechanized Nanoparticles".

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A class of mechanically interlocked molecules derived from catenanes where a large macrocycle backbone connects at least three small rings in the shape of a necklace (see image for example). A molecular necklace consisting of a large macrocycle threaded by

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Amrute-Nayak, M.; Diensthuber, R. P.; Steffen, W.; Kathmann, D.; Hartmann, F. K.; Fedorov, R.; Urbanke, C.; Manstein, D. J.; Brenner, B.; Tsiavaliaris, G. (2010). "Targeted Optimization of a Protein Nanomachine for Operation in Biohybrid Devices".

210: 720:-like motion around a rigid axis, such as a double bond or aromatic ring, to switch between reversible configurations. Such configurations must have distinguishable geometries; for instance, azobenzene groups in a linear molecule may undergo 787:

have also been produced. Single bond rotary motors are generally activated by chemical reactions whereas double bond rotary motors are generally fueled by light. The rotation speed of the motor can also be tuned by careful molecular design.

182:. For the last several decades, scientists have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to miniaturize machines found in the macroscopic world. The first example of an artificial molecular machine (AMM) was reported in 1994, featuring a 3915:

Simpson, Christopher D.; Mattersteig, Gunter; Martin, Kai; Gherghel, Lileta; Bauer, Roland E.; Räder, Hans Joachim; Müllen, Klaus (March 2004). "Nanosized Molecular Propellers by Cyclodehydrogenation of Polyphenylene Dendrimers".

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Paliwal, S.; Geib, S.; Wilcox, C. S. (1994). "Molecular Torsion Balance for Weak Molecular Recognition Forces. Effects of "Tilted-T" Edge-to-Face Aromatic Interactions on Conformational Selection and Solid-State Structure".

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Though these events served as inspiration for the field, the actual breakthrough in practical approaches to synthesize artificial molecular machines (AMMs) took place in 1991 with the invention of a "molecular shuttle" by

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isomerization. c) Translational motion of a ring (blue) between two possible binding sites (red) along the dumbbell-like rotaxane axis (purple). d) Rotation of interlocked rings (depicted as blue and red rectangles) in a

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Host molecules capable of holding items between their two arms. The open cavity of the molecular tweezers binds items using non-covalent bonding including hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces,

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Shinkai, S.; Nakaji, T.; Nishida, Y.; Ogawa, T.; Manabe, O. (1980). "Photoresponsive crown ethers. 1. Cis-trans isomerism of azobenzene as a tool to enforce conformational changes of crown ethers and polymers".

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chain backbone; the authors connected this to the idea of a "molecular abacus" proposed by Stoddart and coworkers around the same time. Several interesting applications have emerged for these molecules, such as

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units). This design realized the well-defined motion of a molecular unit across the length of the molecule for the first time. In 1994, an improved design allowed control over the motion of the ring by

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Li, S.-L.; Lan, Y.-Q.; Sakurai, H.; Xu, Q. (2012). "Unusual Regenerable Porous Metal-Organic Framework Based on a New Triple Helical Molecular Necklace for Separating Organosulfur Compounds".

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Tabacchi, G.; Silvi, S.; Venturi, M.; Credi, A.; Fois, E. (2016). "Dethreading of a Photoactive Azobenzene-Containing Molecular Axle from a Crown Ether Ring: A Computational Investigation".

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Dietrich-Buchecker, C. O.; Sauvage, J. P.; Kintzinger, J. P. (1983). "Une nouvelle famille de molecules : les metallo-catenanes" [A new family of molecules: metallo-catenanes].

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Jiang, X.; Rodríguez-Molina, B.; Nazarian, N.; Garcia-Garibay, M. A. (2014). "Rotation of a Bulky Triptycene in the Solid State: Toward Engineered Nanoscale Artificial Molecular Machines".

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unit; the cationic ring typically prefers staying over the benzidine ring, but moves over to the biphenol group when the benzidine gets protonated at low pH or if it gets electrochemically

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Dumy, P.; Keller, M.; Ryan, D. E.; Rohwedder, B.; Wöhr, T.; Mutter, M. (1997). "Pseudo-Prolines as a Molecular Hinge: Reversible Induction of cis Amide Bonds into Peptide Backbones".

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A molecule that can interconvert between two or more conformational or configurational states in response to the dynamic of multiple intra- and intermolecular driving forces, such as

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within one another), rotaxanes can overcome this as the rings can undergo translational movements along a dumbbell-like axis. Another line of AMMs consists of biomolecules such as

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Klärner, Frank-Gerrit; Kahlert, Björn (December 2003). "Molecular Tweezers and Clips as Synthetic Receptors. Molecular Recognition and Dynamics in Receptor−Substrate Complexes".

