251:, carefully examined the device and even removed the back cover for this. A few days later, in the absence of Leibniz, Hooke criticized the German scientist's machine, saying that he could make a simpler model. Leibniz, who learned about this, returned to Paris and categorically rejected Hooke's claim in a letter to Oldenburg and formulated principles of correct scientific behaviour: "We know that respectable and modest people prefer it when they think of something that is consistent with what someone's done other discoveries, ascribe their own improvements and additions to the discoverer, so as not to arouse suspicions of intellectual dishonesty, and the desire for true generosity should pursue them, instead of the lying thirst for dishonest profit." To illustrate the proper behaviour, Leibniz gives an example of
593:. The problem was formulated in not very clear terms, and only later it became clear that it was required to find a general, and not a particular, as Newton understood, solution. After the British side published their decision, Leibniz published his, more general, and, thus, formally won this competition. For his part, Newton stubbornly sought to destroy his opponent. Not having achieved this with the "Report", he continued his painstaking research, spending hundreds of hours on it. His next study, entitled "Observations upon the preceding Epistle", was inspired by a letter from Leibniz to Conti in March 1716, which criticized Newton's philosophical views; no new facts were given in this document. With Leibniz's death in November 1716, the controversy gradually subsided. According to
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into the whole dispute in 1711, he picked out this manuscript as the one which had probably somehow fallen into
Leibniz's hands. At that time there was no direct evidence that Leibniz had seen Newton's manuscript before it was printed in 1704; hence Newton's conjecture was not published. But Gerhardt's discovery of a copy made by Leibniz tends to confirm its accuracy. Those who question Leibniz's good faith allege that to a man of his ability, the manuscript, especially if supplemented by the letter of 10 December 1672, sufficed to give him a clue as to the methods of the calculus. Since Newton's work at issue did employ the fluxional notation, anyone building on that work would have to invent a notation, but some deny this.
522:, a review implying that Newton had borrowed the idea of the fluxional calculus from Leibniz, that any responsible mathematician doubted that Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton. With respect to the review of Newton's quadrature work, all admit that there was no justification or authority for the statements made therein, which were rightly attributed to Leibniz. But the subsequent discussion led to a critical examination of the whole question, and doubts emerged. Had Leibniz derived the fundamental idea of the calculus from Newton? The case against Leibniz, as it appeared to Newton's friends, was summed up in the
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remarks, Newton's claimed reasons for why he took part in the controversy. He said, "I have never grasped at fame among foreign nations, but I am very desirous to preserve my character for honesty, which the author of that epistle, as if by the authority of a great judge, had endeavoured to wrest from me. Now that I am old, I have little pleasure in mathematical studies, and I have never tried to propagate my opinions over the world, but I have rather taken care not to involve myself in disputes on account of them."
243:, Leibniz answered the next day. In a letter to Oldenburg, he wrote that, having looked at Mouton's book, he admits Pell was right, but in his defense, he can provide his draft notes, which contain nuances not found by Renault and Mouton. Thus, the integrity of Leibniz was proved, but in this case, he was recalled later. On the same visit to London, Leibniz was in the opposite position. February 1, 1673, at a meeting of the Royal Society of London, he demonstrated his
572:, of which Isaac Newton was president at the time, set up a committee to pronounce on the priority dispute, in response to a letter it had received from Leibniz. That committee never asked Leibniz to give his version of the events. The report of the committee, finding in favour of Newton, was written and published as "Commercium Epistolicum" (mentioned above) by Newton early in 1713. But Leibniz did not see it until the autumn of 1714.
429:, which he saw as a generalization of the summation of infinite series, whereas Newton began from derivatives. However, to view the development of calculus as entirely independent between the work of Newton and Leibniz misses the point that both had some knowledge of the methods of the other (though Newton did develop most fundamentals before Leibniz started) and in fact worked together on a few aspects, in particular
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published in conjunction with its use in a particularly valuable context, this might take priority over an earlier discoverer's work, which had no obvious application. Further, a mathematician's claim could be undermined by counter-claims that he had not truly invented an idea, but merely improved on someone else's idea, an improvement that required little skill, and was based on facts that were already known.
93:") in 1666, at the age of 23, but did not publish it except as a minor annotation in the back of one of his publications decades later (a relevant Newton manuscript of October 1666 is now published among his mathematical papers). Gottfried Leibniz began working on his variant of calculus in 1674, and in 1684 published his first paper employing it, "
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results of 1677 until 1684 and since differential notation was his invention, that
Leibniz minimized, 30 years later, any benefit he might have enjoyed from reading Newton's manuscript. Moreover, he may have seen the question of who originated the calculus as immaterial when set against the expressive power of his notation.
