683:
northern spotted owl, the introduction of the barred owl in these areas may have unknown long term effects on the ecological balance of these habitats. The most drastic effect is on the northern spotted owl population, which is estimated to have decreased at an annual rate of 3.8% from 1985 to 2013. This population loss is directly related to the presence of barred owls. The Diller et al. (2016) study demonstrated that lethal removal of barred owls resulted in the northern spotted owl populations to increase, while populations of northern spotted owls continued to decrease if barred owl populations were left alone. Should northern owl habitat areas continue to be protected under the
675:
inhabited by the barred owl. Barred owls have a diet of small mammals (74.7%), other birds (8.3%), amphibians (6.4%), bugs (5.6%), crayfish (3.0%), fish (1.5%), reptiles, snails and slugs, and earthworms (<1.0% each). This diet is similar to the northern spotted owl, and the addition of barred owls to the northern spotted owl’s range creates increased competition for food. In the same areas, northern spotted owls require around three to four times more range than barred owls, which places more strain on the northern spotted owls. As barred owl population densities increase, the strain of food competition will worsen for northern spotted owls.
701:
owls, with similar facial features to barred owls. All hybridization occurred between male northern spotted owls and female barred owls. Cross-breeding amongst the species is a very limited event, and likely insufficient to be significantly detrimental to either species. Direct competition between species for habitat space and food is determined to be much more significant issues in affecting both target populations. There has also been genetic evidence of cross breeding between northern spotted owls and
137:
514:
78:
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hatching, the young owls remain in the nest and the adult female provides primary care. Fledgling occurs in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from 2 to 24 miles from the parents.
97:
25:
646:
administration reversed proposals that would have increased logging on Bureau of Land
Management administered lands. Recent discussion has been focused on two novel approaches. One of these would emphasize wildfire management as key to owl persistence on the east side of the Cascades, and in the Klamath province. Another proposal, on control of
700:
offspring. Previous geographical isolation had prevented prior hybridization, and current ones are difficult to distinguish from nonhybrids without using genetic testing techniques. However, of those differences that are discernable, hybrids tend to be larger and lighter colored than northern spotted
491:
The northern spotted owl is intolerant of habitat disturbance. Each nesting pair needs a large amount of land for hunting and nesting, and will not migrate unless they experience drastic seasonal changes, such as heavy snows, which make hunting difficult. Their flight pattern is distinct, involving a
340:
Thirteen different sounds of hoots, whistles, and barks have been identified to be sounds of the northern spotted owl, with females having higher pitched calls than males. Of the three different styles of calls, hoots appear to be most commonly used to announce things, such as territory and prey. The
682:
due to extended predation now experienced by affected species. The additional food sources also give an advantage to the barred owl over the northern spotted owl, worsening the northern spotted owl's ability to compete. Paired with more predation of prey that is shared between the barred owl and the
504:
Northern spotted owls reach sexual maturity at two years of age, but do not typically breed until three years of age. Males and females mate in
February or March, with the female laying two or three eggs in March or April. Eggs are incubated by the female for around thirty days until hatching. After
595:
In 1990, the logging industry estimated up to 30,000 of 168,000 jobs would be lost because of the owl's status, which agreed closely with a Forest
Service estimate. Harvests of timber in the Pacific Northwest were reduced by 80%, decreasing the supply of lumber and increasing prices. However, jobs
556:
with the goal of producing owls in captivity for release into protected habitat to prevent the extirpation of the species from Canada. The short-term goals of the
Program include growing the captive population to 10 breeding pairs and releasing 10-20 offspring per year into the 300,000 hectares of
424:
The northern spotted owl diet consists of small mammals (91.5%), birds (4.3%), insects (4.1%), and other prey (0.1%). These prey are mostly nocturnal (91.9%) or active during the day and night (4.8%), which corresponds to the primarily nocturnal nature of the northern spotted owl. The main species
660:
removed more than 3 million acres of
Pacific Northwest land from the protected habitat of the northern spotted owl, 15 times the amount it had previously proposed opening to the timber industry. Aurelia Skipwith, director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, stated that "these common-sense revisions
617:
appeared to support the loggers. Plastic spotted owls were hung in effigy in Oregon sawmills. The logging industry, in response to continued bad publicity, started the
Sustainable Forestry Initiative. While timber interests and conservatives have cited the northern spotted owl as an example of
331:
Northern spotted owls have dark brown plumage with white spots and no ear tufts. They are typically around sixteen to nineteen inches in length and one to one and one sixth pounds. Females are about 10-20% larger than males. Their wingspan is approximately 42 inches. They are a mainly nocturnal
674:
The barred owl is an owl species native to the
Eastern United States, but has invasively expanded west into the habitat ranges of the northern spotted owl. Invasion of barred owls into the northern spotted owl’s habitat has occurred recently, with all of northern spotted owl territory now also
411:
Northern spotted owls range on 500,000 acres of the 7.6 percent of private forestlands managed by Native
American tribes in the state of Washington. Federally recognized tribes are treated as sovereign governments, and each recognized tribe is responsible for their own management plans for the
645:
In 2007, the USFWS proposed a new recovery plan intended to guide all management actions on lands where spotted owls occur, and to aid in recovery of the species. Early proposals were criticized by environmental groups as significantly weakening existing protections for the species. The Obama
661:
ensure we are continuing to recover the northern spotted owl while being a good neighbor to rural communities within the critical habitat" even though northern spotted owl populations continue to decline. This was reversed by the Biden administration in 2021, restoring previous protections.
