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New viruses and viral infections of the nervous system will continue to emerge and the field of neurovirology must constantly expand to meet these growing needs. While the interest in researching viruses that infect the nervous system has increased dramatically over the past 40 years, there are three
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The use of antiviral treatment with both
Multiple Sclerosis and AIDS dementia has proven ineffective as a treatment. In patients with Multiple Sclerosis, antiviral treatment of EBV with Acyclovir showed no significant difference from the placebo. In patients with AIDS dementia, despite antiretroviral
423:
PCR is frequently used to for rapid identification of specific DNA viruses from the CSF, while
Reverse transcriptase PCR is commonly used to identify RNA viruses in the CSF. The accuracy of this diagnostic tool is limited by the amount of the virus present in the CSF. Viral replication tends to peak
360:
There are two main ways that a virus is thought to enter the brain via hematogenous spread. The first is by infecting an immune cell, which then carries the virus to the nervous tissue. Viral examples of this include the JC virus which infects B cells and HIV which infects CD4 T cells and macrophages
58:
The field of neurovirology was formed within the past 30 years. It was founded upon the discovery that a large number of viruses are capable of invading and establishing latent infections in nervous tissue. Such viruses have been shown to produce slow, chronic, or progressive nervous system diseases.
102:
In 1929 Heinrich Pette established the first classification criteria for inflammatory diseases of the nervous system. This classification separated the diseases into two groups: gray matter acute and white matter acute inflammatory diseases. Gray matter acute inflammatory diseases were characterized
443:
In recent years, due to the development of less invasive diagnosis techniques, brain biopsies are no longer frequently used for diagnosing viral infections of the nervous system. However, some viral infections of the CNS cannot be diagnosed without histological and electron microscopic evidence. In
369:
Neurons lack molecules necessary to present viral peptides on the surface to killer cells, which means they provide a safe house for viruses to replicate. Once viruses get in neurons they can persist for the hosts lifetime and can influence the factors that disturb the function of neurons and the
414:
This method is valuable in diagnosing viral infections of the CNS. CSF analysis typically involves determining the patients total white cell count, glucose level, and protein level in the CSF. Viral infection of the CNS tends to increase the total white cell count, while increasing the level of
94:
Neurovirology only became an official field within the past 30 years. However, the true origin of neurovirology can be accredited to the discovery that some viruses may have an affinity for nervous system tissue. This discovery was made in the late 1880s with research involving rabies.
98:
In 1881, while studying rabies, Louis
Pasteur demonstrated that the central nervous system played a crucial role in the progression of the disease. Following this discovery, in 1890, Schaffer demonstrated histological evidence that the rabies virus spread via neural networks.
444:
these cases, brain biopsies are only performed when the patient has a serious neurological illness and is in need of immediate therapy, an alternative procedure will not lead to a specific diagnosis, and the information gained by the brain biopsy will outweigh the risks.
79:. The main focus of the field is to study the molecular and biological basis of virus induced diseases of the nervous system. In addition to this, the field studies the use of these viruses as tracers of neuroanatomical pathways and as vectors for gene therapy.
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HSV-1 is a promising gene therapy agent, which could be used for gene delivery to neurons. This therapy may be used to treat metabolic brain diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, or to help enhance repair of brain tissue in neurological diseases.
378:
There are several diagnostic tools which have become invaluable to diagnosing viral infections of the nervous system. In the past, more invasive methods of obtaining samples for diagnosis were needed such as the use of
424:
early and then decline to undetectable levels in CNS infection. Within the first 5 days of symptom onset, before the decline of viral replication, PCR assays have a higher incidence of detecting CNS infection.
730:
Ferris M, Mactutus C, Booze R (2008). "Neurotoxic profiles of HIV, psychostimulant drugs of abuse, and their concerted effect on the brain: Current status of dopamine system vulnerability in NeuroAIDS".
406:
are useful in visualizing inflammation and lesions caused by viral infection of the CNS. MRI is used to visualize deep white matter and temporal lobe lesions, which are not well defined by a CT scan.
119:
Beginning in 1999 the
International Society of Neurovirology has recognized and awarded individuals who have contributed significantly to the field with the Pioneer in NeuroVirology Award.
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Viruses have evolved mechanisms enabling them to easily infiltrate the nervous system. Two main methods of viral entry have been identified: transneuronal spread and hematogenous spread.
86:, isolation of the virus from brain tissue or CSF, serological testing of serum and CSF, and microscopic examination of tissue to diagnose nervous system infections.
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The mechanism behind transneuronal spread is not entirely known yet, but it involves the virus escaping the immune system by traveling up the axons of the nerves.
717:
Davies NW, Brown LJ, Irish D, et al. (2005). "Factors influencing PCR detection of viruses in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with suspected CNS infections".
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In 1965, ZuRhein and Chou established that destruction of myelin could result from primary virus infection, not only from autoimmune response to the virus.
