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contact humans make. Caring for one another and growing up in a group setting (family) shows a certain degree of interdependence that shows deep phylogenetic roots. However, this social contact is declining in the United States. Face-to-face interaction is getting more and more sparse. Family and friend visits, including dinners, are not as common. The amount of social contact a person receives can greatly affect their mental health. A preference for being with others has a high correlation with well-being and with mental long-term and short-term effects on performance.
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valid evidence in the benefits of brain training. The question is how these two groups reached different conclusions in reading the same literature. Different standards on both sides can answer that question. In a more specific manner, there is indeed a great deal of evidence that brain training does indeed improve performance on trained tasks, but less evidence in closely related tasks. There is even less evidence on distantly related tasks.
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After reviewing close to 8,000 studies about brain training programs marketed to healthy older adults, most programs had no peer reviewed published evidence of their efficacy. Of the seven brain training programs that did, only two of those had multiple studies, including at least one study of high quality: BrainHQ and CogniFit.
107:, executive functions, and working memory. These kinds of abilities are targeted because they are correlated with individual differences such as academic achievement and life outcomes and it is thought that training general cognitive functions will lead to transfer of improvement across a variety of domains.
364:
In 2014 another group of scientists published a similar warning. Later that year, another group of scientists made a counter statement, organized and maintained by the Chief
Scientific Officer of Posit. They compiled a list of published studies on efficacy of cognitive training across populations and
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By 2012, "brain training" was a $ 1 billion industry. In 2013 the market was $ 1.3 billion, and software products made up about 55% of those sales. By that time neuroscientists and others had a growing concern about the general trend toward what they called "neurofication", "neurohype", "neuromania",
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is the capacity of a person to meet the various cognitive demands of life and is evident in an ability to assimilate information, comprehend relationships, and develop reasonable conclusions and plans. Cognitive training includes interventions targeted at improving cognitive abilities. One hypothesis
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A 2020 Cochrane review found no certain evidence that cognitive training is beneficial for people with
Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) or Parkinson's disease-related mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI), however the authors also note that their conclusion was based on a small number of studies with
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In 2017, a group of
Australian scientists undertook a systematic review of what studies have been published of commercially available brain training programs in an attempt to give consumers and doctors credible information on which brain training programs are actually scientifically proved to work.
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to back its claims. The company was ordered not to make any claims that its products can " performance in school, at work, or in athletics" or " against age-related decline in memory or other cognitive function, including mild cognitive impairment, dementia, or
Alzheimer's disease", or " cognitive
180:
Social cognitive neuroscience also supports social interaction as a mental exercise. The prefrontal cortex function involves the ability to understand a person's beliefs and desires. The ability to control one's own beliefs and desires is served by the parietal and prefrontal regions of the brain,
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volume as a result of the training. A study attempting to train the updating component of executive function in young and older adults showed that cognitive training could lead to improvements in task performance across both of the groups, however, general transfer of ability to new tasks was only
131:
with age as there are decreases in speed of processing, working memory, longterm memory, and reasoning skills. Some researchers argue that the lower performance of older adults on cognitive tasks may not always reflect actual ability as older adults may show performance decrements due to strategy
368:
In 2014, one group of over 70 scientists stated that brain games cannot be scientifically proven as being cognitively advantageous, whether that be in preventing cognitive decline or improving cognitive functioning. Another group argued the opposite, with over 130 scientists saying that there is
324:
In its lawsuit against
LearningRx, the FTC said LearningRx had been "deceptively claim their programs were clinically proven to permanently improve serious health conditions like ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), autism, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, strokes, and concussions". In
204:
The ability to imagine and walk oneself through various scenarios is a mental exercise in itself. Self-reflection in this way taps into many different cognitive capabilities, including questioning rigid viewpoints, elaborating on experience, and knowing oneself through their relational context.
176:
There are many things involved in a simple interaction between two people: paying attention, maintaining in memory the conversation, adjusting to a different perspective than your own, assessing situational constraints, and self-monitoring appropriate behavior. It is true that some of these are
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Studies that try to train specific cognitive abilities often only show task-specific improvements, and participants are unable to generalize their strategies to new tasks or problems. In 2016, there was some evidence that some of these programs improved performance on tasks in which users were
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Mental exercises can be done through simple socializing. Social interaction engages in many facets of cognitive thinking and can facilitate cognitive functioning. Cartwright and Zander noted that if an alien was visiting Earth for the first time, they would be surprised by the amount of social
189:
is an effective way to develop visuospatial functioning and keeping the mind sharp. Anyone can do it, as it is low-cost and can be intrinsically motivating. The important part about jigsaw puzzles is that it is challenging, especially compared to other activities, such as watching television.
