340:
charge, might consist of supplying a current equal to one tenth the ampere-hour rating (C/10) for 14–16 hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery takes 10 mA for 14 hours, for a total of 140 mAh to charge at this rate. At the rapid-charge rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity of the battery in 1 hour (1C), the battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 125 mAh to charge (that is, approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). Some specialized batteries can be charged in as little as 10–15 minutes at a 4C or 6C charge rate, but this is very uncommon. It also greatly increases the risk of the cells overheating and venting due to an internal over-pressure condition: the cell's rate of temperature rise is governed by its internal resistance and the square of the charging rate. At a 4C rate, the amount of heat generated in the cell is sixteen times higher than the heat at the 1C rate. The downside to faster charging is the higher risk of
241:, which was less physically and chemically robust. With minor improvements to the first prototypes, energy density rapidly increased to about half of that of primary batteries, and significantly greater than lead–acid batteries. Jungner experimented with substituting iron for the cadmium in varying quantities, but found the iron formulations to be wanting. Jungner's work was largely unknown in the United States. Thomas Edison patented a nickel– or cobalt–cadmium battery in 1902, and adapted the battery design when he introduced the nickel–iron battery to the US two years after Jungner had built one. In 1906, Jungner established a factory close to Oskarshamn, Sweden to produce flooded design Ni–Cd batteries.
416:. The positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. This is known as the jelly-roll design and allows a Ni–Cd cell to deliver a much higher maximum current than an equivalent size alkaline cell. Alkaline cells have a bobbin construction where the cell casing is filled with electrolyte and contains a graphite rod which acts as the positive electrode. As a relatively small area of the electrode is in contact with the electrolyte (as opposed to the jelly-roll design), the internal resistance for an equivalent sized alkaline cell is higher which limits the maximum current that can be delivered.
1168:. This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. In rare cases, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep-discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic battery chargers. However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a Ni–Cd battery can last for 1,000 cycles or more before its capacity drops below half its original capacity. Many home chargers claim to be "smart chargers" which will shut down and not damage the battery, but this seems to be a common problem.
263:-plate Ni–Cd batteries became increasingly popular. Fusing nickel powder at a temperature well below its melting point using high pressures creates sintered plates. The plates thus formed are highly porous, about 80 percent by volume. Positive and negative plates are produced by soaking the nickel plates in nickel- and cadmium-active materials, respectively. Sintered plates are usually much thinner than the pocket type, resulting in greater surface area per volume and higher currents. In general, the greater amount of reactive material surface area in a battery, the lower its
352:
seen around 40 years ago lead to 5% per month and today the NiCad batteries have substantially lower self-discharge, on the order of 1% or 2% per month. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging and even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.
315:
than average, voltage. Unlike alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, a Ni–Cd cell's terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Because many electronic devices are designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0 V per cell, the relatively steady 1.2 V of a Ni–Cd cell is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the near-constant voltage a drawback as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.
1023:, from AAA through D, as well as several multi-cell sizes, including the equivalent of a 9-volt battery. A fully charged single Ni–Cd cell, under no load, carries a potential difference of between 1.25 and 1.35 volts, which stays relatively constant as the battery is discharged. Since an alkaline battery near fully discharged may see its voltage drop to as low as 0.9 volts, Ni–Cd cells and alkaline cells are typically interchangeable for most applications.
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1153:
were still fit for use. It is unlikely that this precise repetitive charging (for example, 1,000 charges/discharges with less than 2% variability) could ever be reproduced by individuals using electrical goods. The original paper describing the memory effect was written by GE scientists at their
Battery Business Department in Gainesville, Florida, and later retracted by them, but the damage was done.
1643:
361:
limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect the capacity of the cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of overcharge demands great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage even the best quality cells.
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substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears "dead" earlier than normal.
807:
1202:), the sale of consumer Ni–Cd batteries has now been banned within the European Union except for medical use; alarm systems; emergency lighting; and portable power tools. This last category has been banned effective 2016. Under the same EU directive, used industrial Ni–Cd batteries must be collected by their producers in order to be recycled in dedicated facilities.