397:. By 1980, scientists could achieve desired conformations using external stimuli and utilize this for different applications. A major example is the design of a photoresponsive 3880:

Seo, J.; Kim, B.; Kim, M.-S.; Seo, J.-H. (2021). "Optimization of Anisotropic Crystalline Structure of Molecular Necklace-like Polyrotaxane for Tough Piezoelectric Elastomer".

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Kai, H.; Nara, S.; Kinbara, K.; Aida, T. (2008). "Toward Long-Distance Mechanical Communication: Studies on a Ternary Complex Interconnected by a Bridging Rotary Module".

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Terao, F.; Morimoto, M.; Irie, M. (2012). "Light-Driven Molecular-Crystal Actuators: Rapid and Reversible Bending of Rodlike Mixed Crystals of Diarylethene Derivatives".

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L., Ping; Z., Chen; Smith, M. D.; Shimizu, K. D. (2013). "Comprehensive Experimental Study of N-Heterocyclic π-Stacking Interactions of Neutral and Cationic Pyridines".

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Shirai, Yasuhiro; Osgood, Andrew J.; Zhao, Yuming; Kelly, Kevin F.; Tour, James M. (November 2005). "Directional Control in Thermally Driven Single-Molecule Nanocars".

633:. This switching behavior has been further optimized to acquire useful work that gets lost when a typical switch returns to its original state. Inspired by the use of 3185:

Erbas-Cakmak, S.; Kolemen, S.; Sedgwick, A. C.; Gunnlaugsson, T.; James, T. D.; Yoon, J.; Akkaya, E. U. (2018). "Molecular logic gates: the past, present and future".

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Yurke, Bernard; Turberfield, Andrew J.; Mills, Allen P.; Simmel, Friedrich C.; Neumann, Jennifer L. (10 August 2000). "A DNA-fuelled molecular machine made of DNA".

1053:. "n effect, the is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines ... 4935:

Ikejiri, S.; Takashima, Y.; Osaki, M.; Yamaguchi, H.; Harada, A. (2018). "Solvent-Free Photoresponsive Artificial Muscles Rapidly Driven by Molecular Machines".

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Gimzewski, J. K.; Joachim, C.; Schlittler, R. R.; Langlais, V.; Tang, H.; Johannsen, I. (1998). "Rotation of a Single Molecule Within a Supramolecular Bearing".

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methods have been outlined better. A major starting point for the design of AMMs is to exploit the existing modes of motion in molecules, such as rotation about

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Golestanian, Ramin; Liverpool, Tanniemola B.; Ajdari, Armand (2005-06-10). "Propulsion of a Molecular Machine by Asymmetric Distribution of Reaction Products".

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Garcia-Amorós, J.; Reig, M.; Cuadrado, A.; Ortega, M.; Nonell, S.; Velasco, D. (2014). "A photoswitchable bis-azo derivative with a high temporal resolution".

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Kinbara, Kazushi; Aida, Takuzo (2005-04-01). "Toward Intelligent Molecular Machines: Directed Motions of Biological and Artificial Molecules and Assemblies".

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Chatterjee, M. N.; Kay, E. R.; Leigh, D. A. (2006). "Beyond Switches: Ratcheting a Particle Energetically Uphill with a Compartmentalized Molecular Machine".

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methods have been outlined more clearly. A major starting point for the design of AMMs is to exploit the existing modes of motion in molecules. For instance,

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alluded to the idea and applications of molecular devices designed artificially by manipulating matter at the atomic level. This was further substantiated by

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Bissell, Richard A; Córdova, Emilio; Kaifer, Angel E.; Stoddart, J. Fraser (12 May 1994). "A chemically and electrochemically switchable molecular shuttle".

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Fennimore, A. M.; Yuzvinsky, T. D.; Han, Wei-Qiang; Fuhrer, M. S.; Cumings, J.; Zettl, A. (24 July 2003). "Rotational actuators based on carbon nanotubes".

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switch is generally undone once the molecule returns to its original state unless it is part of a larger motor-like system. The image on the right shows a

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Various AMMs have been designed with a broad range of functions and applications, several of which have been tabulated below along with indicative images:

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The first example of an artificial molecular machine (a switchable molecular shuttle). The positively charged ring (blue) is initially positioned over the

4408: 761:, these molecules have slowly replaced the conventional silicon-based machinery. Several applications have come forth, such as water quality examination, 783:

A molecule that is capable of directional rotary motion around a single or double bond and produce useful work as a result (as depicted in the image).