290:. Unable to rigorously prove this claim, he reported it to Newton. Without further entering into correspondence with Hooke, Newton solved this problem, as well as the inverse to it, proving that the law of inverse-squares follows from the ellipticity of the orbits. This discovery was set forth in his famous work
463:) in Leibniz's handwriting, the existence of which had been previously unsuspected, along with notes re-expressing the content of these extracts in Leibniz's differential notation. Hence when these extracts were made becomes all-important. It is known that a copy of Newton's manuscript had been sent to
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Whether
Leibniz made use of the manuscript from which he had copied extracts, or whether he had previously invented the calculus, are questions on which no direct evidence is available at present. It is, however, worth noting that the unpublished Portsmouth Papers show that when Newton went carefully
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To Newton's staunch supporters this was a case of
Leibniz's word against a number of contrary, suspicious details. His unacknowledged possession of a copy of part of one of Newton's manuscripts may be explicable; but it appears that on more than one occasion, Leibniz deliberately altered or added to
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No attempt was made to rebut #4, which was not known at the time, but which provides the strongest of the evidence that
Leibniz came to the calculus independently from Newton. This evidence, however, is still questionable based on the discovery, in the inquest and after, that Leibniz both back-dated
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In order to respond point by point to all the work published against me, I would have to go into much minutiae that occurred thirty, forty years ago, of which I remember little: I would have to search my old letters, of which many are lost. Moreover, in most cases, I did not keep a copy, and when I
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with
Collins and Oldenburg. It is probable that they would have then shown him the manuscript of Newton on that subject, a copy of which one or both of them surely possessed. On the other hand, it may be supposed that Leibniz made the extracts from the printed copy in or after 1704. Shortly before
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of 1687. Newton employed fluxions as early as 1666, but did not publish an account of his notation until 1693. The earliest use of differentials in
Leibniz's notebooks may be traced to 1675. He employed this notation in a 1677 letter to Newton. The differential notation also appeared in Leibniz's
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Considering
Leibniz's intellectual prowess, as demonstrated by his other accomplishments, he had more than the requisite ability to invent the calculus. What he is alleged to have received was a number of suggestions rather than an account of calculus; it is possible, since he did not publish his
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dated 24 October 1676, where Newton remarks that
Leibniz had developed a number of methods, one of which was new to him. Both Leibniz and Newton could see by this exchange of letters that the other was far along towards the calculus (Leibniz in particular mentions it) but only Leibniz was prodded
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attempted to indirectly weaken the evidence by attacking the personal character of Newton in a letter dated 7 June 1713. When pressed for an explanation, Bernoulli most solemnly denied having written the letter. In accepting the denial, Newton added in a private letter to
Bernoulli the following
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for English, had practically the status of a published article. The discoverer could "time-stamp" the moment of his discovery, and prove that he knew of it at the point the letter was sealed, and had not copied it from anything subsequently published. Nevertheless, where an idea was subsequently
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when Leibniz began working on the differential calculus, yet there was seemingly no proof beyond Newton's word. He had published a calculation of a tangent with the note: "This is only a special case of a general method whereby I can calculate curves and determine maxima, minima, and centers of
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The quarrel was a retrospective affair. In 1696, already some years later than the events that became the subject of the quarrel, the position still looked potentially peaceful: Newton and Leibniz had each made limited acknowledgements of the other's work, and L'Hôpital's 1696 book about the
654:, explaining "the method of first and last ratios", a geometrical form of infinitesimal calculus, as recognized both in Newton's time and in modern times – see citations above by L'Hospital (1696), Truesdell (1968) and Whiteside (1970) – is available online in its English translation of 1729,
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Leibniz never agreed to acknowledge Newton's priority in inventing calculus. He also tried to write his own version of the history of differential calculus, but, as in the case of the history of the rulers of Braunschweig, he did not complete the matter. At the end of 1715, Leibniz accepted
482:, that in 1676 Collins had shown him some of Newton's papers, but Leibniz also implied that they were of little or no value. Presumably he was referring to Newton's letters of 13 June and 24 October 1676, and to the letter of 10 December 1672, on the method of
373:, Newton, and others, over whether Leibniz had discovered calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. No participant doubted that Newton had already developed his method of
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and changed fundamentals of his "original" notes, not only in this intellectual conflict, but in several others. He also published "anonymous" slanders of Newton regarding their controversy which he tried, initially, to claim he was not author of.
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The prevailing opinion in the 18th century was against Leibniz (in Britain, not in the German-speaking world). Today the consensus is that Leibniz and Newton independently invented and described the calculus in Europe in the 17th century.
