22:
422:
266:, to become wives of company employees. The program, however, had little effect, as the company could not keep up with the demand. There were also concerns that these women were only accepting marriage for personal gain and that they would attempt to draw their husbands back to the Netherlands β and out of the employment of the Dutch East Indies Company.
412:
were often raised in indigenous traditions, by their mother or by a maid. The fathers would generally not interact with them, preferring to socialize with other
European men instead. In the 17th century few could speak Dutch, although later education programs were initiated to promote the use of the
285:
daughters of these marriages proved to be popular targets of affections, as marriage to one could help men improve their social position. Many men, however, were unable to marry them, as they generally sought persons already in a position of power. Instead, it was more common for
Dutchmen to take
313:
Owing to an economic boom, the early 20th century saw another surge in immigration from Europe. With the
European population now of a considerable size, Indies society began drifting towards a more racially divided one. Venues exclusive to one racial group were opened, and European, Chinese, and
444:
has a broad presence in literature. James Siegel argues that "Dutch shame", which he describes as caused by guilt over the contemporary situation in the Indies that the Dutch colonialists seemed incapable of improving, gave rise to certain stock characters that would explain Dutch political and
289:
When the
British took control of the Indies in 1812, they were shocked to find the practice of concubinage, interracial marriage, and slavery. They attempted to force all elements of Indies society to live in accordance with British morals. However, they were unable to eliminate the keeping of
129:: as a term for referring to a married or unmarried woman, as a term for referring to a woman older than the speaker, and for the concubine of a non-Indonesian. It is this last definition which is used here, a definition which gained traction in the 17th century when
246:
was established to ensure Dutch domination of the spice trade. The
Europeans established small settlements, and in many of them the European residents were all men. Without contact with Dutch women, they began turning to their female slaves (mostly originating from
21:
301:
After the
British returned the Indies to the Dutch in 1815, a new wave of immigration β including some women β began. These newcomers, as with the British before them, were shocked by the intermarriage and keeping of
395:
was, at first, extremely negative. In the 17th century, they were described as "lustful beasts", with voracious sexual appetites who would not accept money for sex, but pay for it. Coen, in a 1620 letter, described
256:
1262:
354:
1163:
286:
Asian women as their partners, as they could not marry without the company's permission and would not be repatriated if they married a non-Christian.
310:
marrying a
European could be recognized as of a similar stature to Europeans. Those who were not married, however, received no special recognition.
361:
and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from
European men, who were put into internment camps. After the occupation ended in 1945,
1321:
591:
365:
1275:
1218:
755:
262:
passed a law forbidding
Dutchmen from keeping concubines. To prevent a relapse, Coen began bringing orphans from the Netherlands, termed
71:
described the position of the njai as always subservient, being the white man's housekeeper and companion, before she was his concubine.
42:
388:
could be sent home with little or no warning, with or without her children. This was common when the
European man prepared to marry.
319:
1034:
833:
794:
690:
663:
1086:
1229:
445:
administrative failure. Siegel cites such characters as the "venal Arab" and the "lustful, greedy Chinese merchant", and the
369:
326:. In the Netherlands, extensive polemics were written which condemned, from a moral point of view, the practice of keeping a
334:"could not touch the soul". Concern was also expressed over men's seeming lack of enthusiasm for having children with their
121:
306:. Under the new system they established, which pushed for a sharper delineation between Europeans and non-Europeans, a
1326:
376:
were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia; both choices were taken.
346:
1123:
460:
243:
1155:
560:
543:
427:
537:
are present in early films from the Dutch East Indies, several of which were adapted from novels. In 1929
239:
217:
281:
women, who were thought to be less greedy and less likely to ask their husbands to leave the Indies. The
222:
522:
511:
786:
L'IndonΓ©sie contemporaine vue par ses intellectuels: un choix d'articles de la revue Prisma (1971-1991)
577:
400:
as lazy (except in their sexual deeds), stupid, dishonest, and willing to kill the persons they hated.