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Balasubramanian, S.; Kagan, D.; Jack Hu, C. M.; Campuzano, S.; Lobo-Castañon, M. J.; Lim, N.; Kang, D. Y.; Zimmerman, M.; Zhang, L.; Wang, J. (2011).

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Carroll, W. R.; Zhao, C.; Smith, M. D.; Pellechia, P. J.; Shimizu, K. D. (2011). "A Molecular Balance for Measuring Aliphatic CH−π Interactions".

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Some common types of motion seen in some simple components of artificial molecular machines. a) Rotation around single bonds and in sandwich-like

5239:"Chemical consequences of mechanical bonding in catenanes and rotaxanes: isomerism, modification, catalysis and molecular machines for synthesis" 732:, triggering a reversible transition to a bent or V-shaped conformation (see image). Molecular hinges have been adapted for applications such as 417: 375: 2572: 1364:

Kinbara, K.; Aida, T. (2005). "Toward Intelligent Molecular Machines: Directed Motions of Biological and Artificial Molecules and Assemblies".

130: 2913:"Reversible photo-responsive gel–sol transitions of robust organogels based on an azobenzene-containing main-chain liquid crystalline polymer" 1180:

catalysis. AMMs have been pivotal in the design of several stimuli-responsive smart materials, such as 2D and 3D self-assembled materials and

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Dietrich-Buchecker, C. O.; Sauvage, J. P.; Kern, J. M. (May 1984). "Templated synthesis of interlocked macrocyclic ligands: the catenands".

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Vogelsberg, C. S.; Garcia-Garibay, M. A. (2012). "Crystalline molecular machines: function, phase order, dimensionality, and composition".

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Corra, S.; Curcio, M.; Baroncini, M.; Silvi, S.; Credi, A. (2020). "Photoactivated Artificial Molecular Machines that Can Perform Tasks".

517:. Over the following decade, a broad variety of AMMs responding to various stimuli were invented for different applications. In 2016, the 2970:

Hada, M.; Yamaguchi, D.; Ishikawa, T.; Sawa, T.; Tsuruta, K.; Ishikawa, K.; Koshihara, S.-y.; Hayashi, Y.; Kato, T. (13 September 2019).

2972:"Ultrafast isomerization-induced cooperative motions to higher molecular orientation in smectic liquid-crystalline azobenzene molecules" 1140:, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections, but these are considered to be far beyond current capabilities. 646: 2799:

Carroll, W. R.; Pellechia, P.; Shimizu, K. D. (2008). "A Rigid Molecular Balance for Measuring Face-to-Face Arene−Arene Interactions".

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Bissell, R. A; Córdova, E.; Kaifer, A. E.; Stoddart, J. F. (1994). "A chemically and electrochemically switchable molecular shuttle".

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Zhang, Q.; Qu, D.-H. (2016). "Artificial Molecular Machine Immobilized Surfaces: A New Platform To Construct Functional Materials".

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molecule, termed "buckycatcher". Examples of molecular tweezers have been reported that are constructed from DNA and are considered

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to create switches. A broad range of AMMs has been designed, featuring different properties and applications; some of these include

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Kelly, T. Ross; De Silva, Harshani; Silva, Richard A. (9 September 1999). "Unidirectional rotary motion in a molecular system".

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Sygula, A.; Fronczek, F. R.; Sygula, R.; Rabideau, P. W.; Olmstead, M. M. (2007). "A Double Concave Hydrocarbon Buckycatcher".

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Hamilton, A. D.; Van Engen, D. (1987). "Induced fit in synthetic receptors: nucleotide base recognition by a molecular hinge".

3651:"Controlling the speed of rotation in molecular motors. Dramatic acceleration of the rotary motion by structural modification" 3314:

de Silva, P. A.; Gunaratne, N. H. Q.; McCoy, C. P. (1993). "A molecular photoionic AND gate based on fluorescent signalling".

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to produce work in natural processes, molecular motors are designed to have a continuous energy influx to keep them away from

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in the early 1980s, this shuttle features a rotaxane with a ring that can move across an "axle" between two ends or possible

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Koumura, Nagatoshi; Zijlstra, Robert W. J.; van Delden, Richard A.; Harada, Nobuyuki; Feringa, Ben L. (9 September 1999).

