Contras - Knowledge (XXG)

2438:"The UDN, including Cardenal, initially opposed any linkage with the Guardsmen. The CIA, and high-ranking United States Government officials, insisted that we merge with the Guardsmen. Lt. General Vernon Walters, then a special assistant to the United States Secretary of State (and formerly Deputy Director of the CIA) met with Cardenal to encourage him to accept the CIA's proposal. We were well aware of the crimes the Guardsmen had committed against the Nicaraguan people while in the service of President Somoza and we wanted nothing to do with them. However, we recognized that without help from the United States Government we had no chance of removing the Sandinistas from power, so we eventually acceded to the CIA's, and General Walters', insistence that we join forces with the Guardsmen. Some UDN members resigned because they would not associate themselves with the National Guard under any circumstances, but Cardenal and I and others believed the CIA's assurances that we, the civilians, would control the Guardsmen in the new organization that was to be created." As seen at: International Court of Justice (IV) 1986, p. 446 1500:

declined since 1984. Three times as many people identified with the Sandinistas (28%) than with all the opposition parties put together (9%); 59% did not identify with any political party. Of those polled, 85% opposed any further US aid to the Contras; 40% believed the Sandinista government to be democratic, while 48% believed it to be not democratic. People identified the war as the largest problem but were less likely to blame it for economic problems compared to a December 1986 poll; 19% blamed the war and US blockade as the main cause of economic problems while 10% blamed the government. Political opposition groups were splintered and the Contras began to experience defections, although United States aid maintained them as a viable military force.

1108:, admitted to the House Intelligence Committee staff in a secret briefing in 1984 that the Contras were routinely murdering "civilians and Sandinista officials in the provinces, as well as heads of cooperatives, nurses, doctors and judges". But he claimed that this did not violate President Reagan's executive order prohibiting assassinations because the agency defined it as just 'killing'. "After all, this is war—a paramilitary operation", Clarridge said in conclusion. Edgar Chamorro explained the rationale behind this to a U.S. reporter. "Sometimes terror is very productive. This is the policy, to keep putting pressure until the people cry 'uncle'". The CIA manual for the Contras, 946:, the Nicaraguan government claimed that the Contras were altogether a creation of the U.S. This claim was rejected but the evidence of a very close relationship between the Contras and the United States was considered overwhelming and incontrovertible. The U.S. played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the Contras over a long period, and it is unlikely that the Contras would have been capable of carrying out significant military operations without this support, given the large amount of training and weapons shipments that the Sandinistas had received from 1112:, states that the Contras should gather the local population for a public tribunal to "shame, ridicule and humiliate" Sandinista officials to "reduce their influence". It also recommends gathering the local population to witness and take part in public executions. These types of activities continued throughout the war. After the signing of the Central American Peace Accord in August 1987, the year war related deaths and economic destruction reached its peak, the Contras eventually entered negotiations with the Sandinista government (1988), and the war began to deescalate. 1459:, the umbrella organization of Americas Watch, replied to these allegations: "Almost invariably, U.S. pronouncements on human rights exaggerated and distorted the real human rights violations of the Sandinista regime, and exculpated those of the U.S.-supported insurgents, known as the contras ... The Bush administration is responsible for these abuses, not only because the contras are, for all practical purposes, a U.S. force, but also because the Bush administration has continued to minimize and deny these violations, and has refused to investigate them seriously." 180: 247: 161: 199: 1236:. An internal CIA report, entitled, "Managing a Nightmare", shows the agency used "a ground base of already productive relations with journalists" to help counter what it called "a genuine public relations crisis." In the 1980s, Douglas Farah worked as a journalist, covering the civil wars in Central America for the Washington Post. According to Farah, while it was common knowledge that the Contras were involved in cocaine trafficking, the editors of the Washington Post refused to take it seriously: 1536:

to the Puebla Institute, by mid-December 1989, seven opposition leaders had been murdered, 12 had disappeared, 20 had been arrested, and 30 others assaulted. In late January 1990, the OAS observer team reported that "a convoy of troops attacked four truckloads of UNO sympathizers with bayonets and rifle butts, threatening to kill them." This led many commentators to conclude that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation.

283: 3585:"concluded that the United States essentially acted lawfully in exerting armed pressures against Nicaragua, both directly and through its support of the contras, because Nicaragua's prior and sustained support of armed insurgency in El Salvador was tantamount to an armed attack upon El Salvador against which the United States could react in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel 871:(ARDE) – and declared war on the Sandinista government. Himself a former Sandinista who had held several high posts in the government, he had resigned abruptly in 1981 and defected, believing that the newly found power had corrupted the Sandinista's original ideas. A popular and charismatic leader, Pastora initially saw his group develop quickly. He confined himself to operate in the southern part of Nicaragua; after a press conference he was holding on 810: 1087:

military successes, they did prove adept at carrying out CIA guerrilla warfare strategies from training manuals which advised them to incite mob violence, "neutralize" civilian leaders and government officials and attack "soft targets" — including schools, health clinics and cooperatives. The agency added to the Contras' sabotage efforts by blowing up refineries and pipelines, and mining ports. Finally, according to former Contra leader

3521:"Having reached the above conclusion, the Court takes the view that the contras remain responsible for their acts, in particular the alleged violations by them of humanitarian law. For the United States to be legally responsible, it would have to be proved that that State had effective control of the operations in the course of which the alleged violations were committed." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VII (5) 790: 1065:

government to rely almost totally on the Eastern bloc for credit, other aid, and trade by 1985. In his 1997 study on U.S. low intensity warfare, Kermit D. Johnson, a former Chief of the U.S. Army Chaplains, contends that U.S. hostility toward the revolutionary government was motivated not by any concern for "national security", but rather by what the world relief organization Oxfam termed "the threat of a good example":

1165:, which served as the secret arm of the NSC staff and had its own airplanes, pilots, airfield, ship, operatives, and secret Swiss bank accounts. It also received assistance from personnel from other government agencies, especially from CIA personnel in Central America. This operation functioned, however, without any of the accountability required of U.S. government activities. The Enterprise's efforts culminated in the 4000:"Sometimes they used force as they rounded up young men for military service, and there were occasional confrontations. But only in the town of Masaya, 19 miles southeast of the capital of Managua, did the conscription spark a full-blown street clash ... For several weeks before the latest outburst in Masaya, the opposition newspaper, La Prensa, had been reporting isolated protests against the draft." As seen at: 235: 42: 223: 4084: 1045:. The Boland Amendment had first been passed by Congress in December 1982. At this time, it only outlawed U.S. assistance to the contras "for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government", while allowing assistance for other purposes. In October 1984, it was amended to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the Central Intelligence Agency but all U.S. government agencies. 301: 271: 259: 211: 1550: 4081: 990: 1289:, to raise $ 10 million, by arranging numerous briefings for groups of potential contributors at the premises of the White House and by facilitating private visits and photo sessions with President Reagan for major contributors. Channell in turn, used part of that money to run a series of television advertisements directed at home districts of 697:, which was involved in the creation of Contra groups, argued that the Contras' actions against civilians were a result of "the poor discipline characteristic of irregular forces" instead of an official tactic. The CIA also reported that one Contra leader was executed by the group due to his excessive violence against civilians. The 2849: 2447:"On the basis of the available information, the Court is not able to satisfy itself that the Respondent State 'created' the contra force in Nicaragua, but holds it established that it largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized the FDN, one element of the force." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VII (4) 4221: 3530:"Finds that the United States of America, by producing in 1983 a manual entitled 'Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas', and disseminating it to contra forces, has encouraged the commission by them of acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, (9) 4205:"The policy of keeping the contras alive ... also has placed in jeopardy the holding of elections by encouraging contra attacks on the electoral process. Thus, while the Bush administration proclaims its support for human rights and free and fair elections in Nicaragua, it persists in sabotaging both." As seen at: 1278:), which conducted the campaign. The S/LPD produced and widely disseminated a variety of pro-contra publications, arranged speeches and press conferences. It also disseminated "white propaganda"—pro-contra newspaper articles by paid consultants who did not disclose their connection to the Reagan administration. 1339:

was insufficient. The U.S. argument was affirmed, however, by the dissenting opinion of ICJ member U.S. Judge Schwebel, who concluded that in supporting the contras, the United States acted lawfully in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support. The U.S. blocked enforcement of the ICJ judgment by the

