Consensus decision-making - Knowledge (XXG)

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fingers on both hands, a gesture sometimes referred to as "twinkling", to indicate agreement; raising a fist or crossing both forearms with hands in fists to indicate a block or strong disagreement; and making a "T" shape with both hands, the "time out" gesture, to call attention to a point of process or order. One common set of hand signals is called the "Fist-to-Five" or "Fist-of-Five". In this method each member of the group can hold up a fist to indicate blocking consensus, one finger to suggest changes, two fingers to discuss minor issues, three fingers to indicate willingness to let issue pass without further discussion, four fingers to affirm the decision as a good idea, and five fingers to volunteer to take a lead in implementing the decision.

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Additionally, the time commitment required to engage in the consensus decision-making process can sometimes act as a barrier to participation for individuals unable or unwilling to make the commitment. However, once a decision has been reached it can be acted on more quickly than a decision handed down. American businessmen complained that in negotiations with a Japanese company, they had to discuss the idea with everyone even the janitor, yet once a decision was made the Americans found the Japanese were able to act much quicker because everyone was on board, while the Americans had to struggle with internal opposition.

40: 862:: Giving the right to block proposals to all group members may result in the group becoming hostage to an inflexible minority or individual. When a popular proposal is blocked the group actually experiences widespread disagreement, the opposite of the consensus process's goal. Furthermore, "opposing such obstructive behavior construed as an attack on freedom of speech and in turn resolve on the part of the individual to defend his or her position." As a result, consensus decision-making has the potential to reward the least accommodating group members while punishing the most accommodating. 583:. The referees produce and display a list of these options. The debate proceeds, with queries, comments, criticisms and/or even new options. If the debate fails to come to a verbal consensus, the referees draw up a final list of options - usually between 4 and 6 - to represent the debate. When all agree, the chair calls for a preferential vote, as per the rules for a Modified Borda Count. The referees decide which option, or which composite of the two leading options, is the outcome. If its level of support surpasses a minimum consensus coefficient, it may be adopted. 563:, affinity groups disputed their spokescouncil's imposition of nonviolence in their action guidelines. They received the reprieve of letting groups self-organize their protests, and as the city's protest was subsequently divided into pie slices, each blockaded by an affinity group's choice of protest. Many of the participants learned about the spokescouncil model on the fly by participating in it directly, and came to better understand their planned action by hearing others' concerns and voicing their own. 1811:

present could speak. Participants included those of us on staff (a SNCC field secretary was paid $ 10 weekly, $ 9.64 after tax deductions), but, as time went on, an increasing number of local people would participate as well—individuals whom we were encouraging and coaching for future leadership. Our meetings were protracted and never efficient. Making a major decision might take three days and two nights. This sometimes meant that the decision was in effect made by those who remained and were still awake!

749:: As the name implies, the role of the facilitator is to help make the process of reaching a consensus decision easier. Facilitators accept responsibility for moving through the agenda on time; ensuring the group adheres to the mutually agreed-upon mechanics of the consensus process; and, if necessary, suggesting alternate or additional discussion or decision-making techniques, such as go-arounds, break-out groups or role-playing. Some consensus groups use two co-facilitators. Shared 505:: A "stand aside" may be registered by a group member who has a "serious personal disagreement" with a proposal, but is willing to let the motion pass. Although stand asides do not halt a motion, it is often regarded as a strong "nay vote" and the concerns of group members standing aside are usually addressed by modifications to the proposal. Stand asides may also be registered by users who feel they are incapable of adequately understanding or participating in the proposal. 56: 1576:

organization to activists in the United States, and was a leading advocate of a variety of practices—communal living, unlearning oppressive behavior, creating co-operatively owned businesses—that are now often subsumed under the rubric of "prefigurative politics." ... From the outset, MNS members relied on a consensus decision-making process, and rejected domineering forms of leadership prevalent in 1960s radical groups.

