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with his implants in the bovine septal region and the ability of electrical stimulation to blunt or alter behavior. Further attempts at this "behavioral modification" in humans were difficult and seldom reliable, and contributed to the overall lack of progress in central nervous system neuromodulation from that era. Attempts at intractable pain syndromes were met with more success, but again hampered by the quality of technology. In particular, the so-called DBS "zero" electrode, (consisting of a contact loop on its end) had an unacceptable failure rate and revisions were fraught with more risk than benefit. Overall, attempts at using electrical stimulation for "behavioral modification" were difficult and seldom reliable, slowing development of DBS. Attempts at addressing intractable pain syndromes with DBS were met with more success, but again hampered by the quality of technology. A number of physicians who hoped to address hitherto intractable problems sought development of more specialized equipment; for instance, in the 1960s, Wall's colleague Bill Sweet recruited engineer Roger Avery to make an implantable peripheral nerve stimulator. Avery started the Avery
Company, which made a number of implantable stimulators. Shortly before his retirement in 1983, he submitted data requested by the FDA, which had begun to regulate medical devices following a 1977 meeting on the topic, regarding DBS for chronic pain. Medtronic and Neuromed also made deep brain stimulators at the time, but reportedly felt a complex safety and efficacy clinical trial in patients who were difficult to evaluate would be too costly for the size of the potential patient base, so did not submit clinical data on DBS for chronic pain to the FDA, and that indication was de-approved.
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a desynchronizing pulse to the cortical area that is undergoing an epileptic seizure. This concept of feed-forward stimulation will likely become more prevalent as physiological markers of targeted diseases and neural disorders are discovered and verified. The on-demand stimulation may contribute to longer battery life, if sensing and signal-processing demands of the system are sufficiently power-efficient. New electrode designs could yield more efficient and precise stimulation, requiring less current and minimizing unwanted side-stimulation. In addition, to overcome the challenge of preventing lead migration in areas of the body that are subject to motion such as turning and bending, researchers are exploring developing small stimulation systems that are recharged wirelessly rather than through an electrical lead.
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oversimplified, the theory held that pain transmissions from small nerve fibers can be overridden, or the gate "closed", by competing transmissions along the wider touch nerve fibers. Building on that concept, in 1967, the first dorsal column stimulator for pain control was demonstrated by Dr. Norm Shealy at
Western Reserve Medical School, using a design adapted by Tom Mortimer, a graduate student at Case Institute of Technology, from cardiac nerve stimulators by Medtronic, Inc., where he had a professional acquaintance who shared the circuit diagram. In 1973, Hosbuchi reported alleviating the denervation facial pain of anesthesia dolorosa through ongoing electrical stimulation of the somatosensory thalamus, marking the start of the age of deep brain stimulation.
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still intriguing questions for contemporary research. Non-invasive electrical and magnetic brain tissue stimulation targets a large area of poorly characterized tissue. Therefore, it is unclear whether electrical and magnetic fields reach only the neuronal networks of the brain that need treatment. Again, these methods involve excessive exposure to intense electrical and magnetic fields several times and even orders of magnitude higher than natural ones in the brain. However, non-invasive electrical and magnetic brain tissue methods cannot target only the neuronal networks that need to be treated. The undefined radiation target can destroy healthy cells during therapy.
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intractable rage, dementia, and morbid obesity. It has also shown promise for
Tourette syndrome, torticollis, and tardive dyskinesia. DBS therapy, unlike spinal cord stimulation, has a variety of central nervous system targets, depending on the target pathology. For Parkinson's disease central nervous system targets include the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, and the ventral intermidus nucleus of the thalamus. Dystonias are often treated by implants targeting globus pallidus interna, or less often, parts of the ventral thalamic group. The anterior thalamus is the target for epilepsy.
147:"paddle" or "grid" electrodes), or stereotactic implants for the central nervous system, and an implanted pulse generator (IPG). Depending on the distance from the electrode access point an extension cable may also be added into the system. The IPG can have either a non-rechargeable battery needing replacement every 2–5 years (depending on stimulation parameters) or a rechargeable battery that is replenished via an external inductive charging system.