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against Nicaragua to "deal with that threat". It "is now a given; it is true", the Washington Post declared in 1986, "the Sandinistas are communists of the Cuban or Soviet school"; that "The Reagan administration is right to take Nicaragua as a serious menace—to civil peace and democracy in Nicaragua

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won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. Sandinistas were also accused of intimidation and abuses during the election campaign. According

1240:

If you're talking about our intelligence community tolerating — if not promoting — drugs to pay for black ops, it's rather an uncomfortable thing to do when you're an establishment paper like the Post. If you were going to be directly rubbing up against the government, they wanted it more solid than

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The US government viewed the leftist Sandinistas as a threat to economic interests of American corporations in Nicaragua and to national security. US President Ronald Reagan stated in 1983 that "The defense of southern frontier" was at stake. "In spite of the Sandinista victory being declared fair,

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There were isolated protests among the population against the draft implemented by the Sandinista government, which even resulted in full-blown street clashes in Masaya in 1988. However, a June 1988 survey in Managua showed the Sandinista government still enjoyed strong support but that support had

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By 1986 the contras were besieged by charges of corruption, human-rights abuses, and military ineptitude. A much-vaunted early 1986 offensive never materialized, and Contra forces were largely reduced to isolated acts of terrorism. In October 1987, however, the contras staged a successful attack in

1115:

By 1989 the U.S.-backed Contra war and economic isolation had inflicted severe economic suffering on Nicaraguans. The US government knew that the Nicaraguans had been exhausted from the war, which had cost 30,865 lives, and that voters usually vote the incumbents out during economic decline. By the

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The United States began to support Contra activities against the Sandinista government by December 1981, with the CIA at the forefront of operations. The CIA supplied the funds and the equipment, coordinated training programs, and provided intelligence and target lists. While the Contras had little

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It was alarming that in just a few months after the Sandinista revolution, Nicaragua received international acclaim for its rapid progress in the fields of literacy and health. It was alarming that a socialist-mixed-economy state could do in a few short months what the Somoza dynasty, a U.S. client

1028:

By December 1981, the United States had already begun to support armed opponents of the Sandinista government. From the beginning, the CIA was in charge. The arming, clothing, feeding and supervision of the contras became the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the

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After a cutoff in U.S. military support, and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict, the contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. With the help of five Central American Presidents, including Ortega, the sides agreed that a voluntary demobilization of the

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and argued that the court did not seriously consider the Nicaraguan role in El Salvador, while it accused Nicaragua of actively supporting armed groups there, specifically in the form of supply of arms. The ICJ had found that evidence of a responsibility of the Nicaraguan government in this matter

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allying itself more closely with the FDN, and the rest accommodating themselves with the Sandinistas: On 8 December 1984 a ceasefire agreement known as the Bogota Accord was signed by Misurasata and the Nicaraguan government. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito

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In the case of shooting "a citizen who was trying to leave the town or city in which the guerrillas are carrying out armed propaganda or political proselytism", the manual suggests that the contras "explain that if that citizen had managed to escape, he would have alerted the enemy." As seen at:

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The victim dug his own grave, scooping the dirt out with his hands ... He crossed himself. Then a contra executioner knelt and rammed a k-bar knife into his throat. A second enforcer stabbed at his jugular, then his abdomen. When the corpse was finally still, the contras threw dirt over the

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With Congress blocking further aid to the Contras, the Reagan administration sought to arrange funding and military supplies by means of third countries and private sources. Between 1984 and 1986, $ 34 million from third countries and $ 2.7 million from private sources were raised this way. The

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Soon after the embargo was established, Managua re-declared "a policy of nonalignment" and sought the aid of Western Europe, who were opposed to U.S. policy, to escape dependency on the Soviet Union. Since 1981 U.S. pressures had curtailed Western credit to and trade with Nicaragua, forcing the

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In the fiscal year 1984, the U.S. Congress approved $ 24 million in contra aid. After this, since the Contras failed to win widespread popular support or military victories within Nicaragua, opinion polls indicated that a majority of the U.S. public was not supportive of the Contras, the Reagan

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tactics. Many of these actions were reported to be carried out systematically as a part of the strategy of the Contras. Organisations that supported the Contras, such as the Reagan administration, argued that the Contras did not deliberately use attacks on civilians to advance their goals. The

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Nicaragua's harbors. Regarding the alleged human rights violations by the contras, however, the ICJ took the view that the United States could be held accountable for them only if it would have been proven that the U.S. had effective control of the contra operations resulting in these alleged

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testified that "The CIA did not discourage such tactics. To the contrary, the Agency severely criticized me when I admitted to the press that the FDN had regularly kidnapped and executed agrarian reform workers and civilians. We were told that the only way to defeat the Sandinistas was

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The UNO scored a decisive victory on 25 February 1990. Chamorro won with 55 percent of the presidential vote as compared to Ortega's 41 percent. Of 92 seats in the National Assembly, UNO gained 51, and the FSLN won 39. On 25 April 1990, Chamorro assumed presidency from Daniel Ortega.

3576:"But the Court, remarkably enough, while finding the United States responsible for intervention in Nicaragua, failed to recognize Nicaragua's prior and continuing intervention in El Salvador." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel 1797:

a TV series following several characters, including an undercover CIA officer facilitating cocaine smuggling into the US on the behalf of the Nicaraguan Contras and his connection to a 20-year-old drug dealer in Los Angeles in the mid-1980s, the early days of the crack cocaine

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later convicted on drug charges, whom he personally met. The issue of drug money and its importance in funding the Nicaraguan conflict was the subject of various reports and publications. The contras were funded by drug trafficking, of which the United States was aware.

2593:"The United States has played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the contras over a long period. The contras only became capable of carrying out significant (para)military operations as a result of this support." As seen at: Gill 1989, p. 329 3123:" In the section entitled, "Implicit and Explicit Terror", the manual states that it is necessary to "kidnap all officials or agents of the Sandinista government" or "individuals in tune with the regime", who then should be removed from the town "without damaging them 1452:: "The Sandinistas are laying the groundwork for a totalitarian society here and yet all Mendez wanted to hear about were abuses by the contras. How can we get people in the U.S. to see what's happening here when so many of the groups who come down are pro-Sandinista?" 2235:

In Nicaragua, Contra groups including the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN), the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE), and ultimately the Nicaraguan Resistance umbrella group carried out more than 1,300 terrorist attacks, mostly in opposition to the Sandinista

1715:, released in January 2010 on XL Recordings. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200. The album title is intended as a thematic allegory and a complex reference to the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries. The song "I Think Ur a Contra" is from this album. 981:

in El Salvador. The Reagan administration continued to view the Sandinistas as undemocratic despite the 1984 Nicaraguan elections being generally declared fair by foreign observers. Throughout the 1980s the Sandinista government was regarded as "Partly Free" by

2840:"Following disclosure ... that the CIA had a role in connection with the mining of the Nicaraguan harbors ..., public criticism mounted and the administration's Contra policy lost much of its support within Congress". As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 1430:, accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The articles alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the 894:

land. In the course of this conflict, forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians to relocation centers in the interior of the country and subsequent burning of some villages took place. The Misurasata movement split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of

3087:"The Contras did prove adept at carrying out U.S. guerrilla warfare strategies, supplied in the CIA training manuals, which advised them to 'neutralize' civilian leaders, incite mob violence and attack 'soft' targets such as agricultural cooperatives." 1172:

According to the London Spectator, U.S. journalists in Central America had long known that the CIA was flying in supplies to the Contras inside Nicaragua before the scandal broke. No journalist paid it any attention until the alleged CIA supply man,

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Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless

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and to the stability and security of the region"; that we must "fit Nicaragua back into a Central American mode" and "turn Nicaragua back toward democracy", and with the "Latin American democracies" "demand reasonable conduct by regional standard."