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A series of high-profile disputes about the scientific priority of the 17th century—the era that the American science historian D. Meli called "the golden age of the mud-slinging priority disputes"—is associated with the name
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the Newtonian and Leibnizian schools shared a common mathematical method. They adopted two algorithms, the analytical method of fluxions, and the differential and integral calculus, which were translatable one into the
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did, the copy is buried in a great heap of papers, which I could sort through only with time and patience. I have enjoyed little leisure, being so weighted down of late with occupations of a totally different nature.
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Newton's unpublished ideas. Leibniz died in 1716, shortly after the Royal Society, of which Newton was a member, found in Newton's favor. The modern consensus is that the two men developed their ideas independently.
300:, to whom the manuscript was handed over for editing and publication, the phrase was included in the text that the compliance of Kepler's first law with the law of inverse squares was "independently approved by
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in May 1675, a time when he and Leibniz were collaborating; it is not impossible that these extracts were made then. It is also possible that they may have been made in 1676, when Leibniz discussed analysis by
81:. The question was a major intellectual controversy, which began simmering in 1699 and broke out in full force in 1711. Leibniz had published his work first, but Newton's supporters accused Leibniz of
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had just begun to appear, and the generally accepted mechanism for fixing priority by publishing information about the discovery had not yet been formed. Among the methods used by scientists were
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Newton, although he privately had accused Leibniz of plagiarism twice in letters to Christiaan Huygens in 1692. It was not until the 1704 publication of an anonymous review of Newton's tract on
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On the other hand, other authors have emphasized the equivalences and mutual translatability of the methods: here N Guicciardini (2003) appears to confirm L'Hôpital (1696) (already cited):
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gravity." How this was done he explained to a pupil a full 20 years later, when Leibniz's articles were already well-read. Newton's manuscripts came to light only after his death.
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By the time of Newton and Leibniz, European mathematicians had already made a significant contribution to the formation of the ideas of mathematical analysis. The Dutchman
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Niccolò Guicciardini, "Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Mathematical Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736", (Cambridge University Press, 2003),
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According to Leibniz's detractors, the fact that Leibniz's claim went unchallenged for some years is immaterial. To rebut this case it is sufficient to show that he:
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of 1687 was "nearly all about this calculus"). Meanwhile, Newton, though he explained his (geometrical) form of calculus in Section I of Book I of the
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has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" also in modern times: see Clifford Truesdell,
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calculus from a Leibnizian point of view had also acknowledged Newton's published work of the 1680s as "nearly all about this calculus" ("
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The manuscript, written mostly in Latin, is numbered Add. 3977.4; it is contained in the library at the University of Cambridge. See
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demonstrated in his private papers his development of the ideas of calculus in a manner independent of the path taken by Newton.
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Huygens and Barrow, Newton and Hooke: Pioneers in mathematical analysis and catastrophe theory from evolvents to quasicrystals
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calculus and elaborated it into a widely extensible algorithm, whose potentialities he fully understood; of equal certainty,
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Oldenburg's report on this incident is contained in Newton's papers, but it is not known that he attached importance to it.
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G. V. Coyne, p. 112; Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, pages 106–107; David Brewster, The Life of Sir Isaac Newton, p. 185
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Despite ... points of resemblance, the methods are profoundly different, so making the priority row a nonsense.
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Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe, Reihe VII: Mathematische Schriften, vol. 5: Infinitesimalmathematik 1674-1676
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Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz: Including Leibniz's Unpublished Manuscripts on the Principia
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Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz: Including Leibniz's Unpublished Manuscripts on the Principia
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always alluded to the discovery as being his own invention (this statement went unchallenged for some years),
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No such summary (with facts, dates, and references) of the case for Leibniz was issued by his friends; but
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If good faith is nevertheless assumed, however, Leibniz's notes as presented to the inquest came first to
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Isaac Newton, "Newton's Waste Book (Part 3) (Normalized Version)": 16 May 1666 entry (The Newton Project)
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The claim that Leibniz invented the calculus independently of Newton rests on the basis that Leibniz:
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Whiteside, D. T. (1970). "The mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica".
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637:(Volume 1), (Cambridge University Press, 1967), part 7 "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions",
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The infinitesimal calculus can be expressed either in the notation of fluxions or in that of
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of 1712, which referenced all allegations. This document was thoroughly machined by Newton.