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Depending on the system, the program may elicit a tingling sensation that covers most of the painful area, replacing some of the painful sensations with more of a gentle massaging sensation, although other more recent systems do not create a tingling sensation. The patient is sent home with a handheld remote controller to turn the system off or on or switch between pre-set stimulation parameters, and can follow up to adjust the parameters.
92:, that can modulate the excitability and firing patterns of neural circuits. There may also be more direct electrophysiological effects on neural membranes as the mechanism of action of electrical interaction with neural elements. The end effect is a "normalization" of a neural network function from its perturbed state. Presumed mechanisms of action for neurostimulation include depolarizing blockade, stochastic normalization of
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would not involve electrical leads stimulating large nerves or spinal cords or brain centers. It might involve methods that are emerging within the neuromodulation family of therapies, such as optogenetics or some new nanotechnology. Disease states and conditions that have been discussed as targets for future electroceutical therapy include diabetes, infertility, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, and autoimmune disorders.
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dorsal root ganglion in humans. All forms of spinal cord stimulation have been shown to have varying degrees of efficacy to address a variety of pharmacoresistant neuropathic or mixed (neuropathic and noiciceptive) pain syndromes such as post-laminectomy syndrome, low back pain, complex regional pain syndrome, peripheral neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease and angina.
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Deer TR, Krames E, Mekhail N, Pope J, Leong M, Stanton-Hicks M, et al. (August 2014). "The appropriate use of neurostimulation: new and evolving neurostimulation therapies and applicable treatment for chronic pain and selected disease states. Neuromodulation
Appropriateness Consensus Committee".
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Although most systems operate via delivery of a constant train of stimulation, there is now the advent of so-called "feed-forward" stimulation where the device's activation is contingent on a physiological event, such as an epileptic seizure. In this circumstance, the device is activated and delivers
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Electrical stimulation using implantable devices came into modern usage in the 1980s and its techniques and applications have continued to develop and expand. These are methods where an operation is required to position an electrode. The stimulator, with the battery, similar to a pacemaker, may also
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Despite the limited clinical experience in these decades, that era is remarkable for the demonstration of the role technology has in neuromodulation, and there are some case reports of deep brain stimulation for a variety of problems; real or perceived. Delgado hinted at the power of neuromodulation
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In parallel to the development of neuromodulation systems to address motor impairment, cochlear implants were the first neuromodulation system to reach a broad commercial stage to address a functional deficit; they provide sound perception in users who are hearing-impaired due to missing or damaged
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Another significant challenge of non-invasive electrical and magnetic methods is to localize the effect of stimulation on specific neuronal networks that need to be treated. We still need to gain knowledge about mental processes at the cellular level. Neuronal correlates of cognitive functions are
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Stimulation is typically in the 20–200 Hz range, though a novel class of stimulation parameters are now emerging that employ a 10 kHz stimulation train as well as 500 Hz "burst stimulation". Kilohertz stimulation trains have been applied to both the spinal cord proper as well as the
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for historical review) were limited by the technology available. Heath, in the 1950s, stimulated subcortical areas and made detailed observations of behavioral changes. A new understanding of pain perception was ushered in in 1965, with the Gate Theory of Wall and
Melzack. Although now considered
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The first issue is the uncertain dose for healthy stimulation. While neurophysiology lacks knowledge about the nature of such a treatment of nervous diseases at the cellular level, non-invasive electrical and magnetic therapies involve excessive exposure of the brain to an intense field, which is
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Ultimately, the electroceuticals quest aims to find the electro-neural signature of disease and at a cellular level, in real time, play back the more normal electro-signature to help maintain the neural signature in the normal state. Unlike preceding neuromodulation therapy methods, the approach
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In 2012, the global pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline announced an initiative in bioelectric medicine in which the autonomic nervous system's impact on the immune system and inflammatory disease might be treated through electrical stimulation rather than pharmaceutical agents. The company's
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DBS research targets include, but are not limited to the following areas: Cg25 for depression, the anterior limb of the internal capsule for depression as well as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), centromedian/parafasicularis, centromedian thalamic nuclei and the subthalamic nucleus for OCD,
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Patient selection is key, and candidates should pass rigorous psychological screening as well as a medical workup to assure that their pain syndrome is truly medication-resistant. After recuperating from the implant procedure, the patient will return to have the system turned on and programmed.