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reported intelligence officials as saying that Washington's 'covert activities have ... become the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the C.I.A. in nearly a decade ...'" As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p.

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denied that his forces deliberately targeted civilians: "What they call a cooperative is also a troop concentration full of armed people. We are not killing civilians. We are fighting armed people and returning fire when fire is directed at us."

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On 1 May 1985 President Reagan announced that his administration perceived Nicaragua to be "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States", and declared a "national emergency" and a

2650: 592: 1177:, was shot down and captured by the Nicaraguan army. Similarly, reporters neglected to investigate many leads indicating that Oliver North was running the Contra operation from his office in the National Security Council. 2281:"The contras are made up of a combination of: ... anti-Sandinista opponents of ex-dictator Somoza (some of the members of the FDN political directorate eg Messrs. Chamorro and Cruz)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204 3924: 3498:"It also disseminated what one official termed 'white propaganda': pro-Contra newspaper articles by paid consultants who did not disclose their connection to the Administration." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 5 4417: 1789:

involves a CIA operative and a Latino right-wing assassin trying to recover large sums of untraceable US dollars which were to fund anti-communist counter-revolution on the mainland (Nicaragua is not mentioned).

1527:. Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power. 3567:"In any event the evidence is insufficient to satisfy the Court that the Government of Nicaragua was responsible for any flow of arms at either period." As seen at: International Court of Justice 1986, VIII (1) 1116:

late 1980s Nicaragua's internal conditions had changed so radically that the US approach to the 1990 elections differed greatly from 1984. A united opposition of fourteen political parties organized into the

1447:

Three weeks ago, Americas Watch issued a report on human rights abuses in Nicaragua. One member of the Permanent Commission for Human Rights commented on the Americas Watch report and its chief investigator

856:, the new FDN commenced to draw in other smaller insurgent forces in the north. Largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U.S., it emerged as the largest and most active contra group. 1389:

Human Rights Watch released a report on the situation in 1989, which stated: " contras were major and systematic violators of the most basic standards of the laws of armed conflict, including by launching

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and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any actual compensation. The Nicaraguan government finally withdrew the complaint from the court in September 1992 (under the later, post-FSLN, government of

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During the time the US Congress blocked funding for the contras, the Reagan government engaged in a campaign to alter public opinion and change the vote in Congress on contra aid. For this purpose, the

585: 833:, FDN). Although the FDN had its roots in two groups made up of former National Guardsmen (of the Somoza regime), its joint political directorate was led by businessman and former anti-Somoza activist 1331:) and disseminating it to the contras. The manual, amongst other things, advised on how to rationalize killings of civilians and recommended to hire professional killers for specific selective tasks. 4714: 2627:"President Reagan renewed his commitment to the Nicaraguan insurgents Sunday, though he appeared to shift the focus of his Administration's policy away from the military situation to the need to 1078:, and expanded health, welfare, and education services. And though it nationalized Somoza's former properties, it preserved a private sector that accounted for between 50 and 60 percent of GDP. 1863: 578: 825:, seeking to unify the anti-Sandinista cause before initiating large-scale aid, persuaded 15 September Legion, the UDN and several former smaller groups to merge in September 1981 as the 4455: 1091:, CIA trainers also gave Contra soldiers large knives. "A commando knife , and our people, everybody wanted to have a knife like that, to kill people, to cut their throats". In 1985 1070:

state, could not do in 45 years! It was truly alarming that the Sandinistas were intent on providing the very services that establish a government's political and moral legitimacy.

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helicopter gunships, which had been supplied by the Soviets. Nevertheless, the Contras remained tenuously encamped within Honduras and were not able to hold Nicaraguan territory.

734:, the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, and the National Army of Liberation. Initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua. 1201: 2472: 1204:

report on Contra drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems".

1286: 3467: 559: 4484:"Case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Vol. IV – pleadings, oral arguments, documents" 841:

later stated that there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen and that the merging only took place because of insistence by the CIA.

4674: 4659: 4734: 4513: 2977: 2404: 3866: 3835: 1848: 1828: 1326: 890:

peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the authorities following the government's efforts to nationalize

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administration lost much of its support regarding its Contra policy within Congress after disclosure of CIA mining of Nicaraguan ports, and a report of the

2429:"Although Calero had opposed Somoza, the FDN had its roots in two insurgent groups made up of former National Guardsmen" As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 662: 3639: 1858: 1838: 745:, who had briefly served in the Council of State before leaving Nicaragua out of disagreement with the Sandinista government's policies and founding the 367: 1843: 1253:

articles." Regarding the specific charges towards the CIA, the DOJ wrote "the implication that the drug trafficking by the individuals discussed in the

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contras should start in early December 1989. They chose this date to facilitate free and fair elections in Nicaragua in February 1990 (even though the

4759: 4749: 2769: 3743:"Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V. United States of America): Affidavit of Edgar Chamarro" 1689:– While it is unclear whether the game was deliberately named after the Nicaraguan Contra rebels, the ending theme of the original game was titled " 4679: 4003: 3158: 1781:

features an episode where Felix has to deliver guns to Nicaragua with Amado and a CIA operative for Salvador Nava and Mexico's Minister of Defense

1267: 1151: 1057: 4456:"Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States Of America) – Summary of the Judgment of 27 June 1986" 1324:

violations. Nevertheless, the ICJ found that the U.S. encouraged acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law by producing the manual

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published a series of photos taken by Frank Wohl, a conservative student admirer traveling with the Contras, entitled "Execution in the Jungle":

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The Boland Amendment was part of the Joint Resolution of December 21, 1982, providing further continuing appropriations for the fiscal year 1983

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the authority to recruit and support the contras with $ 19 million in military aid. The effort to support the Contras was one component of the

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found Reagan's allegations about Soviet influence in Nicaragua "exaggerated", Congress cut off all funds for the contras in 1985 by the third

4664: 4427: 2908: 2354: 2315: 2228: 2073: 549: 2263:"The contras are made up of a combination of: ex-National Guardsmen (especially the military wing of the FDN)" As seen at: Gill 1984, p. 204 4744: 4609: 4604: 1690: 1560: 1334:

The United States, which did not participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, maintained that the ICJ's power did not supersede the

636: 305: 4600: 4724: 3832:"The last major attack, in October along the Rama Road in southern Nicaragua, was considered a success for the guerrillas." As seen at: 1246: 1034: 482: 388: 4056: 2866: 967: 2117: 2016: 2749: 4669: 4575: 4537: 4374: 4366: 4348: 4333: 4292: 3950: 3303: 3249: 3198: 3140: 3100: 3072: 3040: 3013: 1335: 1038: 891: 868: 521: 2036: 496: 403: 1048:

Nevertheless, the case for support of the Contras continued to be made in Washington, D.C., by both the Reagan administration and

4704: 4694: 3892: 2482: 2456:"The largest and most active of these groups, which later came to be known as ... (FDN)". As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 1669:, the American superhero team Payback is clandestinely deployed to Nicaragua in 1984 to assist Contra units supported by the CIA. 1512: 1121: 1117: 977:, who had assumed the American presidency in January 1981, accused the Sandinistas of importing Cuban-style socialism and aiding 639: 526: 491: 462: 4719: 1749:", is about US Clandestine soldiers (such as SFOD-D and CIA Paramilitary) interacting with Contras in El Salvador and Nicaragua. 1583: 1257:

articles was connected to the CIA was also not supported by the facts." The CIA also investigated and rejected the allegations.

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considered swing votes on contra aid. Out of the $ 10 million raised, more than $ 1 million was spent on pro-contra publicity.