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published a description of his method some years before Newton printed anything on fluxions,
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made the assumption that motion under such conditions should occur along orbits similar to
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but also previously circulated among mathematicians starting with Newton giving a copy to
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The last years of Leibniz's life, 1710–1716, were embittered by a long controversy with
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One author has identified the dispute as being about "profoundly different" methods:
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published a text on Leibniz's calculus in 1696 (in which he recognized that Newton's
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Tangled origins of the Leibnitzian Calculus: A case study of mathematical revolution
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In any event, a bias favouring Newton tainted the whole affair from the outset. The
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The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time
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Leibniz explained his silence as follows, in a letter to Conti dated 9 April 1716:
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saw some of Newton's papers on the subject in or before 1675 or at least 1677, and
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That Leibniz saw some of Newton's manuscripts had always been likely. In 1849,
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Statues of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the courtyard of the
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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis...", 1684
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Public dispute between Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz (beginning 1699)
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Newton said he had begun working on a form of calculus (which he called "
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69:'priority dispute') was an argument between the mathematicians
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was of great importance to scientists. However, during this period,
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without indicating the name Hooke. At the insistence of astronomer
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as applied to the dynamics of bodies moving under the influence of
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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obtained the fundamental ideas of the calculus from those papers.
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enjoyed the strong presumption that he acted in good faith, and
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Possibility of transmission of Kerala School results to Europe
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In the 17th century, as at the present time, the question of
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important documents (e.g., the letter of 7 June 1713 in the
350:(1571–1630) were engaged in the development of the ancient "
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Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz
1254:("Methodi tangentium inversae exempla", 11 November 1675).
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The History of the Calculus and its conceptual development
486:, extracts from which accompanied the letter of 13 June.
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It was certainly Isaac Newton who first devised a new
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De Analysi per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas
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2005:Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton
247:. The curator of the experiments of the Society,
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320:Invention of differential and integral calculus
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895:"The Calculus Wars reviewed by Brian E. Blank"
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1034:A Short Account of the History of Mathematics
963:https://doi.org/10.1080/00033790.2020.1794038
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903:Notices of the American Mathematical Society
1177:. Cambridge University Press. p. 356.
473:his death, Leibniz admitted in a letter to
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793:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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3368:Discovery and invention controversies
1555:Newton's law of universal gravitation
1246:, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2008, pp.
973:
877:
7:
3192:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
1713:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits
1082:. Translated by Primrose, Eric J.F.
1009:
997:
985:
841:
829:
695:(2): 116–138, especially at p. 120.
689:Journal for the History of Astronomy
612:List of scientific priority disputes
97:Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis
1661:Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
1402:standing on the shoulders of giants
1115:. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.
233:approximating series by differences
2028:
683:Essays in the History of Mechanics
576:Leibniz's death and end of dispute
555:, and that of 8 April 1716 in the
465:Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus
451:(published in 1704 as part of the
91:the method of fluxions and fluents
25:
2268:New Essays on Human Understanding
2209:Transcendental law of homogeneity
1199:From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
459:in 1669 and Barrow sending it to
3302:
3301:
2702:
2701:
2311:
2310:
1990:Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
1275:Sir Isaac Newton's Two Treatises
1221:. Clarendon Press. p. 318.
1020:
2010:Newton International Fellowship
1691:generalized Gauss–Newton method
1604:Newton's method in optimization
253:Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc
1111:Bardi, Jason Socrates (2006).
747:. Clarendon Press. p. 4.
334:Pascal's differential triangle
180:Guicciardini 2003, at page 250
1:
2297:Leibniz–Clarke correspondence
675:Analyse des Infiniment Petits
433:, as is shown in a letter to
1631:Newton's theorem about ovals
893:Blank, Brian E. (May 2009).
639:at page 400, in 2008 reprint
77:over who had first invented
3114:Cosmic microwave background
2117:Characteristica universalis
2099:Best of all possible worlds
2000:Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form
1656:Corpuscular theory of light
1582:Schrödinger–Newton equation
1242:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
650:Section I of Book I of the
307:According to the remark of
231:he presented his method of
3389:
3333:18th-century controversies
3328:17th-century controversies
2138:Identity of indiscernibles
1409:Notes on the Jewish Temple
1134:. Dover Publications, inc.
1031:Ball, W. W. Rouse (1908).
940:Routledge & Kegan Paul
709:10.1177/002182867000100203
438:thereby into publication.
323:
282:and his own calculations,
278:. Based on an analysis of
204:French Academy of Sciences
165:Grattan-Guinness 1997: 247
3348:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3297:
2697:
2308:
2076:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
512:Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
501:presque tout de ce calcul
342:(1548–1620), the Italian
124:notation for the calculus
75:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3373:Plagiarism controversies
2258:Discourse on Metaphysics
1560:post-Newtonian expansion
1440:Corruptions of Scripture
1432:Ancient Kingdoms Amended
1277:, James Bettenham, 1745.