38:
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television remote controls). In both types of cell, the self-discharge rate is highest for a full charge state and drops off somewhat for lower charge states. Finally, a similarly sized Ni–Cd battery has a slightly lower internal resistance, and thus can achieve a higher maximum discharge rate (which can be important for applications such as power tools).
214:, and recent lower cost, has largely supplanted Ni–Cd use. Further, the environmental impact of the disposal of the toxic metal cadmium has contributed considerably to the reduction in their use. Within the European Union, Ni–Cd batteries can now only be supplied for replacement purposes or for certain types of new equipment such as medical devices.
1132:
destroyed itself. This is the principal factor that prevents its use as engine-starting batteries. Today with alternator-based charging systems with solid-state regulators, the construction of a suitable charging system would be relatively simple, but the car manufacturers are reluctant to abandon tried-and-tested technology.
976:. When Ni–Cd batteries are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere-hour capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Miniature button cells are sometimes used in photographic equipment, hand-held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer-memory standby, toys, and novelties.
1117:
are now available, which have substantially lower self-discharge than either Ni–Cd or conventional NiMH batteries. This results in a preference for Ni–Cd over non-LSD NiMH batteries in applications where the current draw on the battery is lower than the battery's own self-discharge rate (for example,
1043:
batteries have become commercially available and cheaper, the former type now rivaling Ni–Cd batteries in cost. Where energy density is important, Ni–Cd batteries are now at a disadvantage compared with nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries. However, the Ni–Cd battery is still very useful in
351:
When not under load or charge, a Ni–Cd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20 °C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. Note; year 2022, the preceding sentence was certainly true when NiCad was introduced and even 50 years ago. However continued improvements
1131:
to them, with a simple electromagnetic cut-out system for when the dynamo is stationary or an over-current occurs, the Ni–Cd battery under a similar charging scheme would exhibit thermal runaway, where the charging current would continue to rise until the over-current cut-out operated or the battery
194:
V. Ni–Cd batteries are made in a wide range of sizes and capacities, from portable sealed types interchangeable with carbon–zinc dry cells, to large ventilated cells used for standby power and motive power. Compared with other types of rechargeable cells they offer good cycle life and performance at
1152:
There is evidence that the memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites, where they were similarly charging and discharging with every orbit around the Earth over a period of several years. After this time, it was found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly, but
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The terminal voltage of a Ni–Cd battery declines more slowly as it is discharged, compared with carbon–zinc batteries. Since an alkaline battery's voltage drops significantly as the charge drops, most consumer applications are well equipped to deal with the slightly lower Ni–Cd cell voltage with no
293:
Model-aircraft or -boat builders often take much larger currents of up to a hundred amps or so from specially constructed Ni–Cd batteries, which are used to drive main motors. 5–6 minutes of model operation is easily achievable from quite small batteries, so a reasonably high power-to-weight figure
927:
V. The charge is finished with an equalizing or top-up charge, typically for not less than 4 hours at 0.1 CA rate. The purpose of the over-charge is to expel as much (if not all) of the gases collected on the electrodes, hydrogen on the negative and oxygen on the positive, and some of these gases
314:
Ni–Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 volts (V). This is lower than the 1.5 V of alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a replacement in all applications. However, the 1.5 V of a primary alkaline cell refers to its initial, rather
855:
for telecoms, engine starting for backup turbines etc. Using vented-cell Ni–Cd batteries results in reduction in size, weight and maintenance requirements over other types of batteries. Vented-cell Ni–Cd batteries have long lives (up to 20 years or more, depending on type) and operate at extreme
360:
Sealed Ni–Cd cells consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of oxygen and hydrogen gases until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically occurs during rapid charge and discharge, and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the pressure exceeds the
339:
capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an "overnight"
1026:
In addition to single cells, batteries exist that contain up to 300 cells (nominally 360 volts, actual voltage under no load between 380 and 420 volts). This multi-cell design is mostly used in automotive and heavy-duty industrial applications. For portable applications, the number of cells is
928:
recombine to form water which in turn will raise the electrolyte level to its highest level after which it is safe to adjust the electrolyte levels. During the over-charge or top-up charge, the cell voltages will go beyond 1.6 V and then slowly start to drop. No cell should rise above 1.71