687:
and other related legislation, solutions to regulate barred owl populations could reverse the population decline of the northern spotted owl. Without intervention, continued annual decrease in population levels would ultimately end in extinction of the northern spotted owl.
528:
There are fewer than 1,200 pairs in Oregon, 560 pairs in
Northern California, and 500 pairs in Washington. Washington alone has lost over 90 percent of its old growth forest due to logging which has caused a 40-90 percent decline of the Northern Spotted Owl population.
630:
of 1994 was designed primarily to protect owls and other species dependent on old-growth forests while ensuring a certain amount of timber harvest. Although the result was much less logging, industry automation and the new law meant the loss of thousands of jobs.
552:, now numbers less than 100 breeding pairs of birds. By 2002 it was 30 breeding pairs, and by 2005 just 22 individuals containing 6 breeding pairs. A captive breeding and release program mooted in 2006 removed 10 individuals from the wild. It started in 2007 in
605:
of 1964, environmental protection saved 51,000 jobs in the
Pacific Northwest. Studies published in 2021 and 2024 suggest that listing the Northern Spotted Owl under the Endangered Species Act significantly reduced timber employment in the Pacific Northwest.
564:. The captive breeding program saw three males released nearby in August 2022, but one was brought back into captivity after being hit by a train and the other two died of unknown causes in May 2023. The captive breeding population has around 30 individuals.
789:
Courtney, Stephen P.; Blakesley, Jennifer A.; Bigley, Richard E.; Cody, Martin L.; Dumbacher, Jack P.; Fleischer, Robert C.; Franklin, Alan B.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Gutiérrez, Rocky J.; Marzluff, John M. & Sztukowski, Lisa (September 2004).
415:
The northern spotted owl nests in cavities or on platforms in large trees. It will also use abandoned nests of other species. Northern spotted owls remain in the same geographical areas unless forced out from harsh conditions or lack of food.
600:
by environmental scientists argued that logging jobs had been in a long decline and that environmental protection was not a significant factor in job loss. From 1947 to 1964, the number of logging jobs declined 90%. Starting with the
543:
The population in British Columbia has become almost extinct. From an original population of at least 1,000, fewer than 100 breeding pairs were left in the 1990s. The Canadian population was declared endangered by the
412:
northern spotted owls in their area. Regardless of tribal or private ownership, however, the United States federal government requires all land owners and inhabitants to comply with the Endangered Species Act.
1249:
625:
Protection of the owl, under both the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act, has led to significant changes in forest practices in the northwest. President Clinton's controversial
719:
583:
as the primary threat. The USFWS previously reviewed the status of the northern spotted owl in 1982, 1987 and 1989 but found it did not warrant listing as either threatened or endangered. Logging in
1604:
Diller, Lowell V.; Hamm, Keith A.; Early, Desiree A.; Lamphear, David W.; Dugger, Katie M.; Yackulic, Charles B.; Schwarz, Carl J.; Carlson, Peter C.; McDonald, Trent L. (February 17, 2016).
545:
540:" with a decreasing population trend. As the IUCN Red List does not track subspecies, this status is applied to species across its whole range in Canada, the United States and Mexico.
2050:
1509:"Effects of barred owl (Strix varia) range expansion on Haemoproteus parasite assemblage dynamics and transmission in barred and northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina)"
332:
species, and form long-term pair bonds. While most owls have yellow to red-orange colored eyes, northern spotted owls are one of the few owls with darkish to black-colored eyes.