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The general process for spinal cord stimulation involves a temporary trailing of appropriate patients with an external pulse generator attached to epidural electrodes located in the lower thoracic spinal cord. The electrodes are placed either via a minimally invasive needle technique (so-called
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In general, neuromodulation systems deliver electrical currents and typically consist of the following components: An epidural, subdural or parenchymal electrode placed via minimally invasive needle techniques (so-called percutaneous leads) or an open surgical exposure to the target (surgical
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Kumar K, Taylor RS, Jacques L, Eldabe S, Meglio M, Molet J, et al. (October 2008). "The effects of spinal cord stimulation in neuropathic pain are sustained: a 24-month follow-up of the prospective randomized controlled multicenter trial of the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation".
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Deer TR, Mekhail N, Provenzano D, Pope J, Krames E, Leong M, et al. (August 2014). "The appropriate use of neurostimulation of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system for the treatment of chronic pain and ischemic diseases: the
Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee".
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from the FDA in 2003 for motor symptoms of dystonia. It was approved in 2010 in Europe for the treatment of certain types of severe epilepsy. DBS also has shown promise, although still in research, for medically intractable psychiatric syndromes of depression, obsessive compulsive disorders,
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However, near this time in France and elsewhere, DBS was investigated as a substitute for lesioning of brain nuclei to control motor symptoms of movement disorders such as
Parkinson's disease, and by the mid-1990s, this reversible, non-destructive stimulation therapy had become the primary
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sensory cells (cilia) in the inner ear. The approach to electrical stimulation used in cochlear implants was soon modified by one manufacturer, Boston
Scientific Corporation, for design of electrical leads to be used in spinal cord stimulation treatment of chronic pain conditions.
356:), a low complexity and anatomical specificity is reached through a highly focal magnetic field. In tPEMF the stimulation has a low amplitude (0.01–500 millitesla), a high complexity and anatomical specificity is reached through the specific frequency content of the signal.
180:, an implantable pulse generator about the size of a stopwatch is placed under the skin on the trunk. It delivers mild impulses along slender electrical leads leading to small electrical contacts, about the size of a grain of rice, at the area of the spine to be stimulated.
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Siebner HR, Hartwigsen G, Kassuba T, Rothwell JC (2009). "How does transcranial magnetic stimulation modify neuronal activity in the brain? Implications for studies of cognition". Cortex; A Journal
Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 45 (9): 1035–1042.
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Deer TR, Prager J, Levy R, Rathmell J, Buchser E, Burton A, et al. (2012). "Polyanalgesic
Consensus Conference 2012: recommendations for the management of pain by intrathecal (intraspinal) drug delivery: report of an interdisciplinary expert panel".
119:). Technical improvements include a trend toward minimally invasive (or noninvasive) systems; as well as smaller, more sophisticated devices that may have automated feedback control, and conditional compatibility with magnetic resonance imaging.
100:, reduction of neural firing keratosis, and suppression of neural network oscillations. Although the exact mechanisms of neurostimulation are not known, the empirical effectiveness has led to considerable application clinically.
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is "the alteration of nerve activity through targeted delivery of a stimulus, such as electrical stimulation or chemical agents, to specific neurological sites in the body". It is carried out to normalize – or modulate –
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Sparing R, Mottaghy FM (2008). "Noninvasive brain stimulation with transcranial magnetic or direct current stimulation (TMS/tDCS)-From insights into human memory to therapy of its dysfunction". Methods. 44 (4): 329–337.