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Patel, G. M.; Patel, G. C.; Patel, R. B.; Patel, J. K.; Patel, M. (2006). "Nanorobot: A versatile tool in nanomedicine".

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A molecule that performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Modelled on

625:, this can give rise to weak or strong recognition sites as in biological systems — such AMMs have found applications in 5576: 5081:"Phototriggered Complex Motion by Programmable Construction of Light-Driven Molecular Motors in Liquid Crystal Networks" 3745:

Harada, A.; Li, J.; Kamachi, M. (1992). "The molecular necklace: a rotaxane containing many threaded α-cyclodextrins".

1136:, biological machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Nanomedicine would make use of these 513:. In 1998, a study could capture the rotary motion of a decacyclene molecule on a copper-base metallic surface using a 5815: 5672: 4978:

Iwaso, K.; Takashima, Y.; Harada, A. (2016). "Fast response dry-type artificial molecular muscles with daisy chains".

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Wu, G.-Y.; Shi, X.; Phan, H.; Qu, H.; Hu, Y.-X.; Yin, G.-Q.; Zhao, X.-L.; Li, X.; Xu, L.; Yu, Q.; Yang, H.-B. (2020).

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Le Poul, N.; Colasson, B. (2015). "Electrochemically and Chemically Induced Redox Processes in Molecular Machines".

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isomers on exposure to light and hence tune the cation-binding properties of the ether. In his seminal 1959 lecture

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AMM designs have diversified significantly since the early days of the field. A major route is the introduction of

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shown to have interesting properties, such as variations in pumping rates for hydrophilic and hydrophobic fluids.

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Kassem, Salma; van Leeuwen, Thomas; Lubbe, Anouk S.; Wilson, Miriam R.; Feringa, Ben L.; Leigh, David A. (2017).

2347:"Waste Management of Chemically Activated Switches: Using a Photoacid To Eliminate Accumulation of Side Products" 784: 638: 5022: 5710: 5654: 5639: 5549: 5485: 1125: 518: 430: 385: 191: 38: 4413: 4157:

Chen, C. W.; Whitlock, H. W. (July 1978). "Molecular tweezers: a simple model of bifunctional intercalation".

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Lancia, F.; Ryabchun, A.; Katsonis, N. (2019). "Life-like motion driven by artificial molecular machines".

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Bandara, H. M. Dhammika; Burdette, S. C. (2012). "Photoisomerization in different classes of azobenzene".

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Balzani, V.; Clemente-León, M.; Credi, A.; Ferrer, B.; Venturi, M.; Flood, A. H.; Stoddart, J. F. (2006).

1516:"Molecular engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation" 1078: 994: 69: 5199: 4562: 1005:

are dark blue, and the other proteins involved are light blue. The produced peptide is released into the

5820: 4569:. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. Vol. 83. Academic Press. pp. 163–221. 2105:

Kamiya, Y.; Asanuma, H. (2014). "Light-Driven DNA Nanomachine with a Photoresponsive Molecular Engine".

1907: 1177: 1006: 335:) in a living system that convert various forms of energy to mechanical work in order to drive crucial 3618: 3456: 2302:

Biagini, C.; Di Stefano, S. (2020). "Abiotic Chemical Fuels for the Operation of Molecular Machines".

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Over the past few decades, AMMs have diversified rapidly and their design principles, properties, and

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rings) is represented as MN. The first molecular necklace was synthesized in 1992, featuring several

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AMMs have diversified rapidly over the past few decades and their design principles, properties, and

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Mickler, M.; Schleiff, E.; Hugel, T. (2008). "From Biological towards Artificial Molecular Motors".

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Morimoto, M.; Irie, M. (2010). "A Diarylethene Cocrystal that Converts Light into Mechanical Work".

1574: 5718: 5607: 1133: 1074: 910: 845: 817: 481: 195: 80: 54: 3790:"Efficient self-assembly of heterometallic triangular necklace with strong antibacterial activity" 440: 251:. Different AMMs are produced by introducing various functionalities, such as the introduction of 5649: 5379: 5321: 5219: 5061: 4960: 4917: 4827: 4793: 4675: 4390: 4295: 4244: 4065: 3770: 3631: 3563: 3512: 3461: 3374: 3339: 2613: 2327: 2284: 1733: 1636: 1305: 903: 344: 336: 221: 159: 5023:"Revolving supramolecular chiral structures powered by light in nanomotor-doped liquid crystals" 1232:

Vincenzo, V.; Credi, A.; Raymo, F. M.; Stoddart, J. F. (2000). "Artificial Molecular Machines".