1148:
hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers" the point in its discharge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced
1094:
The capacity of a Ni–Cd battery is not significantly affected by very high discharge currents. Even with discharge rates as high as 50C, a Ni–Cd battery will provide very nearly its rated capacity. By contrast, a lead acid battery will only provide approximately half its rated capacity when
960:
Most of the uses described below are shown for historical purposes, as sealed (portable) Ni-Cd batteries have progressively been displaced by higher performance Li-ion cells, and their placing on the EU market has, for the most part, been prohibited since 2006 by the 2006/66/EC EU Batteries
1122:
The primary trade-off with Ni–Cd batteries is their higher cost and the use of cadmium. This heavy metal is an environmental hazard, and is highly toxic to all higher forms of life. They are also more costly than lead–acid batteries because nickel and cadmium cost more. One of the biggest
347:
The safe temperature range when in use is between −20 °C and 45 °C. During charging, the battery temperature typically stays low, around the same as the ambient temperature (the charging reaction absorbs energy), but as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to
1123:
disadvantages is that the battery exhibits a very marked negative temperature coefficient. This means that as the cell temperature rises, the internal resistance falls. This can pose considerable charging problems, particularly with the relatively simple charging systems employed for
789:
hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed to prolong the service life by making the cell more resistant to electrical abuse. The Ni–Cd battery in its modern form is extremely resistant to electrical abuse anyway, so this practice has been discontinued.
1076:. A Ni–Cd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead–acid battery, but not a comparable NiMH or Li-ion battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, aircraft), Ni–Cd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead–acid batteries.
1083:. A Ni–Cd cell has a lower capacity than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs more. However, since the alkaline battery's chemical reaction is not reversible, a reusable Ni–Cd battery has a significantly longer total lifetime. There have been attempts to create
910:
The venting of gases means that the battery is either being discharged at a high rate or recharged at a higher than nominal rate. This also means the electrolyte lost during venting must be periodically replaced through routine maintenance. Depending on the
1156:
The battery survives thousands of charges/discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month. This way apparently the battery does not "remember" the point in its charge cycle.
195:
low temperatures with a fair capacity but their significant advantage is the ability to deliver practically their full rated capacity at high discharge rates (discharging in one hour or less). However, the materials are more costly than that of the
995:
Advances in battery-manufacturing technologies throughout the second half of the twentieth century have made batteries increasingly cheaper to produce. Battery-powered devices in general have increased in popularity. As of 2000, about 1.5
1109:) batteries are the newest, and most similar, competitor to Ni–Cd batteries. Compared to Ni–Cd batteries, NiMH batteries have a higher capacity and are less toxic, and are now more cost effective. However, a Ni–Cd battery has a lower
943:
V). If this voltage is set too high it will result in rapid electrolyte loss. A failed charge regulator may allow the charge voltage to rise well above this value, causing a massive overcharge with boiling over of the electrolyte.
318:
Ni–Cd batteries used to replace 9 V batteries usually only have six cells, for a terminal voltage of 7.2 volts. While most pocket radios will operate satisfactorily at this voltage, some manufacturers such as
918:
Vented-cell voltage rises rapidly at the end of charge allowing for very simple charger circuitry to be used. Typically a battery is constant current charged at 1 CA rate until all the cells have reached at least
638:
1003:
At one point, Ni–Cd batteries accounted for 8% of all portable secondary (rechargeable) battery sales in the EU, and in the UK for 9.2% (disposal) and in
Switzerland for 1.3% of all portable battery sales.
758:
848:, it is safer, weighs less, and has a simpler and more economical structure. This also means the battery is not normally damaged by excessive rates of overcharge, discharge or even negative charge.
507:
186:
nickel–cadmium batteries were invented in 1899. A Ni–Cd battery has a terminal voltage during discharge of around 1.2 volts which decreases little until nearly the end of discharge. The maximum
840:) Ni–Cd batteries are used when large capacities and high discharge rates are required. Unlike typical Ni–Cd cells, which are sealed (see next section), vented cells have a vent or low
903:
of water. The top of the cell contains a space for excess electrolyte and a pressure release vent. Large nickel-plated copper studs and thick interconnecting links assure minimum
778:
were used. Until about 1960, the chemical reaction was not completely understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction products. The debate was finally resolved by
1000:
Ni–Cd batteries were produced annually. Up until the mid-1990s, Ni–Cd batteries had an overwhelming majority of the market share for rechargeable batteries in home electronics.