1138:Richard C. Brown (2012)
346:(1553–1618), the German
3343:18th century in science
3338:17th century in science
3249:Chandrasekhar–Eddington
3175:Golden age of cosmology
3107:On specific discoveries
3055:Lorentz transformations
2231:Well-founded phenomenon
2182:Pre-established harmony
2094:Alternating series test
1750:Absolute space and time
1614:truncated Newton method
1587:Newton's laws of motion
1550:Newton's law of cooling
1197:A Brief History of Time
480:Antonio Schinella Conti
212:Royal Society of London
3180:Medieval Islamic world
2923:Computational physics
2865:Variational principles
2792:Electrical engineering
2620:Medieval Islamic world
2356:History of mathematics
1985:Isaac Newton Telescope
1975:Isaac Newton Institute
1745:Newton–Puiseux theorem
1740:Parallelogram of force
1728:kissing number problem
1718:Newton–Euler equations
1621:Gauss–Newton algorithm
1570:gravitational constant
1037:. New York: MacMillan.
587:calculus of variations
546:
525:Commercium Epistolicum
453:De Quadratura Curvarum
360:method of indivisibles
335:
183:
168:
154:
115:
107:
95:
57:
41:
3170:Golden age of physics
3165:Copernican Revolution
2689:Future of mathematics
2666:Women in mathematics
2110:Calculus ratiocinator
1939:Isaac Newton Gargoyle
1849: (nephew-in-law)
1825:Copernican Revolution
1820:Scientific Revolution
1681:Newton–Cotes formulas
1545:Newton's inequalities
1522:Structural coloration
1262:(English translation)
1156:Ivor Grattan-Guinness
1130:Boyer, C. B. (1949).
934:Gjertsen, D. (1986).
364:Bonaventura Cavalieri
333:
304:, Hooke and Halley."
245:mechanical calculator
35:
3273:Relativity priority
3128:Subatomic particles
3088:Loop quantum gravity
3077:Quantum information
3026:Quantum field theory
2826:Gravitational theory
2641:Over Cantor's theory
2248:De Arte Combinatoria
2176:Mathesis universalis
2104:Calculus controversy
1946:Astronomers Monument
1636:Newton–Pepys problem
1609:Apollonius's problem
1577:Newton–Cartan theory
1490:Newton–Okounkov body
1423:hypotheses non fingo
1412: (c. 1680)
1217:Meli, D. B. (1993).
1207:Kandaswamy, Anand.
671:Marquis de l'Hôpital
352:method of exhaustion
50:calculus controversy
3353:History of calculus
3237:Scientific disputes
3223:Via Panisperna boys
3124:Gravitational waves
3071:Recent developments
2802:Maxwell's equations
2677:Approximations of π
2588:By ancient cultures
1755:Luminiferous aether
1703:Newton's identities
1676:Newton's cannonball
1651:Classical mechanics
1641:Newtonian potential
1502:Newtonian telescope
1000:, pp. 231–234.
988:, pp. 216–221.
936:The Newton Handbook
743:Meli D. B. (1993).
701:1970JHA.....1..116W
677:(Paris, 1696). The
326:History of calculus
196:scientific journals
192:scientific priority
46:history of calculus
3363:Scientific rivalry
3282:General relativity
3277:Special relativity
3218:Oxford Calculators
3045:Special relativity
2964:General relativity
2749:History of physics
2480:Information theory
2163:Leibniz's notation
1980:Isaac Newton Medal
1785: (birthplace)
1599:Newtonian dynamics
1497:Newton's reflector
880:, pp. 99–112.
775:on 3 February 2017
505:Leibniz's notation
336:
272:inverse-square law
42:
3315:
3314:
3289:Transfermium Wars
3208:Harvard Computers
3033:Subatomic physics
3006:Quantum mechanics
2942:Superconductivity
2933:Condensed matter
2762:Classical physics
2715:
2714:
2551:Separation axioms
2322:
2321:
2300:(1715–1716)
2219:Universal science
2192:Sufficient reason
2148:Law of continuity
2042:
2041:
1934: (sculpture)
1901:Abraham de Moivre
1855: (professor)
1783:Woolsthorpe Manor
1735:Newton's quotient
1708:Newton polynomial
1666:Newton's notation
1397: (1661–1665)
1122:978-1-56025-992-3
1084:Birkhäuser Verlag
924:for more details.
856:, pp. 16–20.