589: 267:. A wide range of applications have been demonstrated for AMMs, including those integrated into 5198:

van Dijk, L.; Tilby, M. J.; Szpera, R.; Smith, O. A.; Bunce, H. A. P.; Fletcher, S. P. (2018).

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Hou, J.; Long, G.; Zhao, W.; Zhou, G.; Liu, D.; Broer, D. J.; Feringa, B. L.; Chen, J. (2022).

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Kassem, S.; van Leeuwen, T.; Lubbe, A. S.; Wilson, M. R.; Feringa, B. L.; Leigh, D. A. (2017).

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Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Raymo, F. M.; Stoddart, J. F. (2000). "Artificial Molecular Machines".

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A wide range of applications have been demonstrated for AMMs, including those integrated into

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are far more complex than any molecular machines that have yet been artificially constructed.

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Zhang, Z.; Zhao, J.; Guo, Z.; Zhang, H.; Pan, H.; Wu, Q.; You, W.; Yu, W.; Yan, X. (2022).

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Erbas-Cakmak, Sundus; Leigh, David A.; McTernan, Charlie T.; Nussbaumer, Alina L. (2015).

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rise to tunable properties such as fluorescence, aggregation and drug-release activity.

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The most complex macromolecular machines are found within cells, often in the form of

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isomerization in response to certain stimuli (typically irradiation with a suitable

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Wang, B.; Král, P. (2007). "Chemically Tunable Nanoscale Propellers of Liquids".

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methods, making it the first example of an AMM. Here the two binding sites are a

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2272: 1954: 1846: 1185: 1098: 1069:." Other biological machines are responsible for energy production, for example 930: 922: 792: 762: 729: 694: 618: 609: 594: 546: 542: 538: 522: 398: 390: 252: 241: 217: 203: 5449: 3813: 3713: 2996: 5779: 5049: 4663: 4486: 3370: 3126:

Ai, Y.; Chan, M. H.-Y.; Chan, A. K.-W.; Ng, M.; Li, Y.; Yam, V. W.-W. (2019).

956: 822: 758: 733: 566: 554: 402: 394: 209: 106: 4870: 4695:"Micromachine-Enabled Capture and Isolation of Cancer Cells in Complex Media" 4539: 4455: 3282: 3005: 2666: 1339: 621:. If these two sites are different from each other in terms of features like 5594: 5215: 4563:"Proteins MOVE! Protein dynamics and long-range allostery in cell signaling" 3152: 2510: 1062: 888: 626: 614: 502: 445: 17: 5467: 5418: 5410: 5375: 5367: 5317: 5299: 5264: 5184: 5149: 5141: 5114: 5057: 5007: 4956: 4913: 4897: 4823: 4728: 4710: 4671: 4636: 4628: 4592: 4547: 4504: 4386: 4342: 4291: 4240: 4205: 4143: 4104: 4023: 3980: 3937: 3901: 3866: 3858: 3831: 3731: 3674: 3627: 3559: 3508: 3413: 3405: 3300: 3251: 3243: 3216: 3171: 3058: 3023: 2956: 2897: 2862: 2820: 2785: 2750: 2741: 2724: 2709: 2674: 2609: 2529: 2470: 2435: 2399: 2372: 2323: 2315: 2280: 2245: 2227: 2196: 2161: 2126: 2091: 2056: 2021: 1972: 1864: 1829:

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1815: 1632: 1559: 1540: 1469: 1451: 1385: 1347: 1301: 1292: 1275: 1253: 4770: 1908:"3 Makers of 'World's Smallest Machines' Awarded Nobel Prize in Chemistry" 1808:

10.1002/1521-3773(20001002)39:19<3348::AID-ANIE3348>3.0.CO;2-X

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10.1002/1521-3773(20001002)39:19<3348::AID-ANIE3348>3.0.CO;2-X

1081:, the energy currency of a cell. Still other machines are responsible for 1061:

connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce long-range

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effects. For instance, the image on the right depicts tweezers formed by

658: 558: 506: 477: 473: 449: 183: 175: 5308: 4378: 4170: 3690:"Mechanically interlocked networks cross-linked by a molecular necklace" 3500: 3085: 2557: 1694: 1623: 1606: 1497: 1124:. For example, they could be used to identify and destroy cancer cells. 5255: 5238: 5176: 4999: 4409:"NanoCar Race : la course de petites voitures pour grands savants" 4135: 3447: 3207: 3198: 3050: 2937: 2889: 2854: 1579: 1165: 1157: 1030: 945: 737: 579: 332: 311:) in their relatively larger amplitude of movement (potentially due to 276: 268: 213: 171: 4531: 4440:. Voet, Judith G. (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 4334: 4232: 4197: 4096: 3929: 3112: 2812: 2777: 2701: 2427: 2363: 2346: 2153: 2118: 2083: 2048: 1377: 472:. Building upon the assembly of mechanically linked molecules such as 452:

unit (red) when the benzidine gets protonated (purple) as a result of

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complexes. Bending or V-like shapes can be achieved by incorporating