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Benussi A, Pascual-Leone A, Borroni B (2020). "Non-Invasive Cerebellar Stimulation in Neurodegenerative Ataxia: A Literature Review". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (6): 1948. doi:10.3390/ijms21061948
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Grimaldi G, Argyropoulos GP, Boehringer A, Celnik P, Edwards MJ, Ferrucci R, et al. (2014). "Non-invasive cerebellar stimulation--a consensus paper" (PDF). Cerebellum. 13 (1): 121–138. doi:10.1007/s12311-013-0514-7
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Neuromodulation, whether electrical or magnetic, employs the body's natural biological response by stimulating nerve cell activity that can influence populations of nerves by releasing transmitters, such as
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Electrical stimulation of the nervous system has a long and complex history. Earlier practitioners of deep brain stimulation in the latter half of the 20th century (Delgado, Heath, Hosbuchi. See Hariz
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Operative Neuromodulation Acta Neurochirurgica Supplements: An introduction to operative neuromodulation and functional neuroprosthetics, the new frontiers of clinical neuroscience and biotechnology
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first investment in 2013 involved a small startup company, SetPoint Medical, which was developing neurostimulators to address inflammatory autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.
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Matsumura Y, Hirayama T, Yamamoto T (2013). "Comparison between pharmacologic evaluation and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced analgesia in poststroke pain patients".
77:), and by 2014, these had been at minimum demonstrated in mammalian models, or first-in-human data had been acquired. The most clinical experience has been with electrical stimulation.
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George MS, Nahas Z, Borckardt JJ, Anderson B, Burns C, Kose S, Short EB (January 2007). "Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders".
1324:
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Krames ES, Monis S, Poree L, Deer T, Levy R (2011). "Using the SAFE principles when evaluating electrical stimulation therapies for the pain of failed back surgery syndrome".
1478:"Emerging synergisms between drugs and physiologically-patterned weak magnetic fields: implications for neuropharmacology and the human population in the twenty-first century"
73:, or a drug instilled directly in the subdural space (intrathecal drug delivery). Emerging applications involve targeted introduction of genes or gene regulators and light (
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Francisco GE, Hu MM, Boake C, Ivanhoe CB (May 2005). "Efficacy of early use of intrathecal baclofen therapy for treating spastic hypertonia due to acquired brain injury".
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application of DBS in appropriate patients, to slow progression of movement impairment from the disease and reduce side effects from long-term, escalating medication use.
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Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS, which refers to simulation of nerves beyond the spine or brain, and may be considered to include occipital or sacral nerve stimulation)
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Petropoulou KB, Panourias IG, Rapidi CA, Sakas DE (2006). "The phenomenon of spasticity: A pathophysiological and clinical introduction to neuromodulation therapies".
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Kirsch, D. L., & Nichols, F. (2013). Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for treatment of anxiety, depression, and insomnia. Psychiatric Clinics, 36(1), 169-176.
107:, chronic head pain conditions, and functional therapy ranging from bladder and bowel or respiratory control to improvement of sensory deficits, such as hearing (
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Dormandy JA, Rutherford RB (January 2000). "Management of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). TASC Working Group. TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus (TASC)".
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Benabid AL, Chabardes S, Torres N, Piallat B, Krack P, Fraix V, Pollak P (2009). "Functional neurosurgery for movement disorders: a historical perspective".
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Chemical neuromodulation is always invasive, because a drug is delivered in a highly specific location of the body. The non-invasive variant is traditional
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176:. In patients who experience pain reduction of 50 percent or more during a temporary trial, a permanent implant may be offered in which, as with a
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is a form of invasive neuromodulation therapy in common use since the 1980s. Its principal use is as a reversible, non-pharmacological therapy for
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Shupak NM, Prato FS, Thomas AW (June 2004). "Human exposure to a specific pulsed magnetic field: effects on thermal sensory and pain thresholds".
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Additionally, these methods are not generalizable to all patients because of more inter-individual variability in response to brain stimulation.
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Bittar RG, Kar-Purkayastha I, Owen SL, Bear RE, Green A, Wang S, Aziz TZ (June 2005). "Deep brain stimulation for pain relief: a meta-analysis".
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Gracies JM, Nance P, Elovic E, McGuire J, Simpson DM (1997). "Traditional pharmacological treatments for spacticity part I: local treatments".