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1251:
1098:
The maximum continuous current drain of Ni–Cd battery is commonly around 15C. Compared to NiMH battery where usable maximum continuous current drain is not more than 5C.
939:
In an aircraft installation with a floating battery electrical system the regulator voltage is set to charge the battery at constant potential charge (typically 14 or 28
859:
A steel battery box contains the cells connected in series to gain the desired voltage (1.2 V per cell nominal). Cells are usually made of a light and durable
987:. This makes them a favourable choice for remote-controlled electric model airplanes, boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units.
1304:
1027:
normally below 18 cells (24 V). Industrial-sized flooded batteries are available with capacities ranging from 12.5 Ah up to several hundred Ah.
1504:
Bergstrom, Sven. "Nickel–Cadmium
Batteries — Pocket Type". Journal of the Electrochemical Society, September 1952. 1952 The Electrochemical Society.
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244:
In 1932, active materials were deposited inside a porous nickel-plated electrode and fifteen years later work began on a sealed nickel–cadmium battery.
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Ni–Cd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other rechargeable batteries such as lead/acid batteries.
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During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is not consumed in this reaction and therefore its
1055:
for long periods. In fact, Ni–Cd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to
979:
Specialty Ni–Cd batteries were used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, and other applications. With a relatively low
964:
Sealed Ni–Cd cells were used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small cells are used for portable
518:
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rate (for example, 20% per month for a Ni–Cd battery, versus 30% per month for a conventional NiMH under identical conditions), although
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applications requiring very high discharge rates because it can endure such discharge with no damage or loss of capacity.
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that releases any generated oxygen and hydrogen gases when overcharged or discharged rapidly. Since the battery is not a
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began in 1946. Up to this point, the batteries were "pocket type," constructed of nickel-plated steel pockets containing
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45–50 °C. Some battery chargers detect this temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging.
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cost (to be used for proper disposal at the end of the service lifetime) is rolled into the battery purchase price.
1311:
1923:
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1938:
1087:, or specialized battery chargers for charging single-use alkaline batteries, but none that has seen wide usage.
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867:), with multiple nickel–cadmium plates welded together for each electrode inside. A separator or liner made of
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When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the Ni–Cd battery has a number of distinct advantages:
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of the electrolyte does not indicate if the battery is discharged or fully charged but changes mainly with
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Ni–Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The
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When
Jungner built the first Ni–Cd batteries, he used nickel oxide in the positive electrode, and
1918:
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1600:
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Ni–Cd batteries contain between 6% (for industrial batteries) and 18% (for commercial batteries)
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and cadmium materials in the negative. It was not until later that pure cadmium metal and nickel
1329:"Solucorp Unveils Pollution Preventing, Self-Remediating Ni–Cd Battery to International Markets"
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and type of battery this can mean a maintenance period of anything from a few months to a year.
202:
Sealed Ni–Cd cells were at one time widely used in portable power tools, photography equipment,
1992:
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1059:, which are less stable and will be permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage.
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Larger ventilated wet cell Ni–Cd batteries are used in emergency lighting, standby power, and
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Ni–Cd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate equipped with a self-sealing
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motors, though of lesser duration. In this, however, they have been largely superseded by
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The battery performs very well under rough conditions, perfect for use in portable tools.
1961:
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V. Another charge cycle follows at 0.1 CA rate, again until all cells have reached 1.55
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823:
248:
207:
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Ellis, G. B., Mandel, H., and Linden, D. "Sintered Plate Nickel–Cadmium
Batteries".
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Another historically important variation on the basic Ni–Cd cell is the addition of
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972:(such as solar garden lights), often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as
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General
Electric, "Nickel–Cadmium Battery Application Engineering Handbook", 1971
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type batteries. Whilst lead–acid batteries can be charged by simply connecting a
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The effect of PHEV and HEV duty cycles on battery and battery pack performance
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made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical applications.