601:(1932); the latter of these has been read as promoting a positive image of the mixed-race children of
1316:
259:
1128:
475:
255:, and outside the archipelago) for sexual services. By 1620 the habit had become so prevalent that
1257:
597:
552:
314:
indigenous people rarely intermingled. Along with this change, the position of men living with a
278:
104:
1294:
1271:
1214:
1030:
829:
823:
790:
751:
686:
659:
60:
56:
1024:
318:
became increasingly difficult. The Indies government, following a decree by Governor-General
564:
274:
147:, with a varying degree of positive and negative connotations. In the 19th century the term
724:
706:
350:
270:
130:
112:
68:
140:). The word, in discussion of the Indies, is sometimes simply translated as "mistress".
496:
175:
37:
1310:
1241:
568:
538:
639:
Indische letteren: documentatieblad van de Werkgroep Indisch-Nederlandse Letterkunde
555:
writes that cinemas could make up for several days of losses with a single showing.
516:
349:
had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the
784:
680:
653:
637:
551:. The film was a critical and commercial success, and Indonesian film historian
470:
282:
421:
1270:] (in Indonesian). Komunitas Bamboo working with the Jakarta Art Council.
164:
52:
1298:
655:
Indisch letterland: verhalen uit twee eeuwen Nederlands- Indische literatuur
642:(in Dutch). Werkgroep Indisch-Nederlandse Letterkunde. 2001. p. 135.
323:
248:
67:
meant "sister", but the term later took a more specific meaning. Author
362:
137:
750:] (in Indonesian) (4th ed.). Jakarta: Gramedia. p. 971.
189:
could also serve as a translator and language teacher, terms such as
465:
420:
25:
A Dutch man named Van der Velden with his Njai and their daughter.
20:
682:
Soebatten, sarongs en sinjo's: Indische woorden in het Nederlands
330:: the practice was deemed to be based on nothing but lust, for a
473:
and Tjiang O. S. respectively in 1897; both were adaptations of
252:
483:. In the 1910s and 1920s, several books were published with
136:
first became common in the colonial capital of Batavia (now
51:) were women who were kept as housekeepers, companions, and
825:
In tekst gevat: Inleiding tot een kritiek van representatie
322:, would not hire them, and businesses attempted to promote
277:
began promoting interracial marriage between Dutchmen and
16:
Dutch-Indonesian housekeepers, companions, and concubines
1087:"Nyai Ontosoroh dan Kisah Pergundikan di Hindia Belanda"
1091:
Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia
859:
857:
567:, was released by Tan's by January 1932. Although the
197:("dictionary") are also noted. Objectification of the
982:
980:
143:A variety of other terms were used to refer to the
1291:Peranakan Chinese Literature in the Malay Language
1132:(in Dutch). Surabaya. 14 January 1932. p. 14.
1213:] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu.
510:character named Nyai Ontosoroh, appear in one of
559:has since been adapted a further three times. A
103:, comes from a Balinese word meaning sister. In
1293:] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
1268:History of Film 1900β1950: Making Films in Java
1228:Boom, Mattie; Wachlin, Steven (November 2004).
1240:(36). Leiden University Press. Archived from
368:an independent Indonesia. During the ensuing
119:refers to "grandmother" or elderly lady. The
8:
748:Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language
1263:Sejarah Film 1900β1950: Bikin Film di Jawa
1211:& Concubinage in the Dutch East Indies
581:by Hasmanan reinstated Dasima's role as a
111:refers to "miss" or young woman, while in
1287:Sastra Cina Peranakan dalam Bahasa Melayu
742:National Department of Education (2008).
170:, meaning "mouth", and the more negative
1204:Nyai & Pergundikan di Hindia Belanda
216:were necessarily native Indonesian β in
828:(in Dutch). Amsterdam UP. p. 132.
658:(in Dutch). Sijthoff. 1987. p. 6.
626:(in Dutch). Arbeiderspers. p. 103.
614:
357:the Indies. During the occupation, the
294:, and, indeed, some British men kept a
1162:(in Indonesian). Konfiden Foundation.
1073:
1061:
1049:
1184:
1142:
1110:
242:in the 16th century, and in 1602 the
36:
7:
1010:
998:
986:
971:
959:
947:
935:
923:
911:
899:
887:
875:
863:
848:
809:
770:
622:Jacobs, Hans; Roelands, Jan (1970).