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the United States continued to oppose the left-wing Nicaraguan government." and opposed its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union.

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The Contra war escalated over the year before the election. The US promised to end the economic embargo should Chamorro win.

943: 486: 398: 3596: 3357:"The Contras, cocaine, and covert operations: Documentation of official U.S. knowledge of drug trafficking and the Contras" 1727:, features songs about The Contras in Nicaragua. It was released in 1980. The song "Washington Bullets" is from this album. 654:(FDN) emerged as the largest by far. In 1987, virtually all Contra organizations were united, at least nominally, into the 4189: 3419: 1746: 1638: 1431: 731: 2732: 2615: 1579: 767:(green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of 4689: 3471: 3364: 1959:

Feldmann, Andreas E.; Maiju Perälä (July 2004). "Reassessing the Causes of Nongovernmental Terrorism in Latin America".

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U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the

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The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996,

867:), one of the heroes in the fight against Somoza, organized the Sandinista Revolutionary Front (FRS) – embedded in the 4709: 4684: 4630: 1505: 1488:

and along the Rama road. These large-scale raids mainly became possible as the contras were able to use U.S.-provided

1010: 937: 826: 818: 794: 746: 727: 651: 472: 467: 413: 1909: 1575: 2965: 2160: 2105: 1685: 1302: 1271: 742: 340: 107: 4613: 3338: 2555: 2133: 3360: 1934: 1520: 1181: 719: 698: 354: 2990:"Ortega collects warm words of support on European trip. Yet his visit is unlikely to drum up much concrete aid" 3449: 4238: 3436: 2831:"opinion polls indicated that a majority of the public was not supportive." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 714:

The Contras were not a monolithic group, but a combination of three distinct elements of Nicaraguan society:

4314: 4103:"Turnover in Nicaragua; Nicaraguan Opposition Routs Sandinistas; U.S. Pledges Aid, Tied to Orderly Turnover" 3794: 1785: 1439: 1420: 1049: 758: 685: 408: 383: 1623: 1144: 896: 678: 2198: 2065: 2004: 1006: 822: 670: 531: 418: 316: 3119:, advises the paramilitaries "to neutralize carefully selected and planned targets, such as court judges 2668: 3779: 2632: 2272:

Dickey, Christopher. With the Contras, A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. Simon & Schuster, 1985.

2008: 1391: 1315:), which resulted in a 1986 judgment against the United States. The ICJ held that the U.S. had violated 1209: 925: 674: 655: 647: 554: 3155: 2710: 1735:, a manga, the main protagonist, Ryo Saeba, was raised as a contra guerilla fighter in Central America. 737:

Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government – e.g.

684:

During their war against the Nicaraguan government, there were numerous examples of Contras committing

2518:

The Americas Watch Committee. "Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986" (print), Americas Watch, February 1987.

1883: 924:, all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After UNO's dissolution early in 1987, the 4419:

Litigation strategy at the International Court: a case study of the Nicaragua v United States dispute

3643: 1793: 1753: 1666: 1646: 1194: 442: 336: 4299:

Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua

3819: 2528: 4699: 4304: 2093: 2061:

Political Terrorism: A New Guide To Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, And Literature

1658: 1249:

also stated that their "review did not substantiate the main allegations stated and implied in the

853: 629: 619: 140: 124: 59: 516: 4148: 3616: 2886: 2089: 1976: 1469: 1456: 1357: 1166: 1155: 625: 447: 422: 393: 320: 171: 135: 2509:"He insisted on operating in the southern part of Nicaragua." As seen at: Lee et al. 1987, p. 32 4518:

Johns, Michael "The Lessons of Afghanistan: Bipartisan Support for Freedom Fighters Pays Off",

1618:

to care for her dying father. In the process, she inherits his position as an arms dealer for

4571: 4533: 4525: 4423: 4370: 4362: 4344: 4329: 4288: 3299: 3245: 3194: 3136: 3096: 3068: 3036: 3009: 2941: 2916: 2637: 2360: 2350: 2321: 2311: 2224: 2168: 2113: 2109: 2069: 2012: 1481: 1477: 1449: 1316: 998: 838: 809: 738: 501: 332: 2966:"Executive Order 12513--Prohibiting trade and certain other transactions involving Nicaragua" 2346: 2340: 2307: 2301: 780:

Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas.

4654: 4593: 4206: 4140: 4060: 3773: 3767: 3730: 3608: 2878: 1968: 1532: 1516: 1473: 1426: 1345: 1228:

Gary Webb's career as a journalist was subsequently discredited by the leading U.S. papers,

1125: 1042: 872: 666: 610: 190: 4322:

Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984 – January 1985

3356: 4624: 4567: 4325: 4225: 4088: 3814: 3400: 3378: 3162: 2602:

John A., Thompson, "The Exaggeration of American Vulnerability: An Anatomy of Tradition",

2561: 1853: 1712: 1619: 1174: 1105: 1022: 1014: 963: 564: 452: 437: 3264: 3213: 3174: 1673: 1052:, which argued that support for the Contras would counter Soviet influence in Nicaragua. 860: 789: 4354: 2477: 2055: 1972: 1823: 1777: 1762: 1707: 1398: 1185: 1088: 921: 879: 120: 3742: 1319:

by supporting the contras in their rebellion against the Nicaraguan government and by

41: 4648: 4636: 4309: 4128: 3667: 3342: 2765: 2098: 1980: 1910:"The Contras Murdering Their Own: A Grisly Retribution | Alicia Patterson Foundation" 1807: 1802: 1766: 1634:

references the Contras in the episode "Stanny Slickers 2: The Legend of Ollie's Gold"

1524: 1489: 1406: 1282: 1222: 994: 983: 974: 913: 883: 834: 166: 55: 1994: 1662: 1630: 1158: 1018: 951: 798: 432: 4494: 17: 3293: 3276: 3239: 3225: 3188: 3130: 3090: 3062: 3030: 3003: 2059: 1998: 757:

led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by

4588: 3624: 2867:"The Powers of Congress and the President in International Relations: Revisited" 2696: 1731: 1719: 1485: 1394:

on civilians, selectively murdering non-combatants, and mistreating prisoners."

1290: 1075: 917: 665:, and their military significance decisively depended on it. After U.S. support 477: 240: 128: 2989: 1169:, which facilitated contra funding through the proceeds of arms sales to Iran. 2134:"Empire Politician - 1980s: U.S. Support for Contra Death Squads in Nicaragua" 2037:"Offensive by Nicaraguan "Freedom Fighters" May be Doomed as Arms, Aid Dry Up" 1758: 1651: 1320: 1275: 1197: 887: 228: 103: 4514:"Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran/Contra Affair" 2920: 2172: 1642:, the TV series features an episode on KGB agents infiltrating a Contra camp. 1348:), following a repeal of the law requiring the country to seek compensation. 749:, an opposition group of Nicaraguan exiles in Miami. Another example are the 2364: 2325: 1770: 1742: 1724: 1678: 1214: 1161:

in charge. With the third-party funds, North created an organization called

802: 689: 643: 328: 92: 4129:"Pens and Polls in Nicaragua: An Analysis of the 1990 Pre-election Surveys" 1810:

by Mexican drug cartels, ends up covering parts of the Iran-Contra scandal.