217:, processing speed, and problem-solving, and even as preventing dementia or Alzheimers. They often have supported their marketing with discussion about the educational or professional background of their founders, some discuss neuroscience that supports their approach—especially concepts of
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reflects the ability for the brain to change and grow in response to the environment. There is ample debate within the scientific community on the efficacy of brain training programs and controversy on the ethics of promoting brain training software to potentially vulnerable subjects.
349:
To address growing public concerns with regard to aggressive online marketing of brain games to older population, a group of scientists published a letter in 2008 warning the general public that there is a lack of research showing effectiveness of brain games in older adults.
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shown in young adults and not older adults. It has been hypothesized that transfer effects are dependent on an overlap in neural activation during the trained and transfer tasks. Cognitive training has been shown to lead to neural changes such as increased blood flow to the
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was first released in 2005, all capitalizing on the growing interest within the public in neuroscience, along with heightened worries by parents about ADHD and other learning disabilities in their children, and concern about their own cognitive health as they aged.
1809:
Petersen, Ronald C.; Lopez, Oscar; Armstrong, Melissa J.; Getchius, Thomas S.D.; Ganguli, Mary; Gloss, David; Gronseth, Gary S.; Marson, Daniel; Pringsheim, Tamara; Day, Gregory S.; Sager, Mark; Stevens, James; Rae-Grant, Alexander (December 27, 2017).
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trained, less evidence that improvements in performance generalize to related tasks, and almost no evidence that "brain training" generalizes to everyday cognitive performance. In addition, most clinical studies were flawed. But in 2017, the
383:
In 2019, a group of researchers showed that claims of enhancement following brain training and other training programs have been exaggerated, based on a number of meta-analyses. Other factors, e.g., genetics, seem to play a bigger role.
184:
The other category of mental exercises falls into the world of puzzles. Neurocognitive disorders such as dementia and impairment in cognitive functioning have risen as a healthcare concern, especially among the older generation. Solving
177:
automatic processes, but attention, working memory, and cognitive control are definitely executive functions. Doing all these things in a simple social interaction helps train the working memory in influencing social inference.
225:, and some cite evidence from clinical trials. The key claim made by these companies is that the specific training that they offer generalizes to other fields—academic or professional performance generally or everyday life.
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training, playing online games or completing cognitive tasks in alignment with a training regimen, playing video games that require visuospatial reasoning, and engaging in novel activities such as dance, art, and music.
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few participants, limitations of study design and execution, and imprecise results, and that there is still an overall need for more robust studies involving cognitive training as it pertains to PDD and PD-MCI.
1383:"Jigsaw Puzzles As Cognitive Enrichment (PACE) – the effect of solving jigsaw puzzles on global visuospatial cognition in adults 50 years of age and older: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial"
2009:
Simons, Daniel J.; Boot, Walter R.; Charness, Neil; Gathercole, Susan E.; Chabris, Christopher F.; Hambrick, David Z.; Stine-Morrow, Elizabeth A. L. (October 2016). "Do "Brain-Training" Programs Work?".
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Cognitive training is grounded in the idea that the brain is plastic. Brain plasticity refers to the ability for the brain to change and develop based on life experiences. Evidence for
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was marketed to everyone, with a significant media budget. In 2005, consumers in the US spent $ 2 million on cognitive training products; in 2007 they spent about $ 80 million.
277:(FTC) sued companies selling "brain training" programs or other products marketed as improving cognitive function, including WordSmart Corporation, the company that makes
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in 2005 marked a change in the field, as prior to this products or services were marketed to fairly narrow populations (for example, students with learning problems), but
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2016, LearningRx settled with the FTC by agreeing not to make the disputed assertions unless they had "competent and reliable scientific evidence" which was defined as
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Simons, Daniel J.; Boot, Walter R.; Charness, Neil; Gathercole, Susan E.; Chabris, Christopher F.; Hambrick, David Z.; Stine-Morrow, Elizabeth A. L. (October 2016).
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that experience general cognitive deficits. More broadly, it is thought that cognitive training may especially benefit older adults as there is a general decline in
1610:
1381:
Fissler, Patrick; KĂĽster, Olivia C.; Loy, Laura S.; Laptinskaya, Daria; Rosenfelder, Martin J.; von Arnim, Christine A. F.; Kolassa, Iris-Tatjana (December 2017).
2065:] Older Adults: a Systematic Review of the Clinical Significance of Commercially Available Computerized Cognitive Training in Preventing Cognitive Decline".