557:
protected old-growth forest. Long-term the Breeding Program aims to recover the wild population to self-sustaining numbers, approximately 300 adults, over the next 10–20 years.
634:
The debate has cooled somewhat over the years, with little response from environmentalists as the owl's population continues to decline by 7.3 percent per year. In 2004 the
1253:
2012:
2065:
1834:
1356:
1321:
560:
In 2021, there were only 3 individuals left in the wild in Canada. The wild population dwindled down to a single female inhabiting the forests of the
1063:
46:
33:
1960:
1843:
1986:
576:
1310:. Report prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacey, WA and Yreka, CA. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 32 p.
1188:"The timber wars: the endangered species act, the northwest forest plan, and the political economy of timber management in the Pacific northwest"
2040:
1306:
Johnson DH, White GC, Franklin AB, Diller LV, Blackburn I, Pierce DJ, Olson GS, Buchanan JB, Thrailkill J, Woodbridge B, Ostwald M. (2008).
597:
1816:
653:
Federal biologists were considering in 2010 whether removal of competing barred owls would allow expansion of spotted owl populations.
982:
1821:
1489:
475:
spp.). Consumption of these small mammals varies by habitat region and proliferation of small nocturnal mammals. Recent invasion of
2060:
553:
341:
whistles are often used by the females to present themselves to the males, and the barks during territorial issues between owls.
791:
596:
were already declining because of dwindling old-growth forest harvests and automation of the lumber industry. One study at the
104:
1742:"Genetic structure, introgression, and a narrow hybrid zone between northern and California spotted owls (Strix occidentalis)"
635:
1991:
1507:
Lewicki, Krista E.; Huyvaert, Kathryn P.; Piaggio, Antoinette J.; Diller, Lowell V.; Franklin, Alan B. (December 20, 2014).
739:
1892:
584:
483:) into the northern spotted owl range has resulted in decreased food availability due to overlap in dietary preferences.
385:
1695:"Recent Records of Hybridization Between Barred Owls (Strix Varia) and Northern Spotted Owls (S. Occidentalis Caurina)"
1412:
Livezey KB (2010). "Killing barred owls to help spotted owls II: implications for many other range-expanding species".
609:
The controversy pitted individual loggers and small sawmill owners against environmentalists. Bumper stickers reading
1826:
1018:
2017:
1339:
931:
678:
The greater diversity of diet in the barred owl, notably in the amphibians, crayfish, and fish consumed, threatens
38:
389:
1831:
1710:
1652:
426:
908:
891:
136:
1395:
1290:
622:," or "canary in a coal mine" whose preservation has created protection for an entire threatened ecosystem.
454:
2045:
1854:
1102:
702:
572:
463:
245:
1694:
1805:
935:
684:
627:
393:
362:
1308:
Study designs for Barred Owl removal experiments to evaluate potential effects on Northern Spotted Owls
1141:
959:
1947:
1753:
1617:
1567:
1153:
679:
657:
642:
into the range and habitat of the spotted owl was also a cause of declining spotted owl populations.
561:
441:
435:
262:
1456:
2055:
549:
316:
86:
2004:
709:), but since both are subspecies of the same species, this is not truly considered hybridization.
1785:
1722:
1675:
1536:
1437:
1429:
1387:
1379:
1094:
1086:
867:
568:
397:
350:
312:
131:
1187:
361:) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range (
1911:
1777:
1769:
1714:
1633:
1583:
1528:
1464:
913:
859:
808:
619:
580:
513:
304:
1761:
1706:
1667:
1625:
1575:
1554:
Holm, Samantha R.; Noon, Barry R.; Wiens, J. David; Ripple, William J. (November 27, 2016).
1520:
1421:
1371:
1340:
Experiment to test killing one owl to help another; Barred owl competing against spotted owl
1199:
1161:
1078:
903:
851:
697:
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populations through culling, has been criticized by some animal rights and other activists.
618:
excessive or misguided environmental protection, many environmentalists view the owl as an "
522:
493:
374:
77:
1838:
537:
1757:
1621:
1571:
1157:
602:
1741:
1268:
2034:
1765:
1064:"Forty Years of Spotted Owls? A Longitudinal Analysis of Logging-Industry Job Losses"
533:
446:
299:
290:
1789:
1740:
BARROWCLOUGH, G. F.; GROTH, J. G.; MERTZ, L. A.; GUTIÉRREZ, R. J. (March 16, 2005).
