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225:. She argued there have always been differences between the prison systems of the different sexes. She also asserted that academia has focused little on women since the majority of studies were done on male institutions by male writers. She wrote about the history of prisons for women, noting the differences between them and commenting on the effects that gender has on institutions.
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within society. She argues within this book that crime films produce social hierarchies within crime that are reproduced in everyday life. Depicting, for example, the sexualized female character and the villainous man. Therefore, Rafter greatly contributed to the literature on crime films and their
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Rafter contributed to feminist criminology through her research and literature on the female prison system starting in 1975. She wrote her last contribution in 1999. Arguing that research and writing at the time only focused on men and was written by men, Rafter led the way in documenting historical
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In 1977, Rafter began teaching at
Northeastern University's College of Criminal Justice in Boston, Massachusetts. There she developed one of the country's first courses on women and crime as well as a course on crime films. In 1999, she resigned her position as a full-time professor to focus on her
342:
through her historical research of female prison systems, crime films and their social understandings of sex and crime being their reason for gendering. Her work has influenced the ways in which biological crime theorists have studied women. Her work of gender and justice has evolved with feminist
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and the way in which the poor were shaped as inferior through heredity. At the beginning of the 1990s, Rafter accounted for gender in the eugenic movement in the United States, showing how women were negatively affected with biological notions of being carriers of disease through reproduction.
496:
Rafter (1982c). Hard Times: The
Evolution of the Women's Prison System and the Example of the New York State Prison for Women at Auburn, 1893-1933. In Rafter and Stanko, (Eds.), Judge, Lawyer, Victim, Thief: Women, Gender Roles, and Criminal Justice (Ch. 11). Boston: Northeastern University
554:
Rafter (1991a). Equal
Treatment or Different Treatment? The Origins of Today's Policy Dilemmas in the Care of Incarcerated Women. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons, Female Offenders. The June 7, 1991 Forum on Issues in Corrections. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of
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writing projects. She continued affiliation with
Northeastern University as an adjunct professor overseeing dissertation students, but not teaching regular courses. In 2002 she resumed teaching at the College of Criminal Justice with a graduate course in Biological Theories of Crime.
485:
Rafter & Baunach J. Phyllis. (1982a). Sex Role
Operations: Strategies for Women Working in the Criminal Justice System. In Judge, Lawyer, Victim, Thief: Women, Gender Roles, and Criminal Justice (Ch. 13). Boston: Northeastern University
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Northeastern
University recognizes one of Rafter’s areas of expertise as biological theories of crime. Her historical account of eugenic family studies published in 1988 and, more recently, her book on the biological theories and writings of
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in which she reinterprets women as being inferior and argues, therefore, their committing crimes at a lower level than male offenders. Rafter has shown a large interest in the history of biological theories of crime and her translation of
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Rafter (1980c). Matrons and Molls: The Study of Women's Prison
History. In James A. Inciardi and Charles E. Faupel, (Eds.), History and Crime: Implications for Criminal Justice Policy (261-270). Beverly Hills:
585:
Rafter (1997e) The
Realization of Partial Justice: A Case Study in Social Control. In James Marquart and Jonathan Sorensen, (Eds.), Contemporary and Classical Reading (69-83). Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing
649:
Rafter (2005). Cesare
Lombroso and the Origins of Criminology: Rethinking Criminological Tradition. In Stuart Henry and Mark Lanier, The Essential Criminology Reader 33-42. Boulder, CO: Westview/Basic Books.
500:
Rafter (1983a). Chastising the
Unchaste: Social Control Functions of the Women's Reformatory System. In Stan Cohen and Andrew Scull, (Eds.), Social Control and the State (288-311). Oxford: Martin Robertson.
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has been cited a total of twenty-one times which is indicative of her influence. Rafter's syllabus elaborates on how our depiction of on-screen crime in movies actually forms our understanding of everyday
567:
Rafter (1994). Eugenics, Class, and the Professionalization of Social Control. In George Bridges and Martha Myers, (Eds.), Inequality and Social Control (214-227). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
536:
Rafter (1989c). Gender and Justice: The Equal Protection Issue. In Lynne Goodstein and Doris Mackenzie, (Eds.), The American Prison: Issues in Research and Policy (89-109). New York: Plenum Press.