807:Nicholas Jolley,
265:Johannes Hevelius
144:integral calculus
68:
16:(Redirected from
3380:
3305:
3304:
3228:Women in physics
2980:Nuclear physics
2904:Perpetual motion
2838:Material science
2782:Electromagnetism
2742:
2735:
2728:
2719:
2705:
2704:
2425:Category theory
2349:
2342:
2335:
2326:
2314:
2313:
2301:
2293:
2283:
2273:
2263:
2253:
2169:Lingua generalis
2069:
2062:
2055:
2046:
2030:
1925: (monotype)
1889:William Stukeley
1885: (disciple)
1865:Benjamin Pulleyn
1841:Catherine Barton
1760:Newtonian series
1671:Rotating spheres
1417:General Scholium
1312:Sir Isaac Newton
1305:
1298:
1291:
1282:
1259:(Latin original)
1232:
1188:
1144:World Scientific
1135:
1126:
1101:W. W. Rouse Ball
1097:
1076:Arnold, Vladimir
1071:
1038:
1024:
1023:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
950:
944:
943:
931:
925:
918:
912:
911:
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881:
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869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
818:
812:
805:
799:
798:
792:
784:
782:
780:
771:. Archived from
765:
759:
758:
740:
734:
727:
721:
720:
668:
659:
648:
642:
628:
583:Johann Bernoulli
533:Johann Bernoulli
390:memoir of 1684.
181:
166:
152:
118:
112:
100:
63:
59:Prioritätsstreit
21:
3388:
3387:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3293:
3264:Joule–von Mayer
3232:
3196:
3153:
3102:
3066:
2957:Big Bang theory
2910:
2809:Fluid mechanics
2756:
2746:
2716:
2711:
2693:
2655:
2636:Brouwer–Hilbert
2624:
2583:
2562:Numeral systems
2557:
2419:Grandi's series
2363:
2353:
2323:
2318:
2304:
2299:
2291:
2281:
2271:
2261:
2251:
2235:
2087:
2085:
2084:Mathematics and
2078:
2073:
2043:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2014:
1970:Newton's cradle
1951:
1906:
1879: (student)
1877:William Whiston
1873: (student)
1829:
1810:Religious views
1771:
1686:Newton's method
1646:Newtonian fluid
1540:Bucket argument
1526:
1446:
1381:
1314:
1309:
1239:
1229:
1216:
1192:Stephen Hawking
1185:
1169:
1129:
1123:
1110:
1094:
1074:
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1048:
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1021:
1017:
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928:
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915:
897:
892:
891:
884:
876:
872:
864:
860:
852:
848:
844:, pp. 5–6.
840:
836:
828:
824:
819:
815:
806:
802:
785:
778:
776:
769:"Archived copy"
767:
766:
762:
755:
742:
741:
737:
728:
724:
686:
669:
662:
649:
645:
631:D. T. Whiteside
629:
625:
620:
603:
578:
558:Acta Eruditorum
496:
470:infinite series
435:Henry Oldenburg
362:" developed by
356:Galileo Galilei
348:Johannes Kepler
328:
322:
317:
309:Vladimir Arnold
261:Galileo Galilei
257:Pierre Gassendi
216:Henry Oldenburg
188:
182:
179:
167:
164:
153:
150:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3309:
3298:
3295:
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3291:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3271:
3269:Shapley–Curtis
3266:
3261:
3259:Leibniz–Newton
3256:
3254:Galileo affair
3251:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
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3189:
3188:
3187:
3177:
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3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3149:Speed of light
3146:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3093:Nanotechnology
3090:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3067:
3065:
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2920:
2918:
2916:Modern physics
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2884:Thermodynamics
2881:
2880:
2879:
2869:
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2867:
2862:
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2850:
2845:
2835:
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2684:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2646:Leibniz–Newton
2643:
2638:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2605:Ancient Greece
2602:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2533:
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2531:
2526:
2516:
2515:
2514:
2508:Number theory
2506:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2477:
2472:
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2465:
2455:
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2241:
2237:
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2228:
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2211:
2206:
2201:
2198:Salva veritate
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2123:Compossibility
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2015:
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1987:
1982:
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1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1926:
1916:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1903: (friend)
1898:
1897: (friend)
1892:
1891: (friend)
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1861: (mentor)
1859:William Clarke
1856:
1850:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1815:Occult studies
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1807:
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1700:
1698:Newton fractal
1695:
1694:
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1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
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1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1626:Newton's rings
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1601:
1596:
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1552:
1547:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1512:Newton's metal
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1485:Newton polygon
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1436:
1428:
1419:" (1713;
1413:
1405:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1386:Other writings
1383:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1371:
1363:
1355:
1347:
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1331:
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1320:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1269:Isaac Newton,
1267:
1264:
1255:
1238:
1237:External links
1235:
1234:
1233:
1227:
1214:
1205:
1189:
1183:
1167:
1153:
1136:
1127:
1121:
1108:
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1092:
1072:
1066:
1060:. p. 98.
1050:Арнольд, В. И.
1044:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1015:
1014:
1012:, p. 241.
1002:
990:
978:
976:, p. 221.
966:
954:
945:
942:. p. 149.
926:
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870:
858:
846:
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811:(2005), p. 17.