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Training: New researchers and clinicians need to be trained about the significance of viral infection in the progression of neurological diseases.
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Mueller N, Gilden D, Cohrs R, (2008). "Varicella Zoster Virus
Infection: Clinical Features, Molecular Pathogenesis of Disease, and Latency".
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remaining intact. White matter acute inflammatory diseases were characterized by destruction of the myelin, with neurons remaining intact.
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Evidence may support link between virus and
Alzheimer's disease, intractable focal epilepsy, and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis
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In 1938, Sbin and
Olitsky discovered that the distribution of the virus within the body depended on its mechanism of entry.
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G. M. Baer, T. R. Shanthaveerappa, G. H. Bourne (1965). "Studies on the
Pathogenesis of Fixed Rabies Virus in Rats",
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protein. The levels of glucose tend to be decreased by viral infection, due to an increased glucose consumption.
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Most of the research of which the field of neurovirology is based upon occurred in the late 1980s and the 1900s.
652:
Lincoln J, Hankiewicz K (2008). "Could
Epstein-Barr Virus or Canine Distemper Virus Cause Multiple Sclerosis?".
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Wright E, Brew B, Wesselingh S (2008). "Pathogenesis and
Diagnosis of Viral Infections of the Nervous System".
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Development of Therapy: Insight gained by research should be applied to the therapy of neurological diseases.
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Technology: New technology needs to be refined and developed which will aid in the progression of research.
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to infiltrate the brain. The second is by crossing the blood capillaries as a free virus or in leukocytes.
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The Mechanisms of Neuronal Damage in Virus Infections of the Nervous System
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homeostasis of the nervous system, leading to nervous system diseases.
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is an interdisciplinary field which represents a melding of clinical
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Pathogenesis and Diagnosis of Viral Infections of the Nervous System
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CSF nucleic acid amplification using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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Johnson, R (1995). "Neurovirology: evolution of a new discipline",
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Is the most common viral cause of childhood intellectual disability
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Is linked to neurological abnormalities, such as: microencephaly,
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key components vital for the continued advancement of the field:
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McKendall, R and Stroop, W (1994). "Handbook of Neurovirology".
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228:, cranial mononeuropathies, focal encephalitis, and myelitis
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Irani, D (2008). "Aseptic Meningitis and Viral Myelitis",
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Is considered the leading viral candidate for causing
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Have not been linked to human nervous system disease
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142:
140:
137:
136:
133:Herpesviruses
132:
127:
122:
120:
117:
114:
111:
108:
106:
100:
96:
89:
87:
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
53:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:Neurovirology
1403:
1391:
1339:Neuroimaging
1334:Neurogenesis
1218:Neurohistory
1183:Neurobiotics
1082:neuroscience
1059:
1050:Neurosurgery
975:Epileptology
957:neuroscience
926:Neurophysics
916:Neurometrics
891:Neurobiology
886:Neuroanatomy
856:Connectomics
790:Neuroscience
732:
726:
718:
713:
705:
700:
692:
687:
679:
674:
666:
661:
653:
637:
632:
624:
590:
582:
577:
569:
531:
474:
465:
456:
442:
439:Brain biopsy
431:
422:
413:
398:
395:Neuroimaging
385:neuroimaging
381:brain biopsy
377:
368:
359:
351:
343:
321:Retroviruses
311:Mumps virus
242:(HHV-6) and
205:, myelitis,
153:encephalitis
118:
115:
112:
109:
101:
97:
93:
84:neuroimaging
81:
65:neuroscience
57:
48:gene therapy
24:neuroscience
19:
18:
1208:Neuroethics
1055:Neurotology
682:. 26 (617).
1421:Categories
1369:Neurotoxin
1070:Psychiatry
721:. 76 (82).
708:, 26(635).
695:. 26(617).
669:. 26(717).
640:. 26(675).
585:, 33(783).
513:References
73:immunology
32:immunology
1314:Neurochip
1080:Cognitive
1005:Neurology
502:Neurology
404:MRI scans
69:neurology
1432:Virology
1393:Category
1277:Concepts
1223:Neurolaw
955:Clinical
735:32(883).
656:26(699).
507:Virology
491:See also
433:Serology
428:Serology
400:CT scans
262:JC virus
246:(HHV-7)
188:seizures
162:(HSV-2)
149:myelitis
141:(HSV-1)
61:virology
54:Overview
28:virology
1405:Commons
818:science
806:History
801:Outline
534:, 1(2).
391:(CSF).
90:History
40:viruses
1141:fields
264:(JCV)
221:(EBV)
198:(VZV)
174:(CMV)
170:Human
105:myelin
75:, and
34:, and
816:Basic
402:and
151:and
328:HIV
1423::
645:^
604:^
555:^
539:^
521:^
330:)
209:,
71:,
67:,
63:,
30:,
26:,
782:e
775:t
768:v
627:.
598:.
572:.
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