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By 2016, companies offering products and services for cognitive training were marketing them as improving educational outcomes for children, and for adults as
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Mind games for self-improvement fall into two main categories. There are mental exercises and puzzles to maintain or improve the actual working of the brain.
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The FTC found that
Lumosity's marketing "preyed on consumers' fears about age-related cognitive decline, suggesting their games could stave off memory loss,
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taxicab drivers that have demonstrated that expertise leads to increased volume in specific brain areas. A 2008 study that trained older adults in
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found moderate strength evidence for cognitive training as an intervention to prevent cognitive decline and dementia, and in 2018, the
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Ybarra, Oscar; Burnstein, Eugene; Winkielman, Piotr; Keller, Matthew C.; Manis, Melvin; Chan, Emily; Rodriguez, Joel (February 2008).
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done by competent scientists." For the judgment's monetary component, LearningRx agreed to pay $ 200,000 of a $ 4 million settlement.
1766:
National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering (June 22, 2017). Leshner, Alan I; Landis, Story; Stroud, Clare; Downey, Autumn (eds.).
2265:
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Shah, TM; Weinborn, M; Verdile, G; Sohrabi, HR; Martins, RN (March 2017). "Enhancing
Cognitive Functioning in Healthly [
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321:", without "competent and reliable scientific evidence", and agreed to pay a $ 50 million settlement (reduced to $ 2 million).
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to support cognitive training is that certain activities, done regularly, might help maintain or improve cognitive reserve.
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Orgeta, Vasiliki; McDonald, Kathryn R; Poliakoff, Ellen; Hindle, John
Vincent; Clare, Linda; Leroi, Iracema (2020-02-26).
343:
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1701:"LearningRx To Pay $ 200K For Allegedly Unproven Claims That Brain Training Can Improve Income, Treat Autism & ADHD"
1226:"From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. By Tim Shallice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. 462 pp. ÂŁ15.00"
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Engagement in such an intellectual activity predicts a lower risk in developing a cognition disorder later on in life.
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1566:"Can We Trust Consumers With Their Brains? Popular Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Images, Self-Help And The Consumer"
1988:
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Draganski, Bogdan; Gaser, Christian; Busch, Volker; Schuierer, Gerhard; Bogdahn, Ulrich; May, Arne (2004-01-22).
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found that there was insufficient evidence to recommend any method of preventing age-related memory deficits or
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is improved by exercising the body. Cognitive training activities can take place in numerous modalities such as
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1928:. Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Stanford Center on Longevity. October 20, 2014. Archived from
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1648:"Lumosity to Pay $ 2 Million to Settle FTC Deceptive Advertising Charges for Its "Brain Training" Program"
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1120:"Mental exercising through simple socializing: social interaction promotes general cognitive functioning"
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released a report about the evidence on interventions for preventing cognitive decline and dementia.
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abilities. The phrase “cognitive ability” usually refers to components of fluid intelligence such as
2143:"Cognitive training interventions for dementia and mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease"
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817:"White matter plasticity in the corticospinal tract of musicians: a diffusion tensor imaging study"
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Imfeld, Adrian; Oechslin, Mathias S.; Meyer, Martin; Loenneker, Thomas; Jancke, Lutz (2009-07-01).
645:"How to play 20 questions with nature and lose: Reflection on 100 years of brain training research"
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Numerous studies have indicated that aspects of brain structure remain "plastic" throughout life.
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Dahlin, Erika; Neely, Anna
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Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society
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Cognitive training includes interventions targeted at improving cognitive abilities such as
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in attention training and decreased bilateral compensatory recruitment in older adults.
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768:"Memory avoidance by older adults: When 'old dogs' won't perform their 'new tricks'"
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Mackey, Allyson P.; Hill, Susanna S.; Stone, Susan I.; Bunge, Silvia A. (May 2011).
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Empowering Therapeutic Practice : Integrating Psychodrama into other Therapies
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guidelines for treatment of mild cognitive impairment included cognitive training.
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1611:"Brainstorm: FTC Continues Enforcement Trend Against Cognitive Function Claims"
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1525:"Brain-training isn't just a modern phenomenon, the Edwardians were also fans"
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Cognitive training studies often target clinical groups such as people with
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1926:"A Consensus on the Brain Training Industry from the Scientific Community"
1674:"Lumosity pays $ 2 million to FTC to settle bogus "Brain Training" claims"
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Cognitive training has been studied by scientists for the past 100 years.