1726:
1651:
Hamer, Thomas E.; Forsman, Eric D.; Fuchs, A. D. & Walters, M. L. (April 1994).
1441:
1391:
1098:
1916:
1540:
378:
308:
208:
1903:
838:
Forsman, Eric D.; Bruce, Charles R.; Walter, Mary A.; Meslow, E. Charles (1987).
696:
Northern spotted owls and barred owls have been shown to be capable of producing
1999:
1973:
1886:
283:
222:
1877:
1508:
1203:
1165:
1524:
647:
639:
518:
476:
405:
366:
320:
286:
1773:
1718:
1637:
1587:
1532:
1468:
917:
863:
1490:"Victory for spotted owl as Trump-era plan to reduce habitat is struck down"
638:
reaffirmed that the owl remained threatened, but indicated that invasion by
294:
148:
1781:
764:
24:
575:
throughout its range of northern California, Oregon and Washington by the
1871:
198:
168:
1939:
1556:"Potential trophic cascades triggered by the barred owl range expansion"
1433:
1383:
587:
containing the northern spotted owl was stopped by court order in 1991.
1965:
1679:
1605:
1425:
1375:
1090:
892:"Barred Owl Habitat and Prey: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature"
871:
370:
1978:
1629:
1606:"Demographic response of northern spotted owls to barred owl removal"
1555:
839:
496:. This technique allows them to glide silently down upon their prey.
468:
401:
358:
354:
319:
and competition with invasive species, its main competitor being the
158:
1929:
1848:
1811:
1671:
1579:
1082:
1006:
855:
1142:"Labor market impacts of land protection: The Northern Spotted Owl"
983:"One left: British Columbia's last chance on northern spotted owls"
1924:
1357:"Killing barred owls to help spotted owls I: a global perspective"
512:
121:
115:
1952:
1062:
Freudenburg, William R.; Lisa J. Wilson; Daniel O'Leary (1998).
178:
1852:
792:
Scientific Evaluation of the Status of the Northern Spotted Owl
720:
Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon
1457:"Trump Opens Habitat of a Threatened Owl to Timber Harvesting"
840:"A Current Assessment of the Spotted Owl Population in Oregon"
188:
18:
1019:"How Canada is trying to protect its last three spotted owls"
797:(Report). Portland, Oregon: Sustainable Ecosystems Institute.
536:
of Threatened Species status for the spotted owl species is "
396:
lands), although significant numbers occur on state lands in
1711:
10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0806:rrohbb]2.0.co;2
1236:
954:
952:
909:
10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[177:bohapa]2.0.co;2
546:
Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
353:
in the northern part of its range (extreme southwestern
315:
due to continued population decline from human-caused
1269:"Northern spotted owl's decline revives old concerns"
1455:
Friedman, Lisa; Einhorn, Catrin (January 13, 2021).
303:, it is a medium-sized dark brown owl native to the
1861:
809:"WFPA - NSO Conservation in WA - Tribal Forestland"
1322:"To protect spotted owl, larger rival is targeted"
1252:. Americanlands.org. May 15, 2007. Archived from
1146:Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
1812:Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program in Canada
1653:"Hybridization Between Barred and Spotted Owls"
976:
974:
972:
2051:Native birds of the Northwestern United States
1693:Kelly, Elizabeth G.; Forsman, Eric D. (2004).
8:
1844:2004 status review and biological assessment
492:series of rapid wingbeats interspersed with
408:, as well as tribal and private properties.
349:The northern spotted owl primarily inhabits
1044:
1042:
1040:
1849:
670:Population decline of northern spotted owl
95:
76:
67:
907:
567:The northern spotted owl was listed as a
425:consumed by the northern spotted owl are
384:Most spotted owls inhabit federal lands (
49:of all important aspects of the article.
16:Subspecies of owl found in North America
731:
577:United States Fish and Wildlife Service
1250:"American Lands Alliance Action Alert"
1140:Ferris, Ann E.; Eyel G. Frank (2021).
1007:Northern Spotted Owl Breeding Program
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
1599:
1597:
1267:Knickerbocker, Brad (June 27, 2007).
7:
1291:How Should We Manage the Barred Owl?
885:
883:
881:
833:
831:
829:
1338:Barnard, Jeff (December 10, 2009).
1320:Verhovek, Sam Howe (June 4, 2007).
1126:Guglielmino, Janine (Summer 1997).