1132:

subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering

971: 178:

are examples of molecular machines, and they often take the form of

2633:"Quantifying Solvophobic Effects in Nonpolar Cohesive Interactions" 3609: 3551: 1046: 588: 510: 456: 439: 5477: 657:

or isomerization have gained attention (such as redox-responsive

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A molecular hinge is a molecule that can typically rotate in a

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2573:"Molecular balances for quantifying non-covalent interactions" 955:

in 2005. They had an H-shaped chassis and 4 molecular wheels (

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such as nanoscale "assemblers", though their feasibility was

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modeling has emerged as a pivotal tool to understand the

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as part of their design, making use of phenomena like

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Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience

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Anelli, P. L.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F. (1991).

1176:, utilizing noncovalent interactions and biomimetic 1017:. Important examples of biological machines include 525:

for the design and synthesis of molecular machines.

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for the design and synthesis of molecular machines.

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Similarly, 405:unit, which could switch between 5778: 5766: 5753: 5742: 5741: 2690:The Journal of Organic Chemistry 1436:"Rise of the molecular machines" 448:unit (green), but shifts to the 105: 93: 4845:Drexler, K. Eric (1999-01-01). 4475:Histochemistry and Cell Biology 1939:"Artificial Molecular Machines" 1831:"Artificial Molecular Machines" 33:Part of a series of articles on 4567:Protein Structure and Diseases 4417:(in French). 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These machines and their 1025:, which is responsible for 808:-1 rings (hence comprising 365:different things we can do. 5837: 5450:10.1021/acscentsci.0c00064 4561:Bu Z, Callaway DJ (2011). 3814:10.1038/s41467-020-16940-z 3714:10.1038/s41467-022-29141-7 2997:10.1038/s41467-019-12116-6 989:A ribosome performing the 785:Carbon nanotube nanomotors 5737: 5688:Scanning probe microscopy 5050:10.1038/s41565-017-0059-x 4664:10.1080/10611860600612862 4652:Journal of Drug Targeting 4487:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9 3371:10.1038/s41570-019-0122-2 1144:Research and applications 1001:is green and yellow, the 697:or hydrophobic effects, 5811:Supramolecular chemistry 5711:Molecular nanotechnology 5655:Solid lipid nanoparticle 5640:Self-assembled monolayer 5204:Nature Reviews Chemistry 5165:Chemical Society Reviews 4124:Chemical Society Reviews 3359:Nature Reviews Chemistry 3283:10.1021/acsomega.1c02912 3187:Chemical Society Reviews 2878:Chemical Society Reviews 2843:Chemical Society Reviews 2580:Chemical Society Reviews 2451:Chemical Society Reviews 2177:Chemical Society Reviews 1878:Staff (5 October 2016). 1340:10.2217/17435889.3.1.107 1126:Molecular nanotechnology 519:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 431:molecular nanotechnology 192:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 5696:Atomic force microscope 5645:Supramolecular assembly 5632:Molecular self-assembly 5432:Aprahamian, I. 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Feringa 465: 313:chemical reactions 234: 222:biological machine 204:Bernard L. 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2154:10.1021/ja105356w 2119:10.1021/ar400308f 2084:10.1021/ja801646b 2078:(21): 6725–6727. 2049:10.1021/ja503467e 2043:(25): 8871–8874. 1802:(19): 3348–3391. 1759:(5376): 531–533. 1716:(6476): 133–137. 1689:(10): 3043–3045. 1662:(46): 5095–5098. 1617:(13): 5131–5133. 1492:(18): 5860–5865. 1378:10.1021/cr030071r 1286:(12): 1780–1793. 1240:(19): 3348–3391. 978: 977: 864:Molecular shuttle 730:ultraviolet light 641:to deliver work. 289:surface chemistry 148: 147: 60:Molecular machine 16:(Redirected from 5828: 5783: 5782: 5771: 5770: 5757: 5756: 5745: 5744: 5729:Mechanosynthesis 5620:characterization 5502: 5495: 5488: 5479: 5472: 5471: 5461: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5345: 5336: 5330: 5329: 5311: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5258: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5171:(5): 1892–1910. 5160: 5154: 5153: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5108: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5027: 5018: 5012: 5011: 4980:Nature Chemistry 4975: 4969: 4968: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4801: 4799:cond-mat/0701169 4781: 4775: 4774: 4748: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4722: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4526:(4): 1377–1400. 4520:Chemical Reviews 4515: 4509: 4508: 4498: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4405: 4399: 4398: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4284:10.1038/35020524 4259: 4253: 4252: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4130:(9): 2592–2621. 