872:"Navigation- related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers"
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that cognitive abilities can be maintained or improved by exercising the
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546:"Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions"
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impairment caused by health conditions, including Turner syndrome,
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There is also the category of the self-empowering mind game, as in
1328:"Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition"
595:"Differential effects of reasoning and speed training in children"
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choice, such as avoiding using memory retrieval in memory tasks.
285:) for deceptive advertising; later that year the FTC also sued
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30:"Brain Training" redirects here. For the video game series, see
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Reuter-Lorenz, Patricia A.; Cappell, Katherine A. (June 2008).
1812:"Practice guideline update summary: Mild cognitive impairment"
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931:"Neuroplasticity: changes in grey matter induced by training"
1733:"Lessons for LearningRx on comeback from federal lawsuit"
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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
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Preventing Cognitive Decline and Dementia: A Way Forward
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which is the same region emphasizing cognitive control.
2108:
Moreau, David; Macnamara, B; Hambrick, D (2019-02-01).
1883:"Preventing Alzheimer's disease and cognitive decline"
1273:"Storage and Executive Processes in the Frontal Lobes"
1060:"Neurocognitive Aging and the Compensation Hypothesis"
1864:"Neuroscientists speak out against brain game hype"
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1987:. Michael Merzenich, Chief Scientific Officer of
1958:. Michael Merzenich, Chief Scientific Officer of
1326:Amodio, David M.; Frith, Chris D. (April 2006).
1654:. U.S. Federal Trade Commission. 5 January 2016
1503:"The Weak Evidence Behind Brain-Training Games"
876:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
649:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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201:as a set of mental (and physical) disciplines.
1590:Aamodt, Sandra; Wang, Sam (8 November 2007).
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2012:Psychological Science in the Public Interest
1124:Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin
273:Starting in January 2015, the United States
27:Activities that improve cognition facilities
2114:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1064:Current Directions in Psychological Science
772:Current Directions in Psychological Science
550:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1630:"Do brain-training exercises really work?"
388:Cognitive training for Parkinson's disease
355:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
144:includes studies on musical expertise and
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2241:"Brain Training for ADHD: Help or Hype?"
2229:"Could Brain Training Prevent Dementia?"
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311:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
2147:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1628:Howard, Jacqueline (October 20, 2016).
468:
281:, and Brain Research Labs (which sold
1544:"The Science Behind 'Brain Training'"
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988:
7:
1862:Underwood, Emily (22 October 2014).
1523:Katz, Benjamin (September 1, 2014).
638:
636:
491:"Do "Brain-Training" Programs Work?"
1439:Stanley Cohen & Laurie Taylor,
1179:by Dorwin Cartwright, Alvin Zander"
1177:Group Dynamics: Research and Theory
753:Handbook of the psychology of aging
1173:Lenn, Theodore I. (October 1953).
317:(TBI), stroke, or side effects of
25:
1542:Hurley, Dan (February 14, 2014).
1466:Holmes, Paul; Kirk, Kate (2014).
704:"Cognitive reserve and lifestyle"
2215:Marx, Patricia (July 29, 2013).
1615:Trademark and Copyright Law blog
1183:Journal of Educational Sociology
1076:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00570.x
833:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.02.025
611:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01005.x
403:
63:. Cognitive training reflects a
1952:"About Cognitive Training Data"
1472:. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
423:, a "brain trainer" mobile game
2245:Larry Maucieri, Ph.D., ABPP-CN
2159:10.1002/14651858.cd011961.pub2
307:post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
1731:Heilman, Wayne (2016-10-16).
1609:Austin, Neil (May 24, 2016).
1297:10.1126/science.283.5408.1657
1230:British Journal of Psychiatry
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755:. Elsevier. pp. 109–119.
702:Scarmeas, N; Y Stern (2003).
344:American Academy of Neurology
2202:Mole, Beth (June 20, 2016).
1828:10.1212/WNL.0000000000004826
1699:Morran, Chris (2016-05-18).
1501:Yong, Ed (October 3, 2016).
1332:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
372:In 2017, a committee of the
327:randomized controlled trials
1456:(London 1980) p. 9 and p. 4
1271:Smith, E. E. (1999-03-12).
720:10.1076/jcen.25.5.625.14576
117:neurodegenerative disorders
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2079:10.1007/s11065-016-9338-9
1989:Posit Science Corporation
1985:cognitivetrainingdata.org
1960:Posit Science Corporation
1956:cognitivetrainingdata.org
1881:Williams, JW (Apr 2010).
1573:Indiana Health Law Review
1564:Gunter, Tracy D. (2014).
1400:10.1186/s13063-017-2151-9
1242:10.1192/S0007125000141030
1106:So You Think You're Smart
643:Katz, B; Shah, P (2018).