890:Livezey, Kent B. (September 2007).
311:, the northern spotted owl remains
2066:Taxa named by Clinton Hart Merriam
1610:The Journal of Wildlife Management
1295:Olympic Peninsula Audubon Society.
14:
1766:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02465.x
958:Brokaw, Jeanne (Nov/Dec 1996). "
665:Influence of barred owl invasion
611:Kill a Spotted Owl—Save a Logger
579:on June 23, 1990 citing loss of
369:). The subspecies' range is the
135:
23:
1237:Sustainable Forestry Initiative
981:Ruth Kamnitzer (May 18, 2023).
598:University of Wisconsin–Madison
37:may be too short to adequately
1223:Adams, Larry (December 1999).
636:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2041:NatureServe imperiled species
1048:Satchell, M. (June 25, 1990)
1817:Woodland Park Zoo Fact Sheet
1227:, Vol. 104, Issue 13, p. 62.
1052:, Vol. 108, Issue 25, p. 27.
1050:U.S. News & World Report
373:coast from extreme southern
1271:. Christian Science Monitor
2084:
1893:Strix occidentalis caurina
1863:Strix occidentalis caurina
1837:February 10, 2006, at the
1204:10.1007/s11127-023-01123-3
1166:10.1016/j.jeem.2021.102480
1130:, Vol. 103, Issue 2, p. 6.
896:Journal of Raptor Research
813:www.northernspottedowl.org
740:"NatureServe Explorer 2.0"
279:Strix occidentalis caurina
255:Strix occidentalis caurina
1832:Seattle Times News Source
1560:Wildlife Society Bulletin
1525:10.1007/s10530-014-0828-5
1071:Sociological Perspectives
966:. Accessed April 3, 2013.
960:Does Anybody Give a Hoot?
615:I Like Spotted Owls—Fried
459:Clethnonomys californicus
427:northern flying squirrels
390:Bureau of Land Management
251:
244:
132:Scientific classification
130:
113:
93:
84:
75:
70:
1225:Wood & Wood Products
744:explorer.natureserve.org
455:western red-backed voles
381:in northern California.
345:Distribution and habitat
2061:Birds described in 1898
1414:Northwestern Naturalist
1364:Northwestern Naturalist
1297:Accessed April 3, 2013.
703:California spotted owls
932:"Northern Spotted Owl"
573:Endangered Species Act
525:
517:Northern spotted owl,
464:Peromyscus maniculatus
1186:Petach, Luke (2024).
936:Defenders of Wildlife
685:Northwest Forest Plan
628:Northwest Forest Plan
516:
451:Arborimus longicaudus
394:National Park Service
71:Northern spotted owl
1513:Biological Invasions
1496:. November 10, 2021.
1344:The Associated Press
765:"Appendices | CITES"
680:ecological stability
658:Trump administration
562:Spuzzum First Nation
274:northern spotted owl
223:S. occidentalis
1827:Enchanted learning
1758:2005MolEc..14.1109B
1622:2016JWMan..80..691D
1572:2016WSBu...40..615H
1355:Livezey KB (2010).
1158:2021JEEM..10902480F
656:In early 2021, the
550:Species at Risk Act
317:habitat destruction
293:bird in the family
87:Conservation status
1461:The New York Times
1426:10.1898/NWN09-38.1
1376:10.1898/NWN09-37.1
1108:on August 30, 2006
707:S. o. occidentalis
581:old-growth habitat
569:threatened species
526:
431:Glaucomys sabrinus
351:old growth forests
282:) is one of three
237:S. o. caurina
2028:
2027:
1855:Taxon identifiers
1746:Molecular Ecology
1630:10.1002/jwmg.1046
1326:Los Angeles Times
1256:on June 13, 2007.
620:indicator species
309:indicator species
305:Pacific Northwest
270:
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125:
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1752:(4): 1109–1120.
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1683:
1657:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1601:
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1519:(6): 1713–1727.
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1480:
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1477:
1475:
1452:
1446:
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1401:on May 25, 2017.
1400:
1394:. Archived from
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1198:(1–2): 209–226.