4115: 4109: 4108: 4080: 4074: 4073: 4062:10.1038/369133a0 4037: 4028: 4027: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3767:10.1038/356325a0 3742: 3736: 3735: 3725: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3667:10.1039/B507264F 3646: 3640: 3639: 3621: 3587: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3459: 3436:Chemical Science 3433: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3336:10.1038/364042a0 3311: 3305: 3304: 3294: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3210: 3193:(7): 2228–2248. 3182: 3176: 3175: 3165: 3155: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3017: 2999: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2950: 2940: 2923:(7): 3726–3733. 2908: 2902: 2901: 2884:(5): 1809–1825. 2873: 2867: 2866: 2849:(9): 2592–2621. 2840: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2796: 2790: 2789: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2744: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2660: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2603: 2592:10.1039/B822665M 2577: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2523: 2513: 2496:(5): 1178–1183. 2481: 2475: 2474: 2463:10.1039/B806328C 2457:(6): 1542–1550. 2446: 2440: 2439: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2366: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2261:Chemical Reviews 2256: 2250: 2249: 2239: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2189:10.1039/B819333A 2183:(6): 1802–1820. 2172: 2166: 2165: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2113:(6): 1663–1672. 2102: 2096: 2095: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2015: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1966: 1943:Chemical Reviews 1934: 1925: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1885:Nobel Foundation 1875: 1869: 1868: 1858: 1835:Chemical Reviews 1826: 1820: 1819: 1791: 1785: 1784: 1748: 1742: 1741: 1730:10.1038/369133a0 1705: 1699: 1698: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1626: 1602: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1553: 1543: 1526:(9): 5275–5278. 1508: 1502: 1501: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1463: 1431: 1422: 1421: 1411: 1399: 1390: 1389: 1372:(4): 1377–1400. 1366:Chemical Reviews 1361: 1352: 1351: 1323: 1314: 1313: 1295: 1271: 1258: 1257: 1229: 1055:Flexible linkers 974: 940: 898: 882:Molecular switch 876: 858: 840: 831:piezoelectricity 795: 773: 747: 713:Molecular hinge 708: 691:hydrogen bonding 672: 623:electron density 535:characterization 480:as developed by 379: 325:magnetostrictive 257:molecular motors 238:characterization 220:is a molecular 160:living processes 140: 133: 126: 110: 109: 98: 97: 50:Mechanosynthesis 30: 21: 5836: 5835: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5796: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5733: 5705: 5682: 5678:Nanolithography 5665:Nanoelectronics 5659: 5626: 5581: 5544: 5535:Popular culture 5511: 5506: 5476: 5475: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5396: 5395: 5391: 5354:(20): 1906036. 5343: 5338: 5337: 5333: 5286:(20): 1906064. 5277: 5276: 5272: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5078: 5077: 5073: 5025: 5020: 5019: 5015: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4844: 4843: 4839: 4783: 4782: 4778: 4746: 4741: 4740: 4736: 4692: 4691: 4687: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4605: 4604: 4600: 4585: 4560: 4559: 4555: 4517: 4516: 4512: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4448: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4407: 4406: 4402: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4218: 4217: 4213: 4192:(12): 919–932. 4183: 4182: 4178: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4082: 4081: 4077: 4039: 4038: 4031: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3844: 3843: 3839: 3787: 3786: 3782: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3585: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3431: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3322:(6432): 42–44. 3313: 3312: 3308: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3071: 3070: 3066: 3036: 3035: 3031: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2838: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2801:Organic Letters 2798: 2797: 2793: 2766:Organic Letters 2763: 2762: 2758: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2575: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2542: 2541: 2537: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2388:ChemElectroChem 2385: 2384: 2380: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2209: 2208: 2204: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2034: 2033: 2029: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1936: 1935: 1928: 1918: 1916: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1890: 1888: 1877: 1876: 1872: 1828: 1827: 1823: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1750: 1749: 1745: 1707: 1706: 1702: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1604: 1603: 1596: 1586: 1584: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1510: 1509: 1505: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1433: 1432: 1425: 1409: 1401: 1400: 1393: 1363: 1362: 1355: 1325: 1324: 1317: 1273: 1272: 1261: 1231: 1230: 1219: 1214: 1202: 1146: 1091:RNA polymerases 1087:DNA polymerases 1083:gene expression 983: 827:desulfurization 814:α-cyclodextrins 779:Molecular motor 667: 635:kinetic control 586:and unfolding. 