592: 1273:(Polish: "I do not allow!"). Over time it developed into a much more extreme form, where any Sejm member could unilaterally and immediately force the end of the current session and nullify any previously passed legislation from that session. Due to excessive use and sabotage from neighboring powers bribing Sejm members, legislating became very difficult and weakened the Commonwealth. Soon after the Commonwealth banned 796: 199: 1025:, for example, are unanimous, though often for widely varying reasons. "Consensus in Supreme Court voting, particularly the extreme consensus of unanimity, has often puzzled Court observers who adhere to ideological accounts of judicial decision making." Historical evidence is mixed on whether particular Justices' views were suppressed in favour of public unity. 1235:'s policy is to seek to use collaborative stakeholder engagement as standard operating practice for natural resources projects, plans, and decision-making except under unusual conditions such as when constrained by law, regulation, or other mandates or when conventional processes are important for establishing new, or reaffirming existing, precedent. 856:: In decision-making bodies that use formal consensus, the ability of individuals or small minorities to block agreement gives an enormous advantage to anyone who supports the existing state of affairs. This can mean that a specific state of affairs can continue to exist in an organization long after a majority of members would like it to change. 759:: The team of consensors is responsible for accepting those relevant proposals; for displaying an initial list of these options; for drawing up a balanced list of options to represent the entire debate; to analyse the preferences cast in any subsequent ballot; and, if need be, to determine the composite decision from the two most popular options. 626:. The number of objections is counted to determine if this step's consent threshold is satisfied. If it is, dissenters are asked to share their concerns with proceeding with the agreement, so that any potential harms can be addressed/minimized. This can happen even if the consent threshold is unanimity, especially if many voters stand aside. 765:: The purpose of the timekeeper is to ensure the decision-making body keeps to the schedule set in the agenda. Effective timekeepers use a variety of techniques to ensure the meeting runs on time including: giving frequent time updates, ample warning of short time, and keeping individual speakers from taking an excessive amount of time. 880:: When group members view the status quo as unjustly difficult to change through a whole group process, they may begin to delegate decision-making to smaller committees or to an executive committee. In some cases members begin to act unilaterally because they are frustrated with a stagnated group process. 949:

coercive. Decisions are never made (leading to the demise of the group), they are made covertly, or some group or individual dominates the rest. Sometimes a majority dominates, sometimes a minority, sometimes an individual who employs "the Block." But no matter how it is done, this coercive process is

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Heitzig and Simmons (2012) suggest using random selection as a fall-back method to strategically incentivize consensus over blocking. However, this makes it very difficult to tell the difference between those who support the decision and those who merely tactically tolerate it for the incentive. Once

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Unanimity is achieved when the full group apparently consents to a decision. It has disadvantages insofar as further disagreement, improvements or better ideas then remain hidden, but effectively ends the debate moving it to an implementation phase. Some consider all unanimity a form of groupthink,

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to plan the protest for many months leading up to the day. The anarchists were by far the majority in these planning meetings and decided on the agenda and norms for these at their own meeting held elsewhere beforehand, so a fully developed form of Consensus predominated at all the planning meetings.

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My next encounter with Consensus was in 2000 at the protest at the World Economic Forum held on 11–13 September that year, known as S11 and modelled on the events the previous year in Seattle. It was the anarchists who had taken the initiative to organise this event and mass meetings were being held

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Since consensus decision-making focuses on discussion and seeks the input of all participants, it can be a time-consuming process. This is a potential liability in situations where decisions must be made speedily, or where it is not possible to canvass opinions of all delegates in a reasonable time.

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when consensus cannot be reached within a given time frame. If the potential outcome of the fall-back method can be anticipated, then those who support that outcome have incentives to block consensus so that the fall-back method gets applied. Special fall-back methods have been developed that reduce

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and the ability to decide together. The goal is "unity, not unanimity." Ensuring that group members speak only once until others are heard encourages a diversity of thought. The facilitator is understood as serving the group rather than acting as person-in-charge. In the Quaker model, as with other

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Should some dissenter's perspective not harmonize with the others, that dissenter may "stand aside" to allow the group to proceed, or may opt to "block". "Standing aside" implies a certain form of silent consent. Some groups allow "blocking" by even a single individual to halt or postpone the entire

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Eleanor Garst, one of the Washington founders, explained the attractions of the un-organizational format: "... Any woman who has an idea can propose it through an informal memo system; if enough women think it's good, it's done. Those who don't like a particular action don't have to drop out of the

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In SNCC, we tried to make all decisions by consensus—something in the news earlier this autumn with the Occupy Wall Street movement. The achievement of consensus, however, is far from simple. In SNCC it meant discussing a matter and reformulating it until no objections remained. Everyone and anyone