347:
gender relations in prisons using, for example, the New York State Prison for Women at Auburn. Another early article Rafter published in 1985 which has been cited six times claims that women in
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Rafter, Nicole H. (1982c). "Hard Times: the Evolution of the Women's Prison System and the Example of the New York State Prison for Women at Auburn, 1893-1933". In: Rafter and Stanko, (Eds.),
684:
Rafter (2006b). Gender, Genes and Crimes: An Evolving Feminist Agenda. In Frances Heidensohn, (Ed.), Gender and Justice: New Concepts and Approaches (222-242). Cullompton: William Publishing.
469:
Rafter (1978). Crime and Intelligence: A Historical Look at the Low IQ Theory. In James A. Inciardi and Kenneth C. Hass (Eds.), Crime and the Criminal Justice Process. (67-74). Kendall/Hunt.
503:
Rafter (1983b). Prisons for Women, 1790-1980. In Michael H. Tonry and Norval Morris, (Eds.), Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, Vol. 5. Chicago: University of Chicago.
265:. Thereafter, she began writing about delinquent individuals. Her first publication on this topic was in 1969, with her first group of writings was released throughout the 1980s.
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Rafter; Williamson, G. Susan, & Cohen-Rose, Amy. (1989a). Everyone Wins: A Collaborative Model for Mainstreaming Women’s Studies. Journal of Academic Librarianship 15:20-23.
280:
entitled Gender, Representation, and Social Control. This served to teach criminology students knowledge of the workings of prison institutions and their reciprocal influences.
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Rafter (1997f). Transgression Obsession. Review of Ann-Louise Shapiro, Breaking the Codes: Female Criminality in Fin-de-Siècle Paris. In Women’s Review of Books XV 1:23-24.
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Rafter & Cuklanz, Lisa. (1997a). ‘Gender, Representation, and Social Control’: An Interdisciplinary Women’s Studies Course. Women and Criminal Justice. 8(4): 99-109.
625:
Rafter (2005). Badfellas: Movie Psychos, Popular Culture, and Law. In Michael Freeman, (Ed.), Law and Popular Culture (339-357). Oxford, England: University Press.
604:
Rafter (2001b). Feminism: Criminological Aspects. In Joshua Dressler (Ed.), MacMillan Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice. New York: MacMillan Reference Books.
694:
Rafter (2006c). H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s Kitchen: The Return to Biological theory in 20th-Century Criminology. History of the Human Sciences. 19(4): 37-56.
401:, have both been cited five times. Allegedly, Rafter’s most influential contribution to feminist criminology was her re-translation and resource guide to
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Rafter (1991b). Prison Reform Movement, 1870-1930. In Helen Tierney, (Ed.), Women Studies Encyclopedia, Vol. II (361-363). New York: Greenwood Press.
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639:, (Eds.), Criminals and Their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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Rafter (2008a). Criminology’s Darkest Hour: Biocriminology in Nazi Germany. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 41(2): 287-306.
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539:
Rafter (1989d). Prisons, Women Inmates In. In Helen Tierney, (Ed.), Women’s Studies Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 (288-290). New York: Greenwood Press.
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from 1800-1935 were only given partial justice documenting the differences and the emphasis given to male prison systems. Rafter’s work on
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35:
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Rafter (2005). The Murderous Dutch Fiddler: Criminology, History, and the Problem of Phrenology. Theoretical Criminology 9 (1): 65-96.
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Rafter (2004d). The Unrepentant Horse-slasher: Moral Insanity and the Origins of Criminological Thought. Criminology 42 (4): 977-1006.
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Rafter (2001a). American Criminal Trial Films: An Overview of their Development, 1930-2000. Journal of Law and Society 28 (1): 9-25.
166:
64:
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Rafter (1995). International Feminist Perspectives in Criminology: Engendering a Discipline. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
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Rafter & Natalizia, Elena. (1981). Marxian Feminism: Implications for Criminal Justice Policy. Crime and Delinquency 27: 81-98.
314:
In the first decade of the 21st century, Rafter published three works relating to crime films and criminology. These works include
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Rafter (2004c). The Criminalization of Mental Retardation. In Steven Noll and James Trend, Jr. (Eds.), Perpetual Children 232-257.
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147:
119:
607:
Rafter (2001c). National Prison Association. The Oxford Companion to United States History. New York: Oxford University Press.