584:protein folding 531: 499:electrochemical 454:electrochemical 423:Richard Feynman 380: 371:Richard Feynman 369: 361: 297: 194:was awarded to 190:. In 2016 the 164:DNA replication 144: 104: 92: 40: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5834: 5832: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5806:Nanotechnology 5798: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5775: 5763: 5751: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5715: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5703: 5698: 5692: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5667: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5636: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5605: 5597: 5591: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5567:Nanotoxicology 5564: 5558: 5556: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5521: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5509:Nanotechnology 5507: 5505: 5504: 5497: 5490: 5482: 5474: 5473: 5444:(3): 347–358. 5424: 5389: 5331: 5270: 5229: 5190: 5155: 5136:(4): 901–904. 5120: 5071: 5036:(4): 304–308. 5013: 4986:(6): 625–632. 4970: 4927: 4876: 4837: 4792:(22): 220801. 4776: 4734: 4685: 4642: 4615:(2): 322–326. 4598: 4583: 4553: 4510: 4481:(6): 687–693. 4461: 4446: 4428: 4400: 4348: 4305: 4254: 4211: 4176: 4149: 4110: 4075: 4029: 4002:(26): 266102. 3986: 3959:(26): 266102. 3943: 3907: 3872: 3837: 3780: 3737: 3680: 3661:(47): 5910–2. 3641: 3573: 3522: 3471: 3419: 3384: 3365:(9): 536–551. 3349: 3306: 3257: 3238:(3): 750–766. 3222: 3177: 3118: 3107:(5): 918–925. 3091: 3064: 3029: 2962: 2903: 2868: 2826: 2791: 2756: 2715: 2680: 2623: 2563: 2535: 2476: 2441: 2405: 2394:(4): 475–496. 2378: 2337: 2294: 2267:(1): 288–309. 2251: 2202: 2167: 2132: 2097: 2062: 2027: 1978: 1926: 1913:New York Times 1898: 1870: 1821: 1786: 1743: 1700: 1673: 1646: 1594: 1565: 1512:Drexler, K. E. 1503: 1475: 1423: 1391: 1353: 1334:(1): 107–124. 1315: 1259: 1216: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1201: 1198: 1162:liquid crystal 1145: 1142: 1093:for producing 1019:motor proteins 982: 979: 976: 975: 968: 963:took place in 948: 942: 941: 934: 915:π interactions 906: 900: 899: 892: 884: 878: 877: 870: 866: 860: 859: 852: 848: 842: 841: 834: 829:of fuels, and 801: 797: 796: 789: 781: 775: 774: 767: 755: 749: 748: 741: 714: 710: 709: 702: 699:π interactions 687: 683: 682: 679: 676: 666: 663: 530: 527: 401:containing an 391:aromatic rings 367: 360: 357: 349:ATP generation 296: 293: 273:liquid crystal 152: 151: 146: 145: 143: 142: 135: 128: 120: 117: 116: 115: 114: 102: 87: 86: 85: 84: 77: 72: 67: 65:Brownian motor 62: 57: 52: 44: 43: 41:nanotechnology 35: 34: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5833: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5762: 5761: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5740: 5739: 5736: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5615:Nanoparticles 5613: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5587:Nanomaterials 5584: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5530:Organizations 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5498: 5496: 5491: 5489: 5484: 5483: 5480: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5390: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5342: 5335: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5274: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5233: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5191: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5156: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5124: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5024: 5017: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4974: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4931: 4928: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4906:11383/2057447 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4880: 4877: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4841: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4738: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4602: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4584:9780123812629 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4514: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4447:9780470570951 4443: 4439: 4432: 4429: 4416: 4415: 4410: 4404: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4352: 4349: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4309: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4079: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4036: 4034: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3944: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3911: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3610:10.1038/43646 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3552:10.1038/43639 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3442:(1): 97–101. 3441: 3437: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3388: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3310: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3178: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3068: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2963: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2830: 2827: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2795: 2792: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2681: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2480: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2295: 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