479:. In 1904, Oei Soei Tiong published
487:as the title characters, including
43:Enhanced Indonesian Spelling System
459:characters are common in works of
338:, leading to high abortion rates.
320:Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg
14:
1166:from the original on 3 April 2014
1029:. Princeton UP. pp. 38β39.
685:(in Dutch). BZZTΓ΄H. p. 62.
269:In the 1650s, Governors-General
1093:(in Indonesian). 15 August 2019
1026:Fetish, Recognition, Revolution
585:. Other Indies films featuring
238:Europeans first arrived in the
155:(housekeeper), was common. The
59:(modern-day Indonesia). In the
1322:Women in the Dutch East Indies
571:eliminated Dasima's role as a
469:(poems), published in 1907 by
185:s verbal propensities. As the
83:, also found in the spellings
1:
744:Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
463:. Some of the earliest were
125:gives three definitions for
122:Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
725:"Nyai (Betawi - Indonesia)"
679:Berg, Joop van den (1992).
592:Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang
449:'deceitful' housekeeper or
341:By the 1910s the number of
201:was found in terms such as
75:Terminology and description
1343:
1230:"Jacobus Anthonie Meessen"
789:(in French). L'Harmattan.
707:"Nyai (Sunda - Indonesia)"
1285:Salmon, Claudine (1985).
1023:Siegel, James T. (1997).
178:"); both referred to the
783:Bonneff, Marcel (1994).
461:Chinese Malay literature
380:Rights and social status
345:had decreased, although
244:Dutch East India Company
822:Meijer, Maaike (2006).
575:, the 1970 adaptation
491:(Tan Boen Kim; 1915),
432:
240:Indonesian archipelago
230:Kiku San is Japanese.
218:Madelon Szekely-Lulofs
26:
1202:Baay, Reggie (2010).
589:in key roles include
523:This Earth of Mankind
512:Pramoedya Ananta Toer
424:
209:("inventory items").
149:inlandse huishoudster
24:
1187:, pp. 124, 126.
391:The general view of
260:Jan Pieterszoon Coen
1258:Biran, Misbach Yusa
1160:filmindonesia.or.id
1156:"Samiun dan Dasima"
1129:De Indische Courant
557:Tjerita Njai Dasima
549:Tjerita Njai Dasima
547:, an adaptation of
476:Tjerita Njai Dasima
159:were also known as
1327:Women in Indonesia
1244:on 8 December 2015
1145:, pp. 242β43.
962:, pp. 224β25.
598:De Stem des Bloeds
553:Misbach Yusa Biran
433:
408:The children of a
264:compagniesdochters
205:("furniture") and
27:
1277:978-979-3731-58-2
1220:978-979-3731-78-0
1064:, pp. 48β49.
914:, pp. 19β20.
902:, pp. 15β17.
812:, pp. 58β59.
757:978-979-22-3841-9
578:Samiun and Dasima
163:, from the Dutch
61:Javanese language
57:Dutch East Indies
1334:
1302:
1281:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1224:
1188:
1182:
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1120:
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1008:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
975:
969:
963:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
890:, pp. 9β10.
885:
879:
873:
867:
861:
852:
846:
840:
839:
819:
813:
807:
801:
800:
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739:
733:
732:
721:
715:
714:
703:
697:
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676:
670:
669:
650:
644:
643:
634:
628:
627:
619:
565:Bachtiar Effendi
448:
275:Joan Maetsuycker
257:Governor-General
184:
40:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1336:
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930:
922:
918:
910:
906:
898:
894:
886:
882:
878:, pp. 3β5.
874:
870:
866:, pp. 2β3.
862:
855:
851:, pp. 1β2.
847:
843:
836:
821:
820:
816:
808:
804:
797:
782:
781:
777:
769:
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736:
723:
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678:
677:
673:
666:
652:
651:
647:
636:
635:
631:
621:
620:
616:
611:
605:and Europeans.
569:1941 adaptation
532:
446:
438:
419:
406:
382:
351:Empire of Japan
271:Carel Reyniersz
236:
182:
77:
69:Rob Nieuwenhuys
17:
12:
11:
5:
1340:
1338:
1330:
1329:
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1309:
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1304:
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1282:
1276:
1254:
1234:ScherpteDiepte
1225:
1219:
1198:
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1189:
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1147:
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1103:
1078:
1066:
1054:
1042:
1035:
1015:
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991:
976:
964:
952:
950:, p. 223.