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Magnetic methods of neuromodulation are normally non-invasive: no surgery is required to allow a magnetic field to enter the body because the
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Sharan AD, Rezai AR. Neurostimulation for Epilepsy. In: Krames ES, Peckham HP, Rezai AR, eds. Neuromodulation. London: Elsevier; 2009:617–66.
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802:"A novel magnetic stimulator increases experimental pain tolerance in healthy volunteers - a double-blind sham-controlled crossover study"
2872:"Spinal cord stimulation and pain relief in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a prospective two-center randomized controlled trial"
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Rosa, MA; Lisanby, SH (2012). "Somatic treatments for mood disorders". Neuropsychopharmacology. 37 (1): 102–116. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.225
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Mekhail NA, Cheng J, Narouze S, Kapural L, Mekhail MN, Deer T (2010). "Clinical applications of neurostimulation: forty years later".
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Beric A, Kelly PJ, Rezai A, Sterio D, Mogilner A, Zonenshayn M, Kopell B (2001). "Complications of deep brain stimulation surgery".
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currents in the body. There are however differences in approach and hardware. In rTMS the stimulation has a high amplitude (0.5–3
2397:"Deep brain stimulation of the ventral internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder: worldwide experience"
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Stanton-Hicks M, Salamon J (January 1997). "Stimulation of the central and peripheral nervous system for the control of pain".
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These methods use external electrodes to apply a current to the body in order to change the functioning of the nervous system.
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function. Neuromodulation is an evolving therapy that can involve a range of electromagnetic stimuli such as a magnetic field (
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Brain tissue stimulation using non-invasive electrical and magnetic methods raises several concerns, including the following:
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anorexia and Tourette syndrome, the nucleus accumbens and ventral striatum have also been assayed for depression and pain.
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Ratto C, Parello A, Donisi L, Doglietto GB (2006). "Sacral neuromodulation in the treatment of defecation disorders".
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Feng WW, Bowden MG, Kautz S (2013). "Review of transcranial direct current stimulation in poststroke recovery".
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Francisco GE, Saulino MF, Yablon SA, Turner M (September 2009). "Intrathecal baclofen therapy: an update".
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2663:"Electrical stimulation versus coronary artery bypass surgery in severe angina pectoris: the ESBY study"
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of tissue is similar to that of air. In other words: magnetic fields penetrate the body very easily.
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Jobst BC (September 2010). "Electrical stimulation in epilepsy: vagus nerve and brain stimulation".
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several times and even orders of magnitude higher than natural electromagnetic fields in the brain.
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Kortekaas R, van Nierop LE, Baas VG, Konopka KH, Harbers M, van der Hoeven JH, et al. (2013).
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Existing and emerging neuromodulation treatments also include application in medication-resistant
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717:"Precision™ Plus Spinal Cord Stimulator System Receives CE Mark Approval as MRI Conditional"
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drug delivery systems (ITDS, which may deliver micro-doses of painkiller (for instance,
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2518:"Spinal cord stimulation for chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy--five-year follow-up"
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Neuromodulation therapy has been investigated for other chronic conditions, such as
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Kemler MA, de Vet HC, Barendse GA, van den Wildenberg FA, van Kleef M (June 2006).
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percutaneous leads) or an open surgical exposure (surgical "paddle" electrodes).
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3014:"Spinal cord stimulation for non-reconstructable chronic critical leg ischaemia"
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in 1997 for essential tremor, in 2002 for Parkinson's disease, and received a
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Andrews RJ (June 2010). "Neuromodulation: advances in the next five years".
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1277:"Deep brain stimulation (DBS) at the interface of neurology and psychiatry"
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for "Deep Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease." at
47:
2628:"Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder"
411:
215:
104:
82:
2534:
2517:
2306:"Cochlear implantation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
2412:
2304:
Gaylor JM, Raman G, Chung M, Lee J, Rao M, Lau J, Poe DS (March 2013).