102:

All rural areas of Nicaragua with the exclusion of the Pacific Coast, from

4621:, a documentary film directed by Peter Raymont. White Pine Pictures, 2003. 4589:

Confessions of a Contra: How the CIA Masterminds the Nicaraguan Insurgency

1468:

southern Nicaragua. Then on 21 December 1987, the FDN launched attacks at

1833: 845: 324: 252: 4445:

Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994

4176: 4042: 4028: 2342:

Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994

2221:

Putting Terrorism in Context: Lessons from the global terrorism database

1270:

established an interagency working group, which in turn coordinated the

989: 722:

and other right-wing figures who had fought for Nicaragua's ex-dictator

4152: 3629:"Appraisals of the ICJ's Decision. Nicaragua vs United States (Merits)" 3620: 3226:"CIA-assisted 'contras' murdered Sandinistas, official reportedly says" 2890: 1364:

targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination

1120:(Unión Nacional Oppositora, UNO) with the support of the United States 774: 754: 633: 2697:"NSDD – National Security Decision Directives – Reagan Administration" 2405:"Contra Organizations: The Contra Story – Central Intelligence Agency" 2345:. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. pp. 1189: 750: 723: 632:

rebel groups that were active from 1979 to 1990 in opposition to the

288: 276: 264: 204: 4551:

The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order

4144: 3977:"New Regional Accord Leaves Contras in Honduras Fearful but Defiant" 3612: 2907:

Boyd, Gerald M.; Times, Special To the New York (19 February 1986).

2882: 2159:

Kinzer, Stephen; Times, Special To the New York (20 February 1986).

1373:

executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat

1017:, which called for providing military support to movements opposing 701:

reports that Contras carried out more than 1,300 terrorist attacks.

4447:. (1998). Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. 3295:

Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change

3064:

Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change

3032:

Ethics and Counterrevolution: American Involvement in Internal Wars

3005:

Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change

3911:

Contra Cross: Insurgency And Tyranny in Central America, 1979–1989

3867:"Both Sides Report Heavy Fighting in Rebel Offensive in Nicaragua" 3836:"Both Sides Report Heavy Fighting in Rebel Offensive in Nicaragua" 3156:"War Against the Poor: Low-Intensity Conflict and Christian Faith" 1806:, a 2020 documentary about the kidnapping and murder of DEA agent 1493: 988: 808: 788: 677:

covertly continued it. These illegal activities culminated in the

506: 216: 4307:, "The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis", 4219:"U.S. trying to disrupt election in Nicaragua, Canadians report" 2909:"REAGAN SAYS SUPPORT FOR THE CONTRAS MUST GO BEYOND 'BAND-AIDS'" 2733:"BBC On This Day - 5 - 1984: Sandinistas claim election victory" 1434:, which blamed the most human rights abuses on the Sandinistas. 978: 947: 661:

From an early stage, the rebels received financial and military

88: 4341:

The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua

4004:"The World: Nicaragua; Pushed From Left or Right, Masaya Balks" 2392:

The Real Contra War, Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua

741:, prominent member of the political directorate of the FDN, or 726:—these later were especially found in the military wing of the 4264: 3287: 3285: 3056: 3054: 3052: 1681:

set in part against the backdrop of the conflict in Nicaragua.

1543: 1074:

The government's program included increased wages, subsidized

1009:

National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), giving the

694: 4082:"U.S. Endorses Contra Plan as Prod to Democracy in Nicaragua" 848:, Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former 730:(FDN). Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the 2942:"Conservative Think Tank Funneled Money to North Associates" 1418:

Several articles were published by U.S. press, including by

4043:"Nicaraguans Try Peace Moves While Waiting for U.S. Voters" 3292:

John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014).

3061:

John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014).

3002:

John A. Booth; Christine J. Wade; Thomas W. Walker (2014).

1884:"The Cold War History Behind Nicaragua's Break With Taiwan" 1864:

United States involvement in regime change in Latin America

1484:, resulting in heavy fighting. ARDE Frente Sur attacked at 4266:Ａ－ＪＡＸ～コナミ・ゲーム・ミュージック VOL.4 A-Jax: Konami Game Music Vol. 4 2223:(1 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 56. 1711:, the second studio album by the American indie rock band 2496: 2494: 2492: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 1765:

who was killed by the Contras in 1987 while working on a

27:

1979–1990 U.S.-supported anti-Marxist rebels of Nicaragua

3508: 3506: 3504: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2100:

The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny

1379:

indiscriminately attacking civilians and civilian houses

3437:"Kill The Messenger: How The Media Destroyed Gary Webb" 3420:"How the CIA Watched Over the Destruction of Gary Webb" 1571: 1221:, alleging that the contras contributed to the rise of 4403:

With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua

1307:

In 1984 the Sandinista government filed a suit in the

875:, he "voluntarily withdrew" from the contra struggle. 4715:

History of the foreign relations of the United States

4410:

Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras

761:(known as "Dimas"), the Milpistas were also known as 2571: 2569: 986:, an organization financed by the U.S. government. 4359:

Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation

4269:(booklet). G.M.O. Records / Alfa Records. 28XA-201. 4127:Bischoping, Katherine; Schuman, Howard (May 1992). 1463:

Military successes and election of Violeta Chamorro

1397:In his affidavit to the World Court, former contra 1128:was received by President Bush at the White House. 311: 294: 154: 146: 134: 114: 98: 83: 73: 65:

ARDE Frente Sur – Cúpula of 6 Regional Commandantes

51: 34: 4558:The Contras, 1980–1989: A Special Kind of Politics 4544:The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas 4542:Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) 3666: 3640:"Human Rights Watch World Report 1993 – Nicaragua" 2290:International Court of Justice (IV) (1986), p. 446 2097: 1356:Americas Watch, which subsequently became part of 1287:National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty 4614:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 4605:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 2379:The Contras 1980–1989, a Special Kind of Politics 1703:, after the adversaries of the real-life Contras. 3745:International Court of Justice, 5 September 1985 2750:"Nicaraguan Vote: 'Free, Fair, Hotly Contested'" 1329:(Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas 1274:for Latin America and the Caribbean (managed by 646:, which had come to power in 1979 following the 428:1959–2000 assassination attempts on Fidel Castro 2633:"President Shifts Emphasis From Contra Warfare" 2303:Comandos: The CIA and Nicaragua's Contra Rebels 2219:LaFree, Gary; Laura Dugan; Erin Miller (2015). 1508:had pushed for a delay of contra disbandment). 1445: 928:(RN) was organized along similar lines in May. 753:(Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant 323:. Numerous government bases overrun throughout 4389:Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America 3925:"Sandinistas report capture of RedEye Missile" 3665:The Americas Watch Committee (February 1987). 1696: 878:A third force, Misurasata, appeared among the 468:1965–66 Indonesia, Transition to the New Order 4631:US administration disregarding the UN verdict 4625:"The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations" 3696: 3694: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3558:International Court of Justice 1986, VIII (1) 3401:"The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations" 3092:Revolution and Counterrevolution in Nicaragua 2850:"U.S. Delayed Report On Soviets in Nicaragua" 1849:Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare 1829:CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking 1327:Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare 1104:The CIA officer in charge of the covert war, 768: 762: 586: 8: 4546:. New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers. 4029:"Sandinistas Surviving in a Percentage Game" 3792:David Asman, "Despair and fear in Managua", 3726: 3724: 3035:. University Press of Americas. p. 19. 2631:to the Central American country". Cited in: 4438:Kings of Cocaine Inside the Medellin Cartel 4190:"Bush Vows to End Embargo if Chamorro Wins" 3951:"Enough Have Died for Nothing in Nicaragua" 3860: 3858: 3856: 3468:"Conclusions — Central Intelligence Agency" 2770:"Country ratings and status, FIW 1973-2012" 2466: 2464: 2462: 1402:to ...kill, kidnap, rob and torture". 4361:. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. 4177:"After the Poll Wars-Explaining the Upset" 4059:. OnWar.com. December 2000. Archived from 2691: 2689: 2616:"1984: Sandinistas claim election victory" 1859:Role of women in the Nicaraguan Revolution 1839:Foreign interventions by the United States 1385:burning civilian houses in captured towns. 593: 579: 363: 31: 4171: 4169: 3709:Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 19, 21 3241:Healing Our World in an Age of Aggression 663:support from the United States government 2199:"Atrocities in the Nicaraguan civil war" 1523:won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over 1184:, Oliver North had been in contact with 1150:secret contra assistance was run by the 650:. Among the separate contra groups, the 502:1979–1992 Afghanistan, Operation Cyclone 3597:"Legal Issues in The Nicaragua Opinion" 1874: 366: 4675:Central Intelligence Agency operations 4660:Anti-communist guerrilla organizations 4301:. Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute. 3450:"CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy" 2992:Christian Science Monitor, 16 May 1985 2865:Riesenfeld, Stefan A. (January 1987). 2030: 2028: 932:U.S. military and financial assistance 4553:. University Publications of America. 4133:American Journal of Political Science 3718:Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 24 3700:Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 19 3688:Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986, p. 21 3601:American Journal of International Law 3418:Devereaux, Ryan (25 September 2014). 2394:. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. 2193: 2191: 2189: 2161:"Contras' Attacks on Civilians Cited" 1844:Latin America–United States relations 1297:International Court of Justice ruling 1005:On 4 January 1982, Reagan signed the 319:, Rama highway, and Siunalatisha and 7: 4002:Kinzer, Stephen (28 February 1988). 3893:"Contras' Top Fighter Vows No Letup" 1432:Permanent Commission on Human Rights 1281:On top of that, Oliver North helped 4740:Reagan administration controversies 4401:Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). 4382:Nicaragua, Revolution in the Family 4101:Uhlig, Mark A. (27 February 1990). 3913:. U.S. Naval Institute Press, 2006. 3865:Lemoyne, James (22 December 1987). 3834:Lemoyne, James (22 December 1987). 2471:Williams, Adam (26 November 2010). 1961:Latin American Politics and Society 1247:United States Department of Justice 1035:Bureau of Intelligence and Research 4530:Dictatorships and Double Standards 4091:The Washington Post, 9 August 1989 3891:Lemoyne, James (2 February 1988). 3808:Smolowe, Jill (22 December 1986). 3595:Morrison, Fred L. (January 1987). 3298:. Avalon Publishing. p. 113. 3067:. Avalon Publishing. p. 107. 3008:. Avalon Publishing. p. 112. 2667:Apple, R. W. Jr. (12 March 1986). 1973:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2004.tb00277.x 1610:, a journalist for the fictitious 1574:by removing the content or adding 25: 4735:Nicaragua–United States relations 4405:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 4396:Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary 4228:The Toronto Star, 27 October 1989 2978:"Is There a Chance in Nicaragua?" 2306:. New York: Henry Holt. pp. 1935:"The American That Reagan Killed" 1336:Constitution of the United States 1311:(ICJ) against the United States ( 869:Democratic Revolutionary Alliance 747:Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN) 458:1963 South Vietnamese coup d'état 4760:Wars involving the United States 4750:Right-wing politics in Nicaragua 4343:. University of Oklahoma Press. 4057:"Contra Insurgency in Nicaragua" 3923:Kinzer, Stephen (23 July 1987). 3668:"Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986" 3193:. South End Press. p. 268. 3135:. South End Press. p. 179. 1548: 1285:'s tax-exempt organization, the 1122:National Endowment for Democracy 1100:shallow grave — and walked away. 777:) highlanders and rural workers. 640:Junta of National Reconstruction 565:2012–2017 Syria, Timber Sycamore 299: 281: 269: 257: 245: 233: 221: 209: 197: 178: 159: 40: 4610:U.S. Policy Towards the Contras 4565:"Washington's war on Nicaragua" 4512:Hamilton, Lee H. et al. (1987) 3277:"Washington's War on Nicaragua" 3095:. Westview Press. p. 335. 2381:. NY: Praeger Publishers, 1990. 2035:Todd, Dave (26 February 1986). 1616:1984 U.S. Presidential election 1570:Please help Knowledge (XXG) to 1341:United Nations Security Council 1241:it could probably ever be done. 1232:, the Washington Post, and the 1167:Iran–Contra Affair of 1986–1987 912:(UNO), under the leadership of 831:Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense 443:1961 Cuba, Bay of Pigs Invasion 4680:CIA activities in the Americas 4556:Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) 4491:International Court of Justice 4479:International Court of Justice 4460:International Court of Justice 4451:International Court of Justice 4398:. (1989). New York: Doubleday. 3949:Wicker, Tom (14 August 1989). 3265:"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities" 3244:. SunStar Press. p. 309. 3228:Knight-Ridder, 20 October 1984 3214:"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities" 3175:"Nicaraguan Contra Atrocities" 2980:Washington Post, 14 March 1986 1309:International Court of Justice 1202:Committee on Foreign Relations 968:History of Nicaragua (1979–90) 944:International Court of Justice 532:1990s Iraq, failed coup d'état 46:The Nicaraguan contras in 1987 1: 3975:Ulig, Mark (14 August 1989). 3216:West 57th, 1987, Video: 11:20 3190:Washington's War on Nicaragua 3177:West 57th, 1987, Video: 11:34 3132:Washington's War on Nicaragua 1747:Horse Soldier! Horse Soldier! 732:Fifteenth of September Legion 448:1961 Cuba, Operation Mongoose 4665:Anti-communist organizations 4627:– National Security Archive. 4619:"The World Stopped Watching" 4601:The Contras and U.S. Funding 4239:"The Sandinistas Might Lose" 3365:George Washington University 3267:West 57th, 1987, Video: 1:50 2473:"Edén Pastora: A wanted man" 1997:; Gilbert M. Joseph (2010). 910:United Nicaraguan Opposition 512:1981–1990 Nicaragua, Contras 414:1957–58 Indonesian rebellion 368:United States involvement in 4745:Rebellions in North America 4638:When the AK-47s Fall Silent 4549:Moore, John Norton (1987). 4394:Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989). 4380:Christian, Shirley. (1986) 3810:"Nicaragua Is It Curtains?" 