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203:
17:
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SAFT, "NiCd
Aircraft Batteries, Operating and Maintenance Manual (OMM)", 2002
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2007:
1997:
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Marathon
Battery Company, "Care and Maintenance of Nickel–Cadmium Batteries"
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The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating
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The maximum discharge rate for a Ni–Cd battery varies by size. For a common
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153:
1487:"MEPs Ban Cadmium from Power Tool Batteries and Mercury from Button Cells"
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cell, the maximum discharge rate is approximately 1.8 amperes; for a
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767:, unlike in lead–acid batteries, is not a guide to its state of charge.
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restricted sales of Ni–Cd batteries to consumers for portable devices.
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An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so-called
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The
History of Alcad Nickel Cadmium Batteries in Redditch 1918 - 1993
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633:{\displaystyle {\ce {2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e^- -> 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH^-}}}
252:
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1987:
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306:(LiFe) batteries, which can provide even higher energy densities.
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Ni–Cd
Aircraft Batteries, Operating and Maintenance Manual (PDF)
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1079:
In consumer applications, Ni–Cd batteries compete directly with
771:
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battery the discharge rate can be as high as 3.5 amperes.
58:
54:
1554:
753:{\displaystyle {\ce {Cd + 2Ni(OH)3 -> Cd(OH)2 + 2Ni(OH)2.}}}
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1415:
Linden, David; Reddy, Thomas B. (2001). "chapters 27 and 28".
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259:
active materials. Around the middle of the twentieth century,
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and therefore requires special care during battery disposal.
210:, and portable electronic devices. The superior capacity of
62:
42:
From top to bottom: "Gumstick", AA, and AAA Ni–Cd batteries
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in 1899. At that time, the only direct competitor was the
1254:(PDF). 2007 Plug-in Highway Electric Vehicle Conference:
782:, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel hydroxide.
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712:
685:
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502:{\displaystyle {\ce {Cd + 2OH^- -> Cd(OH)2 + 2e^-}}}
270:
Since the 2000s, all consumer Ni–Cd batteries use the
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View of a vented-cell aircraft battery from the side
1980:
1952:
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1144:" if they are discharged and recharged to the same
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1532:"Nickel–Cadmium Battery Lasts as Long as the Car."
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879:between the electrodes. Cells are flooded with an
851:They are used in aviation, rail and mass transit,
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632:
501:
1476:, 28(12), 1313–1319. doi:10.1023/a:1003452327919
512:The reactions at the nickel oxide electrode are:
1250:Valøen, Lars Ole and Shoesmith, Mark I. (2007).
199:, and the cells have high self-discharge rates.
1269:"Batteries - Environment - European Commission"
1019:Ni–Cd cells are available in the same sizes as
423:at the cadmium electrode during discharge are:
1511:, The Electrochemical Society, September 1952.
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1450:Articles about Bicycle Commuting and Lighting
8:
810:Structure of a cell in a vented-cell battery
794:Prismatic (industrial) vented-cell batteries
30:
1198:Under the so-called "batteries directive" (
335:is measured based on the percentage of the
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1559:
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36:
1115:low self-discharge ("LSD") NiMH batteries
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168:(Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the abbreviation
1489:. European Parliament. 10 October 2013.
1472:Davolio, G., & Soragni, E. (1998).
1243:
1095:discharged at a relatively modest 1.5C.
956:Eight Ni–Cd batteries in a battery pack
856:temperatures (from −40 to 70 °C).
229:The first Ni–Cd battery was created by
1509:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1305:"GP Nickel Cadmium Technical Handbook"
29:
1072:, Ni–Cd batteries have a much higher
643:The net reaction during discharge is
369:A fully charged Ni–Cd cell contains:
7:
1474:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
1140:Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a "
814:Larger flooded cells are used for
25:
180:to describe all Ni–Cd batteries.
1641:
1537:, August 1948, pp. 113–118.
1470:Repair FAQ, quoting GE tech note
1091:noticeable loss of performance.
1085:rechargeable alkaline batteries
1031:Comparison with other batteries
932:V (dry cell) or drop below 1.55
1446:"Lead–Acid or NiCd Batteries?"
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219:uninterruptible power supplies
212:nickel–metal hydride batteries
190:offered by a Ni–Cd cell is 1.3
176:, although this brand name is
1:
1444:Goodman, Marty (1997-10-13).