961:
340:
The two main techniques are highly related in that both use changes in
252:
86:
2888:
2871:
2844:
2103:
1191:
1082:
915:
560:
Karas PJ, Mikell CB, Christian E, Liker MA, Sheth SA (November 2013).
30:
This article is about the therapy. For the physiological process, see
1463:"Premarket Approval (PMA) Inspire II Upper Airway Stimulation System"
1292:
206:
Another invasive neuromodulation treatment developed in the 1980s is
131:
2700:. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplements. Vol. 97. pp. 137–144.
1899:
1821:
271:
Hypoglossal nerve stimulation, an option for some patients who have
2755:. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplements. Vol. 97. pp. 341–50.
2380:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(1997)6+<61::AID-MUS6>3.0.CO;2-H
210:, which may be used to help limit symptoms of movement disorder in
3186:
Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (news release)
2012:"EFNS guidelines on pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain"
539:
741:. Minneapolis, MN: Medtronic, Inc. August 6, 2013. Archived from
1730:
Neurotherapy: Progress in Restorative Neuroscience and Neurology
1592:"Deep brain stimulation between 1947 and 1987: the untold story"
130:, chronic pain, and as an adjunctive treatment in recovery from
2936:"Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy"
1021:"Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy"
719:. Paris, France: Boston Scientific Corporation. August 28, 2012
247:, which provides a sense of sound to a person who cannot use a
2439:"Recently-Approved Devices - VNS Therapy System - P970003s050"
1732:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 175. pp. 379–91.
349:
1796:
Famm K, Litt B, Tracey KJ, Boyden ES, Slaoui M (April 2013).
1351:"Thalamic Stimulation: New Approach to Treatment of Epilepsy"
290:
Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) / sacral neuromodulation (SNM)
1563:
1561:
3101:
Yelnik AP, Simon O, Parratte B, Gracies JM (October 2010).
1270:
1268:
1266:
562:"Deep brain stimulation: a mechanistic and clinical update"
372:
Limitations of non-invasive electrical and magnetic methods
3138:
American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation
1576:
1574:
1643:(2nd ed.). New York: Penguin Books. pp. 61–69.
2341:"History of electrical neuromodulation for chronic pain"
1680:
1678:
1662:
1660:
172:
management that delivers mild electrical pulses to the
2819:(2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Martin Dunitz.
319:, transcutaneous afferent patterned stimulation (TAPS)
1373:
1371:
1669:
Textbook of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
1465:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. April 30, 2014.
3181:
Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface
2441:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from
1798:"Drug discovery: a jump-start for electroceuticals"
361:
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
39:
1667:Lozano AM, Gildenberg PL, Tasker RR, eds. (2009).
1327:(Press release). 16 September 2010. Archived from
366:Transcranial pulsed electromagnetic fields (tPEMF)
313:Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
222:. Deep brain stimulation was approved by the U.S.
540:"International Neuromodulation Society home page"
2815:Schachter SC, Schmidt D (2003). "Introduction".
1590:Hariz MI, Blomstedt P, Zrinzo L (August 2010).
1523:
1521:
2934:Sun FT, Morrell MJ, Wharen RE (January 2008).
2806:Sakas DE, Simpson BA, Krames ES, eds. (2007).
1019:Sun FT, Morrell MJ, Wharen RE (January 2008).
308:Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
143:be implanted, or may remain outside the body.
1881:"Bioelectronic medicines: a research roadmap"
8:
943:
941:
278:Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation (PTNS)
3018:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2310:JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery
1476:Whissell PD, Persinger MA (December 2007).
138:Invasive electrical neuromodulation methods
85:, or other chemical messengers such as the
1975:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3118:
3083:
3073:
3037:
2994:
2959:
2887:
2829:"History of peripheral nerve stimulation"
2678:
2643:
2533:
2420:
2356:
2321:
2027:
1829:
1607:
1501:
1395:
1300:
1246:
1044:
993:
991:
989:
987:
835:
825:
577:
3056:Yampolsky C, Hem S, Bendersky D (2012).
3012:Ubbink DT, Vermeulen H (February 2013).