3439:Huffington Post, 10/10/2014 3165:Jack Nelson-Pallmeyer, 1989 1124:. UNO presidential nominee 1029:agency in nearly a decade. 938:CIA activities in Nicaragua 827:Nicaraguan Democratic Force 797:and ARDE Frente Sur in the 728:Nicaraguan Democratic Force 652:Nicaraguan Democratic Force 497:1979 Salvadoran coup d'état 433:1959 Cambodia, Bangkok Plot 404:1954 Guatemalan coup d'état 4776: 4725:Nicaraguan anti-communists 4384:. New York: Vintage Books. 4285:Nicaragua: Those Passed By 3339:"Who Helped Oliver North?" 3029:Kermit D. Johnson (1997). 2669:"Mudslinging over Contras" 2106:Greenwood Publishing Group 1650:, a film loosely based on 1614:stops her coverage of the 1360:, accused the Contras of: 1313:Nicaragua v. United States 1303:Nicaragua v. United States 1300: 1272:Office of Public Diplomacy 1217:published a series titled 1142: 961: 935: 835:Adolfo Calero Portocarrero 813:Members of ARDE Frente Sur 492:1976 Argentine coup d'état 463:1964 Brazilian coup d'état 63:FDN – Commandante Franklin 4297:Belli, Humberto. (1985). 3361:National Security Archive 3089:Thomas W. Walker (1991). 2618:BBC News, 5 November 1984 2560:16 September 2012 at the 2407:. Cia.gov. Archived from 1757:The song is a tribute to 1697: 1382:seizing civilian property 1188:, the military leader of 1182:National Security Archive 1152:National Security Council 1139:Illegal covert operations 1118:National Opposition Union 720:Nicaraguan National Guard 699:Global Terrorism Database 478:1971 Bolivian coup d'état 473:1966 Ghanaian coup d'état 355:Recontra Frente Norte 380 347: 67:YATAMA – Commandante Blas 39: 4670:Anti-communist terrorism 4412:. Washington: Brassey's. 4339:Brown, Timothy. (2001). 4209:Human Rights Watch, 1990 3733:Human Rights Watch, 1989 2651:"The Foreign Connection" 1607:The Last Thing He Wanted 1245:An investigation by the 628:') were the various 399:1953 Iranian coup d'état 69:Misura – Steadman Fagoth 4705:Guerrilla organizations 4695:Counter-revolutionaries 4436:Gugliota, Guy. (1989). 4416:Gill, Terry D. (1989). 4408:Garvin, Glenn. (1992). 4315:The Heritage Foundation 4224:6 February 2013 at the 4087:6 February 2013 at the 4045:. Envio. November 1988. 4031:. Envio. December 1988. 3955:Wilmington Morning Star 3795:The Wall Street Journal 3379:"The Oliver North File" 3238:Mary J. Ruwart (2003). 2699:. Fas.org. 30 May 2008. 2000:A Century of Revolution 1513:February 1990 elections 1440:The Wall Street Journal 1421:The Wall Street Journal 1352:Human rights violations 1106:Duane "Dewey" Clarridge 1050:the Heritage Foundation 743:José Francisco Cardenal 686:human rights violations 507:1975–1992 Angola, UNITA 453:1961 Dominican Republic 389:1949 Syrian coup d'état 136:Political position 4755:Terrorism in Nicaragua 4633:Video provided by BBC. 4283:Asleson, Vern. (2004) 2500:Lee et al. 1987, p. 32 2254:Lee et al. 1987, p. 29 2066:Transaction Publishers 2005:Durham, North Carolina 1677:, a fictional film by 1454: 1392:indiscriminate attacks 1243: 1102: 1072: 1002: 873:30 May 1984 was bombed 823:Argentine intelligence 814: 806: 793:Contra Commandos from 769: 763: 759:Pedro Joaquín González 614: 438:1960 Congo coup d'état 4730:Nicaraguan Revolution 4526:Kirkpatrick, Jeane J. 4440:. Simon and Schuster. 4320:Brody, Reed. (1985). 3780:The National Interest 3512:Lee et al. 1987, p. 6 3489:Lee et al. 1987, p. 5 3329:Lee et al. 1987, p. 4 2871:California Law Review 2808:Lee et al. 1987, p. 3 2606:, 16/1, (1992): p 23. 2339:Horton, Lynn (1998). 2009:Duke University Press 1506:Reagan administration 1238: 1210:San Jose Mercury News 1097: 1067: 992: 926:Nicaraguan Resistance 897:Stedman Fagoth Muller 812: 792: 675:Reagan administration 656:Nicaraguan Resistance 648:Nicaraguan Revolution 4560:. New York: Praeger. 4179:. Envio. March 1990. 3822:on 11 November 2011. 3187:Holly Sklar (1988). 3161:6 April 2017 at the 3129:Holly Sklar (1988). 2792:Lee et al. 1987, p.3 2485:on 15 December 2010. 2300:Dillon, Sam (1991). 1622:, and learns of the 1572:improve this section 1367:kidnapping civilians 1037:commissioned by the 958:Political background 718:Ex-guardsmen of the 615:la contrarrevolución 409:1956–57 Syria crisis 315:Major operations at 4690:Cold War rebellions 4194:The Washington Post 3771:, 20 January 1986; 3757:, 23 November 1984. 3627:on 5 February 2012. 3279:Holly Sklar, p. 179 2855:, 18 September 1984 2817:"In December 1982, 2655:The Washington Post 2094:Richard H. Immerman 2054:Albert J. Jongman; 1914:aliciapatterson.org 1584:independent sources 1492:against Sandinista 1370:torturing civilians 997:and Vice President 335:Norte, Zelaya Sur, 125:Right-wing populism 99:Active regions 4720:Iran–Contra affair 4710:1980s in Nicaragua 4685:Cold War conflicts 4640:, by Timothy Brown 4500:on 2 December 2011 4466:on 22 January 2009 4387:Cox, Jack. (1987) 4245:. 12 February 1990 4243:The New York Times 4107:The New York Times 4008:The New York Times 3981:The New York Times 3929:The New York Times 3909:Meara, William R. 3897:The New York Times 3871:The New York Times 3840:The New York Times 3777:, 22 August 1988; 3755:The New York Times 3549:Sklar 1988, p. 181 3540:Sklar 1988, p. 179 2913:The New York Times 2819:The New York Times 2755:, 16 November 1984 2753:The New York Times 2739:. 5 November 1984. 2673:The New York Times 2604:Diplomatic History 2390:Brown, Timothy C. 2165:The New York Times 2090:Athan G. Theoharis 2068:. pp. 17–18. 1624:Iran–Contra affair 1540:In popular culture 1519:and her party the 1457:Human Rights Watch 1358:Human Rights Watch 1230:The New York Times 1145:Iran–Contra affair 1003: 979:leftist guerrillas 815: 807: 679:Iran–Contra affair 626:counter-revolution 172:Iran-Contra Affair 75:Dates of operation 18:Nicaraguan contras 4563:Sklar, H. (1988) 4429:978-0-7923-0332-9 4305:Bermudez, Enrique 4196:, 9 November 1989 3671:. Americas Watch. 3646:on 9 October 2012 3474:on 27 March 2010. 2968:National Archives 2638:Los Angeles Times 2629:restore democracy 2584:Gill 1989, p. 329 2575:Gill 1989, p. 328 2536:Ulster University 2377:Padro-Maurer, R. 2356:978-0-89680-204-9 2317:978-0-8050-1475-4 2230:978-0-415-67142-2 2075:978-1-41280-469-1 1601: 1600: 1511:In the resulting 1317:international law 1234:Los Angeles Times 1180:According to the 623: 603: 602: 394:1949–1953 Albania 362: 361: 351:Succeeded by 194: 175: 16:(Redirected from 4767: 4594:The New Republic 4509: 4507: 4505: 4499: 4493:. Archived from 4488: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4462:. Archived from 4433: 4271: 4270: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4235: 4229: 4216: 4210: 4203: 4197: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4173: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4098: 4092: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4014: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3920: 3914: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3862: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3818:. Archived from 3805: 3799: 3798:, 25 March 1985. 3790: 3784: 3774:The New Republic 3768:The New Republic 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3719: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3689: 3686: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3642:. Archived from 3636: 3630: 3628: 3623:. Archived from 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3550: 3547: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3513: 3510: 3499: 3496: 3490: 3487: 3476: 3475: 3470:. Archived from 3464: 3458: 3457: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3353: 3347: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3310: 3309: 3289: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3235: 3229: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3127:". As noted in: 3115:The CIA manual, 3113: 3107: 3106: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3058: 3047: 3046: 3026: 3020: 3019: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2862: 2856: 2853:The Miami Herald 2847: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2829: 2823: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2793: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2774: 2762: 2756: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2729: 2723: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2713:. Lcweb2.loc.gov 2707: 2701: 2700: 2693: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2664: 2658: 2657:. 