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The popularity of consensus decision making has waxed and waned with the impulse toward participatory democracy and has become more mainstream over time. The last major wave in the United States began in the 1960s, gained momentum in the 1970s ... and peaked in the early 1980s, in the direct action

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Some advocates of consensus would assert that a majority decision reduces the commitment of each individual decision-maker to the decision. Members of a minority position may feel less commitment to a majority decision, and even majority voters who may have taken their positions along party or bloc

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has many of the same aims as consensus and is in applied in a similar range of situations. It is slightly different in that broad support for a proposal is defined as the lack of disagreement (sometimes called 'reasoned objection') rather than affirmative agreement. To reflect this difference from

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court (which had rules preventing unanimous conviction in a hurried process) strongly influenced the views of pacifist Protestants, including the Anabaptists (Mennonites/Amish), Quakers and Shakers. In particular it influenced their distrust of expert-led courtrooms and to "be clear about process"

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Most robust models of consensus exclude uniformly unanimous decisions and require at least documentation of minority concerns. Some state clearly that unanimity is not consensus but rather evidence of intimidation, lack of imagination, lack of courage, failure to include all voices, or deliberate

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To ensure the agreement or consent of all participants is valued, many groups choose unanimity or near-unanimity as their decision rule. Groups that require unanimity allow individual participants the option of blocking a group decision. This provision motivates a group to make sure that all group

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vote. It does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and the formation of competing factions. These dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious

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Yet, in the later 1960s, both the Black Freedom movement and the student movement, smarting from repression on the one hand, and elated by radical victories at home and abroad on the other, moved away from this emergent, anarchistic, political space distinguished from both liberalism and Marxism.

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Many people think of consensus as simply an extended voting method in which everyone must cast their votes the same way. Since unanimity of this kind rarely occurs in groups with more than one member, groups that try to use this kind of process usually end up being either extremely frustrated or

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are another method for reading a room's positions nonverbally. They work well with groups of fewer than 250 people and especially with multi-lingual groups. The nature and meaning of individual gestures varies between groups, but a widely adopted core set of hand signals include: wiggling of the

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Even with goodwill and social awareness, citizens are likely to disagree in their political opinions and judgments. Differences of interest as well as of perception and values will lead the citizens to divergent views about how to direct and use the organized political power of the community, in

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is not published in advance or changed when it becomes clear who is present to consent), fear of speaking one's mind, a lack of creativity (to suggest alternatives) or even a lack of courage (to go further along the same road to a more extreme solution that would not achieve unanimous consent).

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of 1527. Some Christians trace consensus decision-making back to the Bible. The Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia references, in particular, Acts 15 as an example of consensus in the New Testament. The lack of legitimate consensus process in the unanimous conviction of Jesus by corrupt

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Though rarely remembered by name today, many of the new ways of doing radical politics that the Movement for a New Society (MNS) promoted have become central to contemporary anti-authoritarian social movements. MNS popularized consensus decision-making, introduced the spokescouncil method of

234:(AQAG) in 1966 to try and encourage activism within the Quakers. By 1971 AQAG members felt they needed not only to end the war, but transform civil society as a whole, and renamed AQAG to MNS. MNS members used consensus decision-making from the beginning as a non-religious adaptation of the 989:

or other mutually beneficial solutions. Carlos Santiago Nino, on the other hand, has argued that majority rule leads to better deliberation practice than the alternatives, because it requires each member of the group to make arguments that appeal to at least half the participants.

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of a wheel. While speaking rights might be limited to each group's designee, the meeting may allot breakout time for the constituent groups to discuss an issue and return to the circle via their spokesperson. In the case of an activist spokescouncil preparing for the

622:: The facilitator of the decision-making body calls for consensus on the proposal. Each member of the group usually must actively state whether they agree or consent, stand aside, or object, often by using a hand gesture or raising a colored card, to avoid the group 1222:

philosophy, the model operates as a consensus-building model, as the clinician addresses ethical conflicts through a process of negotiating to consensus. Conflicts are resolved by consensually agreed on arbitrators who are selected early in the negotiation process.