813:
Gustafson, J. (n.d.). Nicole Hahn Rafter-nicolerafter.com. Nicole Hahn Rafter-nicolerafter.com Retrieved April 3, 2010, from
551:
Rafter (1990d). The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 27: 376-389.
104:
610:
Rafter (2001d). Seeing and Believing: Images of Heredity in Biological Theories of Crime. Brooklyn Law Review 67(1): 71-99.
214:. She began her career as a high school and college English professor and switched to criminal justice in her mid-thirties.
635:
Rafter (2006). Criminal Anthropology: Its Reception in the United States and the Nature of its Appeal. In Peter Becker and
493:. (1982b). Judge, Lawyer, Victim, Thief: Women, Gender Roles, and Criminal Justice. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
126:
744:
Rafter (2008b). The Criminal Brain: Understanding Biological Theories of Crime. New York, NY: New York University Press.
724:
Rafter (2007b). Somatotyping, Antimodernism, and the Production of Criminological Knowledge. Criminology 45(4):805-834.
548:
Rafter (1990c). Partial Justice: Women, Prisons, and Social Control (2nd Ed). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
207:
561:
Rafter (1992a). Claims-making and Socio-cultural Context in the First U.S. Eugenics campaign. Social Problems 39:17-34.
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613:
Rafter & Gibson, Mary. (2004a). Criminal Women by Cesare Lombroso Introduction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
446:
1999 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Hervey B. Wilbur Historic Preservation Award
475:
Rafter (1980b). Too Dumb to Know Better: Cacogenic Family Studies and the Criminology of Women. Criminology 18: 3-25.
616:
Rafter (2004b). Earnest A. Hooton and the Biological Tradition in American Criminology. Criminology 42 (3): 735-771.
133:
93:
955:
674:, (Eds.), Popular Eugenics: National Efficiency and Mass Culture in 1930. Columbus Ohio: Ohio University Press.
592:
Rafter & Stanley, Debra. (1999). Prisons in America: A Reference Handbook. Contemporary World Issues Series.
714:
Rafter (2007a). Crime, Film, and Criminology: Recent Sex Crime Movies. Theoretical Criminology 11(3): 403-420.
579:
Rafter (1997c). Psychopathy and the Evolution of Criminological Knowledge. Theoretical Criminology I 2: 235-59.
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persuades advances in further research of the history of criminology specifically surrounding crime and women.
115:
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Rafter (2006d). Shots in the Mirror: Crime Films and Society (2nd Ed). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
527:
Rafter (1988b). White Trash: The Eugenic Family Studies, 1877-1919. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
512:
Rafter (1985c). Partial Justice: Women in State Prisons, 1800-1935. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
367:
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187:
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Rafter (1980a). Female State Prisoners in Tennessee: 1831-1979. Tennessee Historical Quarterly 39: 485-497.
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Rafter (1990b). Equal Protection Forcing Changes in Women’s Prisons. Correction Law Reporter 2: 49, 51-52.
352:
222:
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Rafter, Nicole (2004-08-01). "Earnest a. Hooton and the Biological Tradition in American Criminology*".
39:
that states a Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Rafter (1985a). Cathy Webb: Why She Would Lie in the Dotson Case. The Patriot Ledger (Quincy, Mass) 29.
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in particular included her creating the syllabus for one of the first courses on women and crime and
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1998 Distinguished Alumni Award, State University of New York at Albany (School of Criminal Justice)
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2009 Allen Austin Bartolemew award for Best Paper for Criminology's Darkest Hour: Biocriminology in
463:
299:’s theories of biological explanations of crime while crediting Hooton with building a history for
377:
203:
195:
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Rafter (2000b). Shots in the Mirror: Crime Films and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
291:. At the same time, she began research into the biological theories of crime. In 2004 she wrote
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1999 Distinguished Scholar Award, Division on Women and Crime, American Society of Criminology
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Rafter (2006a). Apes, Men and Teeth: Earnest A. Hooton and Eugenic Decay. In Sue Currell and
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Rafter (1987). Even in Prison, Women and Second-class Citizens. Human Rights I14: 29-31,51.
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Rafter (1992b). Some Consequences of Strict Constructionism. Social Problems 39: 38-39.
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Rafter (1986). Left Out By the Left: Crime and Crime Control. Socialist Review 89: 7-23.
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Rafter (2009). The Origins of Criminology: a Reader. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.
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Rafter (1985b). Gender, Prisons, and Prison History. Social Science History 9: 233-247.