2092:Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
3058:"Dorsal column stimulator applications"
1172:
1170:
531:
262:Functional electrical stimulation (FES)
2983:Journal of Pain and Symptom Management
2794:
2784:
2739:
2729:
2460:Current Treatment Options in Neurology
1894:(6) (published 30 May 2014): 399–400.
1378:Lozano AM, Lipsman N (February 2013).
1275:Williams NR, Okun MS (November 2013).
488:North American Neuromodulation Society
36:
2977:Ubbink DT, Vermeulen H (April 2006).
1281:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
1157:"A remote control turns off my spine"
478:International Neuromodulation Society
7:
2907:Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology
2632:The New England Journal of Medicine
2522:The New England Journal of Medicine
2497:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
2055:Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology
43:
3150:10.1097/01.phm.0000141132.48673.fa
3107:Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine
2603:10.1227/01.NEU.0000325731.46702.D9
1421:Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics
1155:Bailey, Madeleine (May 14, 2013).
410:) or anti-spasm medicine (such as
280:for the treatment of incontinence.
25:
2996:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2005.12.013
414:) directly to the site of action)
286:Occipital nerve stimulation (ONS)
239:Other invasive electrical methods
3062:Surgical Neurology International
2919:10.1097/00004691-199701000-00004
2833:Progress in Neurological Surgery
2810:. Vienna: Springer. p. 482.
2565:10.1111/j.1525-1403.2011.00373.x
2358:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00118.x
2142:10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00476.x
2067:10.1097/00004691-200109000-00005
2029:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01511.x
1987:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05379.x
1947:10.1097/00006123-200204000-00003
1941:(4): 690–703, discussion 703–4.
1687:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience
1555:doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.02.007
1126:10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00341.x
687:10.1111/j.1525-1403.2012.00501.x
468:Brain computer interfacing (BCI)
444:Relationship to electroceuticals
3211:Physical psychiatric treatments
2136:(5): 436–64, discussion 464–6.
1568:doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.02.001
950:Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation
323:Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
296:Non-invasive electrical methods
3030:10.1002/14651858.CD004001.pub3
2559:(4): 299–311, discussion 311.
1888:Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery
1671:. Vol. 1. pp. 16–20.
1077:(6): 599–615, discussion 615.
483:Interventional pain management
315:and a prescription variant of
1:
2597:(4): 762–70, discussion 770.
2016:European Journal of Neurology
1738:10.1016/S0079-6123(09)17525-8
1186:(6): 515–50, discussion 550.
910:(4): 349–54, discussion 354.
617:(4): 957–79, discussion 979.
329:Non-invasive magnetic methods
267:Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)
228:humanitarian device exemption
2761:10.1007/978-3-211-33079-1_45
2706:10.1007/978-3-211-33079-1_19
1397:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.01.020
873:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.03.069
827:10.1371/journal.pone.0061926
623:10.1227/NEU.0b013e31822b30cd
399:, e.g. swallowing a tablet.
251:due to a damaged or missing
224:Food and Drug Administration
2211:Journal of Vascular Surgery
1853:Carroll J (10 April 2013).
1639:Wall PD, Melzack R (1996).
1239:10.1001/archneurol.2010.260
681:(1): 10–24, discussion 24.
113:auditory brainstem implants
3247:
2952:10.1016/j.nurt.2007.10.069
2281:10.1016/j.pmrj.2009.07.015
2186:10.1016/j.pain.2014.08.031
1769:Cookson C (31 July 2012).
1699:10.1016/j.jocn.2004.10.005
1494:10.2174/157015907782793603
1349:Wilner A (22 April 2010).
1037:10.1016/j.nurt.2007.10.069
245:Auditory brainstem implant
199:
158:
29:
2753:Operative Neuromodulation
2698:Operative Neuromodulation
2680:10.1161/01.cir.97.12.1157
2472:10.1007/s11940-010-0087-4
2323:10.1001/jamaoto.2013.1744
2244:10.1080/02699050400003999
1609:10.3171/2010.4.FOCUS10106
1482:Current Neuropharmacology
579:10.3171/2013.9.focus13383
391:Invasive chemical methods
44:
3075:10.4103/2152-7806.103019
2817:Vagus Nerve Stimulation
1433:10.1586/14737175.7.1.63
342:magnetic field strength
273:obstructive sleep apnea
166:Spinal cord stimulation
161:Spinal cord stimulation
155:Spinal cord stimulation
3216:Neurological disorders
2339:Gildenberg PL (2006).