6 January 1987 2648: 2642: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2573: 2564: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2533: 2525: 2519: 2516: 2510: 2507: 2501: 2498: 2487: 2486: 2481:. Archived from 2468: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2430: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2401: 2395: 2388: 2382: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2282: 2279: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2239: 2238: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2203: 2195: 2184: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2103: 2086: 2080: 2079: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2032: 2023: 2022: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1931: 1925: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1906: 1900: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1879: 1786:The Mighty Quinn 1745:from the album " 1702: 1700: 1699: 1596: 1593: 1587: 1552: 1551: 1544: 1533:Violeta Chamorro 1517:Violeta Chamorro 1427:The New Republic 1346:Violeta Chamorro 1126:Violeta Chamorro 1043:Boland Amendment 1039:State Department 1019:Soviet-supported 942:In front of the 854:Enrique Bermúdez 772: 766: 618: 595: 588: 581: 550:2001 Afghanistan 527:1989–1990 Panama 384:1948–1960s Italy 364: 312:Battles and wars 304: 303: 302: 287: 285: 284: 275: 273: 272: 263: 261: 260: 251: 249: 248: 239: 237: 236: 227: 225: 224: 215: 213: 212: 203: 201: 200: 191:Operation Charly 188: 184: 182: 181: 169: 165: 163: 162: 106:in the north to 76: 60:Enrique Bermúdez 44: 32: 21: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4765: 4764: 4645: 4644: 4597:, 5 August 1985 4585: 4580: 4568:South End Press 4503: 4501: 4497: 4486: 4482: 4469: 4467: 4454: 4430: 4415: 4355:Chamorro, Edgar 4326:South End Press 4279: 4274: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4248: 4246: 4237: 4236: 4232: 4226:Wayback Machine 4217: 4213: 4204: 4200: 4188: 4184: 4175: 4174: 4167: 4157: 4155: 4145:10.2307/2111480 4126: 4125: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4100: 4099: 4095: 4089:Wayback Machine 4080: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4063:on 29 June 2011 4055: 4054: 4050: 4041: 4040: 4036: 4027: 4026: 4022: 4012: 4010: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3985: 3983: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3959: 3957: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3933: 3931: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3908: 3904: 3890: 3889: 3885: 3875: 3873: 3864: 3863: 3854: 3844: 3842: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3791: 3787: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3729: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3692: 3687: 3676: 3664: 3663: 3659: 3649: 3647: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3613:10.2307/2202146 3594: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3479: 3466: 3465: 3461: 3454:oig.justice.gov 3448: 3447: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3355: 3354: 3350: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3313: 3306: 3291: 3290: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3237: 3236: 3232: 3224: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3163:Wayback Machine 3154: 3150: 3143: 3128: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3060: 3059: 3050: 3043: 3028: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2988: 2984: 2976: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2950: 2948: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2925: 2923: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2883:10.2307/3480586 2864: 2863: 2859: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2764: 2763: 2759: 2748: 2744: 2731: 2730: 2726: 2716: 2714: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2695: 2694: 2687: 2677: 2675: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2649: 2645: 2626: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2562:Wayback Machine 2554: 2550: 2540: 2538: 2531: 2529:"Bogota Accord" 2527: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2513: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2490: 2470: 2469: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2414: 2412: 2411:on 13 June 2007 2403: 2402: 2398: 2389: 2385: 2376: 2372: 2357: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2318: 2299: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2242: 2231: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2187: 2177: 2175: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2140:. 27 April 2021 2132: 2131: 2127: 2120: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2019: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1943: 1941: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1918: 1916: 1908: 1907: 1903: 1893: 1891: 1888:thediplomat.com 1881: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1854:Reagan Doctrine 1820: 1814: 1713:Vampire Weekend 1694: 1620:Central America 1597: 1591: 1588: 1569: 1565:popular culture 1553: 1549: 1542: 1490:Redeye missiles 1482:Zelaya province 1465: 1416: 1354: 1305: 1299: 1263: 1225:in California. 1175:Eugene Hasenfus 1154:, with officer 1147: 1141: 1084: 1015:Reagan Doctrine 970: 964:Reagan Doctrine 960: 940: 934: 906: 865:Comandante Cero 859:In April 1982, 787: 712: 707: 599: 570: 569: 545: 537: 536: 379: 369: 358: 357: 353: 300: 298: 282: 280: 279: 270: 268: 267: 258: 256: 255: 246: 244: 243: 234: 232: 231: 222: 220: 219: 210: 208: 207: 198: 196: 195: 179: 177: 176: 160: 158: 127: 123: 74: 68: 66: 64: 62: 58: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4773: 4771: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4647: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4607: 4598: 4584: 4583:External links 4581: 4579: 4578: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4540: 4532:. Touchstone. 4523: 4522:, Spring 1987. 4516: 4510: 4476: 4448: 4443:Horton, Lynn. 4441: 4434: 4428: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4392: 4385: 4378: 4352: 4337: 4318: 4317:, Summer 1988. 4302: 4295: 4287:. Galde Press 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4256: 4230: 4211: 4198: 4182: 4165: 4139:(2): 331–350. 4119: 4093: 4074: 4048: 4034: 4020: 3993: 3967: 3941: 3915: 3902: 3883: 3852: 3825: 3800: 3785: 3783:, Spring 1990. 3759: 3747: 3735: 3720: 3711: 3702: 3690: 3674: 3657: 3631: 3607:(1): 160–166. 3587: 3578: 3569: 3560: 3551: 3542: 3532: 3523: 3514: 3500: 3491: 3477: 3459: 3441: 3429: 3410: 3392: 3370: 3348: 3331: 3311: 3304: 3281: 3269: 3257: 3250: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3199: 3179: 3167: 3148: 3141: 3108: 3101: 3080: 3073: 3048: 3041: 3021: 3014: 2994: 2982: 2970: 2958: 2933: 2899: 2877:(1): 405–414. 2857: 2842: 2833: 2824: 2810: 2794: 2785: 2757: 2742: 2724: 2702: 2685: 2659: 2643: 2620: 2608: 2595: 2586: 2577: 2565: 2548: 2520: 2511: 2502: 2488: 2478:The Tico Times 2458: 2449: 2440: 2431: 2422: 2396: 2383: 2370: 2355: 2331: 2316: 2292: 2283: 2274: 2265: 2256: 2240: 2229: 2211: 2185: 2151: 2125: 2119:978-0313332821 2118: 2081: 2074: 2056:Alex P. Schmid 2046: 2041:Ottawa Citizen 2024: 2018:978-0822392859 2017: 2011:. p. 89. 1986: 1967:(2): 101–132. 1951: 1939:jacobinmag.com 1926: 1901: 1890:. The Diplomat 1882:Baron, James. 1873: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1824:Anti-communism 1819: 1816: 1812: 1811: 1799: 1790: 1782: 1778:Narcos: Mexico 1774: 1763:civil engineer 1761:, an American 1750: 1736: 1728: 1723:, an album by 1716: 1704: 1682: 1670: 1655: 1643: 1635: 1627: 1599: 1598: 1563:references to 1556: 1554: 1547: 1541: 1538: 1464: 1461: 1415: 1412: 1405:Contra leader 1399:Edgar Chamorro 1387: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1353: 1350: 1301:Main article: 1298: 1295: 1262: 1259: 1186:Manuel Noriega 1163:The Enterprise 1140: 1137: 1089:Edgar Chamorro 1083: 1080: 959: 956: 933: 930: 922:Alfonso Robelo 905: 902: 850:National Guard 839:Édgar Chamorro 786: 783: 782: 781: 778: 739:Édgar Chamorro 735: 711: 708: 706: 703: 642:Government in 601: 600: 598: 597: 590: 583: 575: 572: 571: 568: 567: 562: 557: 552: 546: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 380: 377: 376: 373: 372: 360: 359: 349: 348: 345: 344: 313: 309: 308: 296: 292: 291: 156: 152: 151: 148: 144: 143: 138: 132: 131: 121:Anti-communism 118: 112: 111: 100: 96: 95: 91:government of 87:Overthrow the 85: 81: 80: 77: 71: 70: 53: 49: 48: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4772: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4641: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4629: 4626: 4623: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4582: 4577: 4576:0-89608-295-4 4573: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4541: 4539: 4538:0-671-43836-0 4535: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4521: 4520:Policy Review 4517: 4515: 4511: 4496: 4492: 4485: 4480: 4477: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4449: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4422:. Dordrecht. 4421: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4400: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4379: 4376: 4375:0-941781-07-0 4372: 4368: 4367:0-941781-08-9 4364: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4349:0-8061-3252-3 4346: 4342: 4338: 4335: 4334:0-89608-313-6 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4310:Policy Review 4306: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4294: 4293:1-931942-16-1 4290: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4268: 4267: 4260: 4257: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4220: 4215: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4183: 4178: 4172: 4170: 4166: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4120: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4078: 4075: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4049: 4044: 4038: 4035: 4030: 4024: 4021: 4009: 4005: 3997: 3994: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3968: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3942: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3884: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3853: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3796: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3781: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3769: 3763: 3760: 3756: 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