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Rafter (1997b). Creating Born Criminals. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
348:
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865:(n.d.). Nicole Rafter. College of Criminal Justice. Retrieved April 4, 2010, from
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Rafter (1997d). The More Things Change... Women’s Review of Books XIV 10-11: 3-4.
927:. Translated and with a new introduction by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson".
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Rafter (1988a). White Trash as Social Ideology. Transaction/ Society 26: 43-49.
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During the 1980s, Rafter began publishing her writings mainly focusing on the
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Nicole Rafter. (n.d.). College of Criminal Justice. Retrieved April 10, 2010
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Rafter (1969). How to Teach a Delinquent. Atlantic Monthly (March): 66-72.
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Rafter (1990a). Crime and the Family. Women and Criminal Justice 1:73-86.
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Rafter (2000a). Encyclopedia of Women and Crime. Phoenix AZ: Oryx Press.
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Judge, Lawyer, Victim, Thief: Women, Gender Roles, and Criminal Justice
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http://www.cj.neu.edu/faculty_and_staff/research_faculty/nicole_rafter/
233:
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Earnest A. Hooton and the Biological Tradition in American Criminology
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occurred during the time when feminism was becoming a focal point in
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Online. Retrieved April 6, 2010, from www.cjsonline.ca/pdf/crimwoman
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Rafter (1989b). Crime and the Family. Socialist Review 19: 123-129.
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American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
515:
Rafter (1985d). Women: Second-Class Inmates. Chicago Tribune (19).
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182:(1939–2016; English pronunciation: ni-kohl h-ah-n raf-ter) was a
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in mass media and culture. She explored this in her 2006 paper
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The Criminal Brain: Understanding Biological Theories of Crime
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18:
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Division on Women and Crime, American Society of Criminology
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Gartner, R. (n.d.). "Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero.
36:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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In the 2000s she began focusing on the representation of
268:
Rafter began researching and creating arguments for the
1013:"School of Criminal Justice Distinguished Alumni Award"
466:. (1975) New York's Second Felony Law. New York Times.
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Crime, Film, and Criminology: Recent Sex Crime Movies
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Criminal Woman, the Prostitute, and the Normal Woman
107:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
899:Partial Justice: Women in State Prisons, 1800-1935
316:Badfellas: Movie Psychos, Popular Culture, and Law
274:White Trash: the Eugenic Family Studies 1877-1919.
230:White Trash: the Eugenic Family Studies 1877-1919
888:(Ch. 11). Boston: Northeastern University Press.
206:, and obtained a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice from
202:, achieved her Master of Arts in Teaching from
434:award from the American Society of Criminology
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912:Shots in the Mirror: Crime Films and Society
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65:Learn how and when to remove this message
956:"Prestigious lifetime achievement award"
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261:, which sparked her academic career in
334:Contributions to feminist criminology
303:. She also wrote an introduction for
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914:. New York: Oxford University Press.
259:State University of New York, Albany
105:adding citations to reliable sources
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338:Rafter contributed extensively to
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1071:University at Albany, SUNY alumni
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388:reproduction in everyday crime.
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276:This led to her 1997 course at
92:needs additional citations for
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208:State University of New York
910:Rafter, Nicole H. (2006b).
897:Rafter, Nicole H. (1985c).
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362:Rafter’s contributions to
228:In 1988, Rafter published
1066:Swarthmore College alumni
1051:American feminist writers
343:criminological thinking.
326:. In 2008 she published
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1046:American criminologists
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272:t cause after her book
188:Northeastern University
872:June 29, 2009, at the
786:June 29, 2009, at the
45:by rewriting it in an
16:American criminologist
974:"Professional awards"
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353:female prison systems
1017:University at Albany
491:Stanko, A. Elizabeth
407:La Donna Delinquente
364:feminist criminology
357:critical criminology
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263:feminist criminology
245:Intellectual history
232:, writing about the
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184:feminist criminology
116:"Nicole Hahn Rafter"
101:improve this article
942:"Fulbright Austria"
464:Christianson, Scott
432:Edwin H. Sutherland
190:. She received her
962:. 4 December 2009.
249:Rafter achieved a
204:Harvard University
196:Swarthmore College
180:Nicole Hahn Rafter
47:encyclopedic style
34:is written like a
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380:and Society
378:Crime Films
374:. Rafter’s
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1030:Categories
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