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324:Main article:
321:
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208:Marin Mersenne
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3098:String theory
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2913:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2848:Metamaterials
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2820:
2817:
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2807:
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2800:
2798:
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2776:
2773:
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2768:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2724:
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2708:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2690:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2652:
2651:Hobbes–Wallis
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:Controversies
2627:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Ancient Egypt
2598:
2596:
2593:
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2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
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2517:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2504:Math notation
2502:
2498:
2495:
2494:
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2490:
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2483:
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2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
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2464:
2461:
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2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:Combinatorics
2439:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2415:
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2222:
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2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Leibniz's gap
2156:
2154:
2153:Leibniz wheel
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2143:Individuation
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2065:
2063:
2058:
2056:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2033:
2029:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1965:Newton (unit)
1963:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:William Jones
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1867: (tutor)
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1847:John Conduitt
1845:
1843: (niece)
1842:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
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1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1789:Cranbury Park
1787:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:Personal life
1774:
1766:
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1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1723:Newton number
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1689:
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1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
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1664:
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1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
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1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1592:Kepler's laws
1590:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1565:parameterized
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
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1529:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
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1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1451:Contributions
1449:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1404:" (1675)
1403:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1337:
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1332:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1301:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1287:
1286:
1283:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1230:
1228:0-19-850143-9
1224:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1184:0-521-22732-1
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1151:9789814390804
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1093:3-7643-2383-3
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1067:5-02-013935-1
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1028:
1027:public domain
1019:
1018:
1011:
1006:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
975:
970:
967:
964:
958:
955:
949:
946:
941:
937:
930:
927:
923:
917:
914:
910:(5): 602–610.
909:
905:
904:
896:
889:
887:
883:
879:
874:
871:
868:, p. 33.
867:
862:
859:
855:
850:
847:
843:
838:
835:
832:, p. 55.
831:
826:
823:
817:
814:
810:
804:
801:
796:
790:
774:
770:
764:
761:
756:
754:0-19-850143-9
750:
746:
739:
736:
732:
726:
723:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
684:
680:
676:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:
653:
647:
644:
640:
636:
632:
627:
624:
617:
613:
610:
608:
605:
604:
600:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
573:
571:
570:Royal Society
566:
562:
560:
559:
554:
553:
552:Charta Volans
545:
540:
537:
534:
529:
527:
526:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
502:
493:
491:
487:
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471:
466:
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444:
439:
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432:
428:
423:
416:
413:
412:
411:
405:
402:
399:
396:
395:
394:
391:
388:
384:
383:differentials
379:
376:
372:
367:
366:(1598–1647).
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
332:
327:
319:
314:
312:
310:
305:
303:
299:
298:Edmund Halley
295:
294:
289:
285:
281:
280:Kepler's laws
277:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
220:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
185:
176:
171:
161:
157:
147:
145:
141:
137:
136:infinitesimal
131:
127:
125:
122:
117:
111:
110:
104:
99:
98:
92:
87:
84:
80:
76:
72:
66:
61:
60:
55:
51:
47:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3358:Isaac Newton
3258:
3213:The Martians
2877:Spectroscopy
2819:Aerodynamics
2797:Field theory
2645:
2579:Hindu-Arabic
2475:Group theory
2463:Trigonometry
2434:Topos theory
2286:
2276:
2266:
2256:
2246:
2223:
2196:
2174:
2167:
2115:
2108:
2103:
2032:Isaac Newton
1944:
1937:
1929:
1920:
1853:Isaac Barrow
1791: (home)
1660:
1532:Newtonianism
1507:Newton scale
1470:Impact depth
1443: (1754)
1438:
1435: (1728)
1430:
1420:
1407:
1392:
1378: (1711)
1373:
1370: (1707)
1365:
1362: (1704)
1357:
1354: (1704)
1349:
1346: (1687)
1341:
1338: (1684)
1333:
1330: (1671)
1325:
1319:Publications
1274:
1243:
1218:
1209:
1202:Bantam Books
1195:
1174:
1159:
1139:
1131:
1112:
1104:
1079:
1053:
1033:
1005:
993:
981:
969:
957:
948:
935:
929:
916:
907:
901:
873:
866:Арнольд 1989
861:
854:Арнольд 1989
849:
837:
825:
816:
808:
803:
777:. Retrieved
773:the original
763:
744:
738:
725:
692:
688:
682:
678:
674:
651:
646:
634:
626:
579:
567:
563:
556:
550:
547:
542:
538:
530:
524:
516:plagiarizing
509:
500:
497:
488:
474:
461:John Collins
457:Isaac Barrow
452:
446:
440:
431:power series
424:
420:
409:
392:
386:
380:
368:
344:Luca Valerio
340:Simon Stevin
337:
306:
291:
284:Robert Hooke
269:
249:Robert Hooke
221:
189:
173:
169:
159:
155:
151:Hall 1980: 1
140:differential
133:
128:
88:
83:plagiarizing
71:Isaac Newton
58:
49:
43:
29:
3137:Higgs boson
2595:Mesopotamia
2569:Prehistoric
2529:Probability
2386:Algorithms
2214:Rationalism
1932:by Paolozzi
1871:Roger Cotes
1480:Newton disc
1394:Quaestiones
1367:Arithmetica
1171:Hall, A. R.