940:
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868:
853:
841:
834:
814:
802:
795:
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763:
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734:
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698:
691:
671:
664:
645:
629:
613:
612:
610:
607:
563:, directed by
561:talkie version
531:
528:
514:'s epic novel
503:(Numa, 1923).
497:Thio Tjin Boen
437:
434:
418:
415:
405:
402:
381:
378:
298:of their own.
235:
232:
220:'s 1931 novel
207:inventarisstuk
113:Betawi dialect
76:
73:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1339:
1328:
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1131:
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1125:
1119:
1116:
1113:, p. 24.
1112:
1107:
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1092:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1076:, p. 60.
1075:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1055:
1052:, p. 30.
1051:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1036:9780691026527
1032:
1028:
1027:
1019:
1016:
1013:, p. 11.
1012:
1007:
1004:
1001:, p. 12.
1000:
995:
992:
989:, p. 10.
988:
983:
981:
977:
973:
968:
965:
961:
956:
953:
949:
944:
941:
938:, p. 87.
937:
932:
929:
926:, p. 86.
925:
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893:
889:
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842:
837:
835:9789053568552
831:
827:
826:
818:
815:
811:
806:
803:
798:
796:9782738426680
792:
788:
787:
779:
776:
773:, p. 58.
772:
767:
764:
759:
753:
749:
745:
738:
735:
730:
726:
720:
717:
712:
708:
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694:
692:9789062915590
688:
684:
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665:9789021838014
661:
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546:
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536:
529:
527:
525:
524:
519:
518:
513:
509:
504:
502:
499:; 1917), and
498:
494:
493:Njai Soemirah
490:
486:
482:
478:
477:
472:
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196:
193:("book") and
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49:
44:
39:
38:[Ι²ai]
34:
33:
23:
19:
1290:
1286:
1267:
1261:
1248:10 September
1246:. Retrieved
1242:the original
1237:
1236:(in Dutch).
1233:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1180:
1168:. Retrieved
1159:
1150:
1138:
1127:
1124:"(untitled)"
1118:
1106:
1095:. Retrieved
1090:
1081:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1025:
1018:
1006:
994:
974:, p. 1.
967:
955:
943:
931:
919:
907:
895:
883:
871:
844:
824:
817:
805:
785:
778:
766:
747:
743:
737:
729:Kamus Daerah
728:
719:
711:Kamus Daerah
710:
701:
681:
674:
654:
648:
638:
632:
623:
617:
602:
596:
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586:
582:
576:
572:
556:
548:
542:
534:
533:
521:
517:Buru Quartet
515:
507:
505:
501:Njai Marsina
500:
492:
488:
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464:
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455:
450:
441:
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409:
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358:
353:invaded and
347:prostitution
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153:huishoudster
152:
151:, or simply
148:
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126:
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100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
78:
64:
47:
46:
31:
30:
28:
18:
1317:Concubinage
1195:Works cited
1170:24 February
1074:Salmon 1985
1062:Salmon 1985
1050:Salmon 1985
624:Indisch ABC
595:(1931) and
544:Njai Dasima
481:Njai Alimah
471:Lie Kim Hok
428:Njai Dasima
425:Poster for
195:woordenboek
63:, the word
1311:Categories
1185:Biran 2009
1143:Biran 2009
1111:Biran 2009
1097:2019-08-22
609:References
539:Tan's Film
489:Njai Aisah
436:Literature
417:In culture
413:language.
370:revolution
366:proclaimed
279:indigenous
165:diminutive
53:concubines
1011:Baay 2010
999:Baay 2010
987:Baay 2010
972:Baay 2010
960:Baay 2010
948:Baay 2010
936:Baay 2010
924:Baay 2010
912:Baay 2010
900:Baay 2010
888:Baay 2010
876:Baay 2010
864:Baay 2010
849:Baay 2010
810:Baay 2010
771:Baay 2010
541:produced
107:the term
105:Sundanese
79:The term
1299:39909566
1260:(2009).
1164:Archived
526:(1980).
404:Children
355:occupied
324:endogamy
283:Eurasian
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