499:: Group members who are willing to let a motion pass but desire to register their concerns with the group may choose "declare reservations." If there are significant reservations about a motion, the decision-making body may choose to modify or re-word the proposal. 579:(MBC) voting method. The group first elects, say, three referees or consensors. The debate on the chosen problem is initiated by the facilitator calling for proposals. Every proposed option is accepted if the referees decide it is relevant and conforms with the 779:

of the participants. Defusing potential emotional conflicts, maintaining a climate free of intimidation and being aware of potentially destructive power dynamics, such as sexism or racism within the decision-making body, are the primary responsibilities of the

511:: Any group member may "object" to a proposal. In groups with a unanimity decision rule, a single block is sufficient to stop a proposal. Other decision rules may require more than one objection for a proposal to be blocked or not pass (see previous section, 655:-based consensus is said to be effective because it puts in place a simple, time-tested structure that moves a group towards unity. The Quaker model is intended to allow hearing individual voices while providing a mechanism for dealing with disagreements. 1655:

MNS trainers traveled throughout New England in early 1977, facilitating workshops on non-violent direct action with members and supporters of the Clamshell Alliance, the largest anti-nuclear organization on the East Coast, which was coordinating the

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Once an agenda for discussion has been set and, optionally, the ground rules for the meeting have been agreed upon, each item of the agenda is addressed in turn. Typically, each decision arising from an agenda item follows through a simple structure:

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The Movement for a New Society (MNS) from Philadelphia had influenced the Clamshell, and David Hartsough, who had also worked for civil rights in the South, brought their nonviolence tactics, affinity group structure, and consensus processes to

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Some consensus decision-making bodies use a system of colored cards to indicate speaker priority. For instance, red cards to indicate feedback on a breach in rules or decorum, yellow cards for clarifying questions, and green cards for desire to

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High-stakes decision-making, such as judicial decisions of appeals courts, always require some such explicit documentation. Consent however is still observed that defies factional explanations. Nearly 40% of the decisions of the

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members consent to any new proposal before it is adopted. When there is potential for a block to a group decision, both the group and dissenters in the group are encouraged to collaborate until agreement can be reached. Simply

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lines may have a sense of reduced responsibility for the ultimate decision. The result of this reduced commitment, according to many consensus proponents, is potentially less willingness to defend or act upon the decision.

735:, a timekeeper, an empath and a secretary or notes taker. Not all decision-making bodies use all of these roles, although the facilitator position is almost always filled, and some groups use supplementary roles, such as a 1088:

consensus-building process in which parties mediate to find peace and avoid future hostility and revenge. The resulting agreements are expected to be followed, and range from advice and warnings to compensation and exile.

265:, later reflected: "we tried to make all decisions by consensus ... it meant discussing a matter and reformulating it until no objections remained". This way of working was brought to the SNCC at its formation by the 122:

can represent a generally accepted opinion – "general agreement or concord; harmony", "a majority of opinion" – or the outcome of a consensus decision-making process. This article refers to the process

610:: The item is discussed with the goal of identifying opinions and information on the topic at hand. The general direction of the group and potential proposals for action are often identified during the discussion. 1194:

One tradition in support of rough consensus is the tradition of humming rather than (countable) hand-raising; this allows a group to quickly discern the prevalence of dissent, without making it easy to slip into

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The consensus decision-making process often has several roles designed to make the process run more effectively. Although the name and nature of these roles varies from group to group, the most common are the

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consensus decision-making processes, articulating the emerging consensus allows members to be clear on the decision in front of them. As members' views are taken into account they are likely to support it.

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in an attempt to address the concerns of the decision-makers. The process then returns to the call for consensus and the cycle is repeated until a satisfactory decision passes the consent threshold for the

874:: When high levels of group member frustration result from blocked decisions or inordinately long meetings, members may leave the group, try to get to others to leave, or limit who has entry to the group. 1841:

Many civil rights organizers took up nationalist politics in hierarchical organizations, while some of the most committed members of SDS returned to variants of Marxist-Leninism and democratic socialism.

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is often adopted to diffuse the perceived power of the facilitator and create a system whereby a co-facilitator can pass off facilitation duties if he or she becomes more personally engaged in a debate.

901:. Studies of effective consensus process usually indicate a shunning of unanimity or "illusion of unanimity" that does not hold up as a group comes under real-world pressure (when dissent reappears). 2091: 1040:, a group can unanimously agree on a course of action that no individual member of the group desires because no one individual is willing to go against the perceived will of the decision-making body. 739:

or greeter. Some decision-making bodies rotate these roles through the group members in order to build the experience and skills of the participants, and prevent any perceived concentration of power.