1423:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1355:. DEFRA. 2006. Archived from
172:is a registered trademark of
905:equivalent series resistance
247:The first production in the
27:Type of rechargeable battery
1331:. Business Wire. 2006-10-19
1217:Comparison of battery types
816:aircraft starting batteries
375:nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide
294:is achieved, comparable to
92:Charge/discharge efficiency
2080:
1350:"Battery Waste Management"
1731:Metal–air electrochemical
1639:
1258:. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
35:
936:V (gas barrier broken).
387:negative electrode plate
221:and other applications.
983:, they can supply high
948:Sealed (portable) cells
913:charge–discharge cycles
2064:Rechargeable batteries
2033:Semipermeable membrane
1822:Lithium–iron–phosphate
1400:. 2000. Archived from
1379:. 2008. Archived from
957:
842:pressure release valve
811:
803:
754:
634:
503:
304:lithium iron phosphate
206:, emergency lighting,
146:nickel oxide hydroxide
130:nickel–cadmium battery
31:Nickel–cadmium battery
1904:Rechargeable alkaline
1582:Electrochemical cells
1419:Handbook of Batteries
1317:on 27 September 2007.
1232:Power-to-weight ratio
1227:List of battery types
1222:List of battery sizes
1057:lithium ion batteries
955:
809:
801:
780:infrared spectroscopy
755:
635:
504:
1884:Nickel–metal hydride
1172:Environmental impact
1037:nickel–metal hydride
650:
519:
430:
160:is derived from the
142:rechargeable battery
119:Nominal cell voltage
1894:Polysulfide–bromide
1736:Nickel oxyhydroxide
1628:Thermogalvanic cell
1374:"INOBAT statistics"
1180:, which is a toxic
1166:lazy battery effect
1070:lead–acid batteries
1007:In the EU the 2006
981:internal resistance
889:potassium hydroxide
745:
714:
687:
611:
560:
480:
406:potassium hydroxide
296:internal combustion
265:internal resistance
188:electromotive force
156:. The abbreviation
100:Self-discharge rate
32:
1657:(non-rechargeable)
1601:Concentration cell
1162:voltage depression
1081:alkaline batteries
1021:alkaline batteries
958:
871:rubber acts as an
822:and marginally in
812:
804:
750:
725:
694:
667:
630:
591:
548:
499:
460:
421:chemical reactions
2041:
2040:
1398:"EPBA statistics"
1293:US Patent 0692507
1212:Battery recycling
1193:battery recycling
1009:Battery Directive
907:for the battery.
824:electric vehicles
732:
724:
701:
693:
674:
666:
656:
622:
598:
590:
574:
563:
551:
536:
529:
491:
467:
459:
447:
436:
239:lead–acid battery
197:lead–acid battery
126:
125:
16:(Redirected from
2071:
1837:Lithium–titanate
1782:
1658:
1645:
1606:Electric battery
1575:
1568:
1561:
1552:
1491:
1490:
1483:
1477:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1452:. Harris Cyclery
1441:
1435:
1434:
1422:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1316:
1310:. Archived from
1309:
1301:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1265:
1259:
1248:
942:
935:
931:
926:
922:
897:specific gravity
885:aqueous solution
765:specific gravity
759:
757:
756:
751:
749:
744:
741:
736:
730:
722:
713:
710:
705:
699:
691:
686:
683:
678:
672:
664:
654:
639:
637:
636:
631:
629:
628:
627:
620:
610:
607:
602:
596:
588:
580:
579:
572:
561:
559:
556:
549:
540:
534:
527:
508:
506:
505:
500:
498:
497:
496:
489:
479:
476:
471:
465:
457:
453:
452:
445:
434:
365:Electrochemistry
231:Waldemar Jungner
193:
174:SAFT Corporation
162:chemical symbols
108:Cycle durability
40:
33:
21:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2037:
1976:
1955:
1948:
1869:Nickel–hydrogen
1827:Lithium–polymer
1783:
1780:
1779:
1770:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1637:
1584:
1579:
1535:Popular Science
1528:
1523:
1500:
1498:Further reading
1495:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1468:
1464:
1455:
1453:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1383:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1359:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1208:
1191:, the expected
1174:
1146:state of charge
1138:
1033:
1017:
993:
950:
940:
933:
929:
924:
920:
846:pressure vessel
796:
648:
647:
619:
571:
517:
516:
488:
444:
428:
427:
379:electrode plate
367:
358:
329:
312:
300:lithium polymer
280:
278:Characteristics
274:configuration.