781:Clinical trial number
763:Clinical trial number
208:deep brain stimulation
202:Deep brain stimulation
196:Deep brain stimulation
3120:10.2340/16501977-0613
2645:10.1056/nejmoa0708514
1641:The challenge of pain
1227:Archives of Neurology
335:magnetic permeability
3068:(Suppl 4): S275-89.
2401:Molecular Psychiatry
861:Neuroscience Letters
348:electric fields and
3201:Implants (medicine)
3144:(10 Suppl): S50-8.
2535:10.1056/nejmc055504
2217:(1 Pt 2): S1–S296.
1814:2013Natur.496..159F
1596:Neurosurgical Focus
997:Krames, Elliot S.;
818:2013PLoSO...861926K
651:Krames, Elliot S.;
566:Neurosurgical Focus
212:Parkinson's disease
124:Alzheimer's disease
2989:(4 Suppl): S30-5.
2827:Slavin KV (2011).
2413:10.1038/mp.2008.55
1355:Medscape Neurology
999:Peckham, P. Hunter
962:10.1310/tsr2001-68
789:ClinicalTrials.gov
771:ClinicalTrials.gov
653:Peckham, P. Hunter
463:Alim-Louis Benabid
2940:Neurotherapeutics
2889:10.2337/dc14-0684
2854:978-3-8055-9489-9
2845:10.1159/000323002
2770:978-3-211-33078-4
2715:978-3-211-33078-4
2104:10.1159/000064600
1192:10.1111/ner.12208
1083:10.1111/ner.12204
1025:Neurotherapeutics
916:10.1111/ner.12019
521:Visual prosthesis
303:Methods include:
178:cardiac pacemaker
109:cochlear implants
55:
54:
18:Nerve stimulation
16:(Redirected from
3238:
3169:
3132:
3122:
3097:
3087:
3077:
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3008:
2998:
2973:
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2820:
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2802:
2796:
2792:
2790:
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2747:
2741:
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2727:
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2547:
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1876:
1870:
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1867:
1865:
1850:
1844:
1843:
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1808:(7444): 159–61.
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1759:
1725:
1719:
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1682:
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1336:
1331:on 17 April 2019
1321:
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1293:10.1172/JCI68341
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1016:
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995:
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839:
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664:
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581:
557:
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511:Neurostimulation
501:Neuroprosthetics
249:cochlear implant
220:essential tremor
117:retinal implants
71:electric current
48:edit on Wikidata
37:
21:
3246:
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3241:
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3231:Neurotechnology
3226:Neuropsychology
3221:Neurophysiology
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3100:
3055:
3024:(2): CD004001.
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2882:(11): 3016–24.
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2793:
2783:
2771:
2750:
2738:
2728:
2716:
2695:
2673:(12): 1157–63.
2660:
2638:(20): 2121–34.
2625:
2587:
2553:Neuromodulation
2550:
2515:
2494:
2457:
2448:
2446:
2445:on 2 March 2016
2437:
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2180:(11): 2426–31.
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2130:Neuromodulation
2126:
2089:
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2022:(11): 1153–69.
2009:
1972:
1932:
1928:
1926:Further reading
1923:
1900:10.1038/nrd4351
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1822:10.1038/496159a
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1775:Financial Times
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1180:Neuromodulation
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1071:Neuromodulation
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506:Neurotechnology
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397:pharmacotherapy
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98:axonal blockade
58:Neuromodulation
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40:Neuromodulation
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32:Neuromodulation
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27:Type of therapy
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934:.
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871::
848:.
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810:8
753:.
727:.
705:.
685::
663:.
641:.
621::
598:.
576::
549:.
50:]
34:.
20:)
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