731:at page 250
591:Abate Conti
494:Development
427:integration
3322:Categories
3158:By periods
2976:Geophysics
2948:Cosmology
2519:Statistics
2451:Logarithms
2397:Arithmetic
2288:Monadology
2128:Difference
2086:philosophy
2019:Categories
1995:XMM-Newton
1912:Depictions
1883:John Keill
1805:Apple tree
1800:Later life
1795:Early life
1375:De Analysi
1164:W W Norton
1107:], 4th ed.
974:Bardi 2006
938:. London:
878:Boyer 1949
656:at page 41
633:(editor),
618:References
520:quadrature
371:John Keill
358:– on the "
315:Background
288:elliptical
3201:By groups
3185:Astronomy
3021:Molecules
2855:Mechanics
2770:Astronomy
2539:Manifolds
2535:Topology
2446:Functions
2278:Théodicée
2187:Plenitude
1834:Relations
1343:Principia
1010:Hall 1980
998:Hall 1980
986:Hall 1980
922:this page
842:Meli 1993
830:Hall 1980
679:Principia
652:Principia
387:Principia
229:John Pell
121:fluxional
116:Principia
109:Principia
103:L'Hôpital
40:, collage
3307:Category
3132:timeline
3119:Graphene
3081:timeline
3050:timeline
3038:timeline
3011:timeline
2952:timeline
2937:timeline
2927:timeline
2889:timeline
2860:timeline
2843:timeline
2831:timeline
2814:timeline
2787:timeline
2775:timeline
2753:timeline
2707:Category
2682:timeline
2670:timeline
2544:timeline
2524:timeline
2512:timeline
2497:timeline
2485:timeline
2468:timeline
2458:Geometry
2429:timeline
2414:timeline
2409:Calculus
2402:timeline
2390:timeline
2380:timeline
2368:By topic
2360:timeline
2316:Category
2225:Vis viva
2204:Theodicy
2133:Dynamism
1957:Namesake
1923:by Blake
1517:Spectrum
1458:Calculus
1427: )
1327:Fluxions
1194:(1988)
1173:(1980).
1078:(1990).
1052:(1989).
789:cite web
717:57208572
601:See also
484:tangents
375:fluxions
200:anagrams
178:—
163:—
149:—
79:calculus
3142:Neutron
2999:Weapons
2984:Fission
2899:Entropy
2574:Ancient
2375:Algebra
1475:Inertia
1463:fluxion
1359:Queries
1351:Opticks
1335:De Motu
1252:321–331
1248:288–295
1158:(1997)
1103:(1908)
1043:Sources
1029::
809:Leibniz
697:Bibcode
276:gravity
225:Leibniz
67:
44:In the
2989:Fusion
2894:Energy
2872:Optics
2292:(1714)
2282:(1710)
2272:(1704)
2262:(1686)
2252:(1666)
1930:Newton
1921:Newton
1273:, in:
1225:
1181:
1149:
1119:
1090:
1064:
1056:. М.:
779:31 May
751:
715:
175:other.
54:German
48:, the
3060:tests
3016:Atoms
2994:Power
2969:tests
2660:Other
2615:India
2610:China
2492:Logic
2240:Works
1765:table
1058:Наука
898:(PDF)
713:S2CID
1223:ISBN
1179:ISBN
1147:ISBN
1117:ISBN
1088:ISBN
1062:ISBN
795:link
781:2020
749:ISBN
476:Abbé
302:Wren
263:and
255:and
237:Lyon
142:and
73:and
65:lit.
705:doi
239:by
101:".
3324::
1162:.
1142:,
1086:.
908:56
906:.
900:.
885:^
791:}}
787:{{
711:.
703:.
691:.
663:^
507:.
214:,
206:,
62:,
56::
2755:)
2751:(
2741:e
2734:t
2727:v
2362:)
2358:(
2348:e
2341:t
2334:v
2068:e
2061:t
2054:v
1425:"
1421:"
1415:"
1400:"
1304:e
1297:t
1290:v
1231:.
1213:.
1204:.
1187:.
1166:.
1125:.
1096:.
1070:.
797:)
783:.
757:.
733:.
719:.
707::
699::
693:1
658:.
641:.
52:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