227:
191:
140:) is a type of
49:Specific energy
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2077:
2075:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2046:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1962:Atomic battery
1958:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1934:Vanadium redox
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1909:Silver–cadmium
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1879:Nickel–lithium
1876:
1871:
1866:
1864:Nickel–cadmium
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1832:Lithium–sulfur
1829:
1824:
1819:
1809:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1781:(rechargeable)
1777:Secondary cell
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1701:Edison–Lalande
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1662:
1660:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1616:Trough battery
1613:
1603:
1598:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1563:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1527:
1526:External links
1524:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1505:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1478:
1462:
1436:
1429:
1407:
1404:on 2012-03-21.
1389:
1386:on 2012-03-25.
1365:
1362:on 2013-10-08.
1341:
1320:
1296:
1285:
1260:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1173:
1170:
1137:
1134:
1120:
1119:
1111:self-discharge
1099:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1077:
1074:energy density
1066:
1063:
1060:
1053:deep discharge
1032:
1029:
1016:
1013:
992:
989:
985:surge currents
949:
946:
795:
792:
761:
760:
748:
740:
735:
729:
720:
717:
709:
704:
698:
690:
682:
677:
671:
662:
659:
641:
640:
626:
617:
614:
606:
601:
595:
586:
583:
578:
569:
566:
555:
546:
543:
539:
533:
525:
510:
509:
495:
486:
483:
475:
470:
464:
456:
451:
442:
439:
410:
409:
395:
388:
381:
366:
363:
357:
354:
328:
325:
311:
308:
279:
276:
226:
223:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
109:
105:
104:
101:
97:
96:
93:
89:
88:
85:
83:Specific power
79:
78:
72:
70:Energy density
66:
65:
51:
45:
44:
41:
26:
24:
18:Nickel-cadmium
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2076:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1924:Sodium–sulfur
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1899:Potassium ion
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1716:Lithium metal
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1671:Aluminium–air
1669:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1596:Galvanic cell
1594:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1557:
1556:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1497:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1430:0-07-135978-8
1426:
1421:
1420:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1382:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1358:
1351:
1345:
1342:
1330:
1324:
1321:
1313:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1244:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1189:United States
1185:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1142:memory effect
1136:Memory effect
1135:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:Nickel–metal
1100:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1005:
1001:
999:
990:
988:
986:
982:
977:
975:
974:primary cells
971:
967:
962:
954:
947:
945:
937:
916:
914:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
857:
854:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
825:
821:
820:standby power
817:
808:
800:
793:
791:
788:
783:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
746:
738:
718:
715:
707:
680:
660:
657:
646:
645:
644:
624:
615:
612:
604:
584:
576:
567:
564:
553:
544:
541:
523:
515:
514:
513:
493:
484:
481:
473:
449:
440:
437:
426:
425:
424:
422:
417:
415:
407:
403:
400:
396:
393:
389:
386:
382:
380:
376:
372:
371:
370:
364:
362:
355:
353:
349:
345:
343:
338:
334:
326:
324:
322:
316:
309:
307:
305:
301:
297:
291:
289:
285:
277:
275:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
249:United States
245:
242:
240:
236:
232:
224:
222:
220:
215:
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
189:
185:
181:
179:
178:commonly used
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
148:and metallic
147:
143:
139:
138:NiCad battery
135:
134:Ni–Cd battery
131:
121:
117:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
84:
80:
77:
73:
71:
67:
64:
60:
56:
52:
50:
46:
39:
34:
19:
1939:Zinc–bromine
1863:
1746:Silver oxide
1681:Chromic acid
1653:Primary cell
1633:Voltaic pile
1611:Flow battery
1534:
1508:
1481:
1473:
1465:
1454:. Retrieved
1449:
1439:
1418:
1410:
1402:the original
1392:
1381:the original
1368:
1357:the original
1344:
1333:. Retrieved
1323:
1312:the original
1299:
1288:
1276:. Retrieved
1273:ec.europa.eu
1272:
1263:
1255:
1246:
1197:
1186:
1175:
1165:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1139:
1121:
1068:Compared to
1046:
1034:
1025:
1018:
1015:Availability
1006:
1002:
994:
978:
963:
959:
938:
917:
909:
858:
853:backup power
850:
838:flooded cell
837:
833:
829:
828:
813:
784:
769:
762:
642:
511:
418:
414:safety valve
411:
368:
359:
356:Overcharging
350:
346:
342:overcharging
330:
317:
313:
292:
281:
269:
246:
243:
228:
216:
201:
182:
169:
157:
137:
133:
129:
127:
2028:Salt bridge
2013:Electrolyte
1944:Zinc–cerium
1929:Solid state
1914:Silver–zinc
1889:Nickel–zinc
1874:Nickel–iron
1849:Molten salt
1817:Dual carbon
1812:Lithium ion
1807:Lithium–air
1766:Zinc–carbon
1741:Silicon–air
1721:Lithium–air
1256:Proceedings
1182:heavy metal
1041:lithium-ion
966:electronics
961:Directive.