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Better implementation: A process that includes and respects all parties, and generates as much agreement as possible sets the stage for greater cooperation in implementing the resulting decisions.

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Confusion between unanimity and consensus, in other words, usually causes consensus decision-making to fail, and the group then either reverts to majority or supermajority rule or disbands.

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order to promote and protect common interests. If political representatives reflect this diversity, then there will be as much disagreement in the legislature as there is in the population.

363:: All members of a consensus decision-making body should be afforded, as much as possible, equal input into the process. All members have the opportunity to present and amend proposals. 3733: 355:: Participants in an effective consensus process should strive to reach the best possible decision for the group and all of its members, rather than competing for personal preferences. 3227: 1161:

is a circulation document used to obtain agreement. It must first be signed by the lowest level manager, and then upwards, and may need to be revised and the process started over.

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The main inspiration for anti-nuclear activists—at least the main organizational inspiration—came from a group called the Movement for a New Society (MNS), based in Philadelphia.

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Critics of consensus blocking often observe that the option, while potentially effective for small groups of motivated or trained individuals with a sufficiently high degree of

775:: The empath, or 'vibe watch' as the position is sometimes called, is charged with monitoring the 'emotional climate' of the meeting, taking note of the body language and other 632:: If consensus is not achieved, each dissenter presents his or her concerns on the proposal, potentially starting another round of discussion to address or clarify the concern. 160: 1995: 1179:. The IETF has studiously refrained from defining a mechanical method for verifying such consensus, apparently in the belief that any such codification leads to attempts to " 281:. However, as the SNCC faced growing internal and external pressure toward the mid-1960s, it developed into a more hierarchical structure, eventually abandoning consensus. 2476: 2227: 1824:"Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s By Andrew Cornell | The Institute for Anarchist Studies" 1639:"Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s By Andrew Cornell | The Institute for Anarchist Studies" 1559:"Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s By Andrew Cornell | The Institute for Anarchist Studies" 3982: 3657: 1973: 1783: 1073: 2689: 868:: When groups cannot make the decisions necessary to function (because they cannot resolve blocks), they may lose effectiveness in accomplishing their mission. 997:

Majority voting cannot measure consensus. Indeed,—so many 'for' and so many 'against'—it measures the very opposite, the degree of dissent. The

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Limiting the option of blocking to decisions that are substantial to the mission or operation of the group and not allowing blocking on routine decisions.

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Food Not Bombs started after the May 24, 1980 protest to stop the Seabrook Nuclear power station north of Boston in New Hampshire in the United States.

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decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems. Proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include:

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Japanese companies normally use consensus decision-making, meaning that unanimous support on the board of directors is sought for any decision. A

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A participant who does not support a proposal may have alternatives to simply blocking it. Some common options may include the ability to:

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Limiting the allowable rationale for blocking to issues that are fundamental to the group's mission or potentially disastrous to the group.

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process in which participants develop and decide on proposals with the goal of achieving broad acceptance, defined by its terms as form of

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All attempts at achieving consensus begin with a good faith attempt at generating full-agreement, regardless of decision rule threshold.

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Better group relationships: A cooperative, collaborative group atmosphere can foster greater group cohesion and interpersonal connection.

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Leach, Darcy K. (February 2016). "When Freedom Is Not an Endless Meeting: A New Look at Efficiency in Consensus-Based Decision Making".

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a decision is not considered a responsible use of consensus blocking. Some common guidelines for the use of consensus blocking include:

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The facilitator can discern if one who is not uniting with the decision is acting without concern for the group or in selfish interest.

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Diversity of opinion is normal in most all situations, and will be represented proportionately in an appropriately functioning group.

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Better decisions: Through including the input of all stakeholders the resulting proposals may better address all potential concerns.

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considers the merits and challenges of consensus in open and online communities. Randy Schutt, Starhawk and other practitioners of

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Ideally, all dissenters' perspectives are synthesized into the final outcome for a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.

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Complaint handling in the rehabilitation of Aceh and Nias : experiences of the Asian Development Bank and other organizations

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they receive that incentive, they may undermine or refuse to implement the agreement in various and non-obvious ways. In general

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Edelman, Paul H.; Klein, David E.; Lindquist, Stefanie A. (2012). "Consensus, Disorder, and Ideology on the Supreme Court".