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1137:
1131:
1128:American Forests
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1113:
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1101:. Archived from
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1025:. April 16, 2021
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585:national forests
523:Portland, Oregon
436:Neotoma fuscipes
375:British Columbia
257:
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68:
59:
56:
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27:
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1839:Wayback Machine
1802:
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1672:10.2307/4088616
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1580:10.1002/wsb.714
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538:Near Threatened
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307:. An important
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1800:External links
1798:
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532:The worldwide
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494:gliding flight
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461:), deer mice (
447:red tree voles
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386:Forest Service
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534:IUCN Red List
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1494:The Guardian
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1472:. Retrieved
1460:
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1407:
1396:the original
1367:
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1294:
1285:
1273:. Retrieved
1262:
1254:the original
1244:
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1219:
1209:February 26,
1207:. Retrieved
1195:
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1181:
1171:February 26,
1169:. Retrieved
1149:
1145:
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1122:
1112:November 12,
1110:. Retrieved
1103:the original
1077:(#1): 1–26.
1074:
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1057:
1049:
1027:. Retrieved
1023:the Guardian
1022:
1013:
1002:
990:. Retrieved
986:
964:Mother Jones
963:
939:. Retrieved
926:
899:
895:
847:
844:The Murrelet
843:
818:February 24,
816:. Retrieved
812:
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768:
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747:. Retrieved
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509:Conservation
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500:Reproduction
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383:
379:Marin County
357:to southern
348:
339:
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298:
289:. A western
278:
277:
273:
271:
254:
252:
236:
235:
231:Subspecies:
221:
209:
189:Strigiformes
65:
52:
36:
34:lead section
2000:NatureServe
1974:iNaturalist
1887:Wikispecies
1806:Spotted Owl
1474:January 14,
941:October 30,
774:January 14,
640:barred owls
591:Controversy
481:Strix varia
477:barred owls
365:region and
327:Description
284:spotted owl
118:Appendix II
105:NatureServe
2056:Subspecies
2035:Categories
1822:Factsheets
1705:(3): 806.
727:References
648:barred owl
571:under the
519:Oregon Zoo
442:N. cinerea
406:California
398:Washington
367:California
321:barred owl
313:threatened
287:subspecies
101:Imperiled
55:March 2021
1808:– Cornell
1774:0962-1083
1719:0004-8038
1638:0022-541X
1588:1938-5463
1533:1387-3547
1469:0362-4331
1029:April 16,
918:0892-1016
864:0027-3716
850:(2): 51.
769:cites.org
295:Strigidae
217:Species:
199:Strigidae
155:Kingdom:
149:Eukaryota
39:summarize
2005:2.104619
1878:Q7058979
1872:Wikidata
1835:Archived
1790:23046067
1782:15773939
1727:86769738
1442:85425945
1434:40983223
1392:11691153
1384:40856470
1275:June 27,
1099:37523161
987:Mongabay
713:See also
487:Behavior
473:Thomomys
297:, genus
195:Family:
169:Chordata
165:Phylum:
159:Animalia
145:Domain:
1966:6176043
1953:1265186
1930:spoowl2
1904:spoowl2
1754:Bibcode
1699:The Auk
1680:4088616
1660:The Auk
1618:Bibcode
1568:Bibcode
1541:4798840
1154:Bibcode
1091:1389351
992:May 26,
872:3535693
554:Langley
469:gophers
467:), and
371:Pacific
363:Klamath
265:, 1898)
263:Merriam
205:Genus:
185:Order:
175:Class:
120: (
103: (
2018:311401
1992:177926
1979:117760
1937:ECOS:
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698:hybrid
404:, and
402:Oregon
392:, and
359:Oregon
355:Canada
1925:eBird
1917:5LBW3
1901:BOW:
1786:S2CID
1723:S2CID
1676:JSTOR
1656:(PDF)
1537:S2CID
1438:S2CID
1430:JSTOR
1399:(PDF)
1388:S2CID
1380:JSTOR
1360:(PDF)
1106:(PDF)
1095:S2CID
1087:JSTOR
1067:(PDF)
868:JSTOR
795:(PDF)
300:Strix
210:Strix
122:CITES
116:CITES
2013:NCBI
1987:ITIS
1961:GBIF
1940:1123
1778:PMID
1770:ISSN
1715:ISSN
1634:ISSN
1584:ISSN
1529:ISSN
1476:2021
1465:ISSN
1277:2007
1211:2024
1173:2024
1114:2008
1031:2021
994:2023
943:2008
914:ISSN
860:ISSN
820:2016
776:2022
751:2022
613:and
439:and
420:Diet
272:The
179:Aves
1948:EoL
1912:CoL
1762:doi
1707:doi
1703:121
1668:doi
1664:111
1626:doi
1576:doi
1521:doi
1422:doi
1372:doi
1200:doi
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