901:evaporation
881:electrolyte
877:gas barrier
830:Vented-cell
402:electrolyte
333:charge rate
302:(LiPo) and
204:flashlights
74:50–150 W·h/
2048:Categories
1981:Cell parts
1972:Solar cell
1954:Other cell
1919:Sodium ion
1790:Automotive
1456:2009-02-18
1335:2008-08-01
1278:18 October
1238:References
1200:2006/66/EC
1035:Recently,
991:Popularity
272:jelly-roll
154:electrodes
2018:Half-cell
2008:Electrode
1967:Fuel cell
1844:Metal–air
1795:Lead–acid
1711:Leclanché
1623:Fuel cell
1125:lead–acid
873:insulator
861:polyamide
776:hydroxide
747:⋅
689:⟶
625:−
582:⟶
577:−
494:−
455:⟶
450:−
392:separator
377:positive
103:10%/month
1998:Catalyst
1859:Nanowire
1854:Nanopore
1800:gel–VRLA
1761:Zinc–air
1666:Alkaline
1206:See also
869:silicone
834:wet cell
399:alkaline
337:amp-hour
327:Charging
261:sintered
208:hobby RC
184:Wet-cell
87:150 W/kg
2054:Cadmium
2003:Cathode
1756:Zamboni
1726:Mercury
1691:Daniell
1187:In the
1178:cadmium
1103:hydride
998:billion
895:). The
883:of 30%
787:lithium
385:cadmium
310:Voltage
284:AA-size
257:cadmium
225:History
150:cadmium
2059:Nickel
1993:Binder
1751:Weston
1676:Bunsen
1427:
1129:dynamo
941:
934:
930:
925:
921:
875:and a
288:D size
253:nickel
235:Sweden
192:
166:nickel
144:using
113:cycles
111:2,000
95:70–90%
53:40–60
1988:Anode
1706:Grove
1686:Clark
1589:Types
1384:(PDF)
1377:(PDF)
1360:(PDF)
1353:(PDF)
1315:(PDF)
1308:(PDF)
865:nylon
394:, and
321:Varta
170:NiCad
158:Ni–Cd
122:1.2 V
2023:Ions
1425:ISBN
1280:2014
1107:NiMH
1039:and
970:toys
968:and
919:1.55
772:iron
419:The
255:and
128:The
1696:Dry
1164:or
893:KOH
887:of
528:NiO
397:an
233:of
164:of
152:as
136:or
2050::
1448:.
1271:.
836:,
826:,
818:,
731:OH
723:Ni
700:OH
692:Cd
673:OH
665:Ni
655:Cd
621:OH
597:OH
589:Ni
535:OH
466:OH
458:Cd
446:OH
435:Cd
408:).
390:a
383:a
373:a
267:.
63:kg
1574:e
1567:t
1560:v
1459:.
1433:.
1338:.
1282:.
1105:(
891:(
863:(
832:(
739:2
734:)
728:(
719:2
716:+
708:2
703:)
697:(
681:3
676:)
670:(
661:2
658:+
616:2
613:+
605:2
600:)
594:(
585:2
573:e
568:2
565:+
562:O
554:2
550:H
545:2
542:+
538:)
532:(
524:2
490:e
485:2
482:+
474:2
469:)
463:(
441:2
438:+
404:(
132:(
76:L
61:/
59:h
57:·
55:W
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