300:", without providing any
92:Studies and interventions
2127:10.1177/0963721418797300
2024:10.1177/1529100616661983
1798:– via www.nap.edu.
1136:10.1177/0146167207310454
784:10.1177/0963721414563730
562:10.1177/0963721412453722
507:10.1177/1529100616661983
437:Environmental enrichment
275:Federal Trade Commission
2266:Brain training programs
1890:Evid Rep Technol Assess
1592:"Exercise on the Brain"
1021:10.1126/science.1155466
708:J Clin Exp Neuropsychol
670:10.1073/pnas.1617102114
427:Brain training programs
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269:Regulation and lawsuits
71:, analogous to the way
2281:Cognitive neuroscience
2067:Neuropsychology Review
897:10.1073/pnas.070039597
870:Maguire, E.A. (2000).
432:Cognitive intervention
315:traumatic brain injury
152:showed an increase in
77:cardiovascular fitness
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766:Touron, D.R. (2015).
599:Developmental Science
231:was founded in 1999,
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223:transfer of learning
1932:on October 30, 2019
1289:1999Sci...283.1657.
1283:(5408): 1657–1661.
1013:2008Sci...320.1510D
1007:(5882): 1510–1512.
947:2004Natur.427..311D
888:2000PNAS...97.4398M
751:Park, D.C. (2011).
661:2018PNAS..115.9897K
544:Diamond, A (2012).
302:scientific evidence
298:Alzheimer's disease
283:dietary supplements
209:Commercial programs
2276:Applied psychology
2271:Cognitive training
1981:"Published Papers"
1596:The New York Times
129:fluid intelligence
123:and children with
57:executive function
49:cognitive training
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1787:978-0-309-45959-4
1479:978-0-85700-834-3
1104:P. J. Battaglia,
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1175:"Reviewed Work:
1170:
1164:
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1102:
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806:
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763:
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407:
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215:improving memory
165:Mental exercises
136:Conceptual basis
85:Brain plasticity
73:physical fitness
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2301:
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2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2286:Neuropsychology
2256:
2255:
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2227:
2214:
2201:
2198:
2196:Further reading
2193:
2192:
2153:(2): CD011961.
2140:
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1447:
1441:Escape Attempts
1438:
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1380:
1379:
1375:
1344:10.1038/nrn1884
1325:
1324:
1320:
1270:
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1222:
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1195:10.2307/2263258
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465:
447:Neuroplasticity
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404:
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271:
219:neuroplasticity
211:
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142:neuroplasticity
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101:problem-solving
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2237:
2233:The New Yorker
2225:
2221:The New Yorker
2217:"Mentally Fit"
2212:
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2194:
2191:
2190:
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2100:
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2018:(3): 103–186.
2001:
1972:
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1873:
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442:Neurocognition
439:
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389:
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331:
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267:
249:The launch of
210:
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187:jigsaw puzzles
166:
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239:in 2002, and
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1930:the original
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1738:The Gazette
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359:Alzheimer's
296:, and even
195:psychodrama
154:gray matter
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2260:Categories
1749:2016-10-31
1717:2016-10-31
1658:17 January
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1236:(4): 630.
821:NeuroImage
463:References
287:LearningRx
263:neuromyths
65:hypothesis
2167:1465-1858
2032:1529-1006
1936:March 22,
1816:Neurology
1684:5 January
1488:889973215
1409:1745-6215
1352:1471-003X
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1258:148812342
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515:2160-0031
255:Brain Age
251:Brain Age
242:Brain Age
235:in 2001,
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2185:32101639
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627:21477196
580:25328287
531:13729927
523:27697851
397:See also
313:(ADHD),
309:(PTSD),
294:dementia
279:Lumosity
229:CogniFit
150:juggling
119:such as
2176:7043362
2095:6105608
1903:4781578
1868:Science
1837:5772157
1652:ftc.gov
1418:5588550
1368:7669363
1285:Bibcode
1277:Science
1211:2263258
1160:8520876
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1009:Bibcode
1001:Science
979:4421248
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884:Bibcode
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233:Cogmed
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2044:S2CID
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1364:S2CID
1254:S2CID
1207:JSTOR
1156:S2CID
1088:S2CID
1041:S2CID
975:S2CID
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853:S2CID
527:S2CID
69:brain
2181:PMID
2163:ISSN
2151:2020
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2036:PMID
2028:ISSN
1996:2019
1967:2016
1938:2015
1908:PMID
1842:PMID
1792:PMID
1782:ISBN
1686:2016
1660:2016
1484:OCLC
1474:ISBN
1454:Yoga
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199:yoga
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