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cultures (Indonesian), family and regional disputes, from playground fights to estate inheritance, are handled through a

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Designing an all-inclusive democracy : consensual voting procedures for use in parliaments, councils and committees

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the common understanding of the word consensus, in Sociocracy the process is called gaining 'consent' (not consensus).

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Outside of Western culture, multiple other cultures have used consensus decision-making. One early example is the

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focus on the hazards of apparent agreement followed by action in which group splits become dangerously obvious.

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make joint decisions by each designating a speaker and sitting behind that circle of spokespeople, akin to the

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Epstein, Lee; Segal, Jeffrey A.; Spaeth, Harold J. (2001). "The Norm of Consensus on the U.S. Supreme Court".

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for application to secular settings, and can be effectively applied in any consensus decision-making process.

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published a consensus-based model of professional decision-making for counselors and psychologists. Based on

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The facilitator articulates the sense of the discussion, asks if there are other concerns, and proposes a "

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Cline, Rebecca J. Welch (2009). "Detecting groupthink: Methods for observing the illusion of unanimity".

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Welch Cline, Rebecca J (1990). "Detecting groupthink: Methods for observing the illusion of unanimity".

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and some experts propose "coding systems ... for detecting the illusion of unanimity symptom". In

397: 262: 258: 231: 180: 152: 79: 2982: 2634:"Public Policy Consensus & Mediation: State of Maine Best Practices - What is a Consensus Process?" 218:(MNS) has been credited for popularizing consensus decision-making. Unhappy with the inactivity of the 3058: 1506:"When Freedom Is Not an Endless Meeting: A New Look at Efficiency in Consensus-Based Decision Making" 1380: 1333: 1313: 1215: 1122: 998: 846: 623: 576: 560: 98:, which requires all participants to support a decision. Consensus decision-making in a democracy is 3456: 1349: 1308: 823: 813: 736: 639: 288: 99: 2134: 1997:

Consensus-Oriented Decision-Making: The CODM Model for Facilitating Groups to Widespread Agreement

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voting method has been advocated as more 'consensual' than majority voting, by, among others, by

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Groups that require unanimity commonly use a core set of procedures depicted in this flow chart.

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allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through a form of

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Requiring the blocking party to supply an alternative proposal or a process for generating one.

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Providing an option for those who do not support a proposal to "stand aside" rather than block.

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Unanimous, or apparently unanimous, decisions can have drawbacks. They may be symptoms of a

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Inohara, Takehiro (2010). "Consensus building and the Graph Model for Conflict Resolution".

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Harvey, Jerry B. (Summer 1974). "The Abilene Paradox and other Meditations on Management".

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The group as a whole is responsible for the decision and the decision belongs to the group.

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movement, and peaked in popularity in the early 1980s. Consensus spread abroad through the

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Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities

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The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (unabridged)], New York, 1967, p. 312

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Norms limit number of times one asks to speak to ensure that each speaker is fully heard.

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Limiting each person's option to block consensus to a handful of times in one's life.

439: 343: 311: 148: 91: 3337: 3084: 2803: 2782: 2265: 591: 3478:

Tomalin, Barry; Knicks, Mike (2008). "Consensus or individually driven decision-".

3252:

The Logic of Democracy: Reconciling Equality, Deliberation, and Minority Protection

3062: 2959: 2716: 1370: 1338: 1249: 1203: 1061: 1010: 669:

Multiple concerns and information are shared until the sense of the group is clear.

274: 3765: 985:, framing decision-making in a win/lose dichotomy that ignores the possibility of 524:

The basic model for achieving consensus as defined by any decision rule involves:

3826: 3162: 3009: 2933:"Some chance for consensus: Voting methods for which consensus is an equilibrium" 2562: 2498: 143:

Consensus decision-making, as a self-described practice, originates from several

2888:"Utah Local News - Salt Lake City News, Sports, Archive - The Salt Lake Tribune" 2835: 2593: 2146: 1365: 1138: 1101: 1057: 982: 978: 906: 728: 686: 351: 223: 144: 3702: 3319: 3208: 3044: 2951: 2559:"Notes prepared for Round table: Teaching Consensus-building in the Classroom" 1400: 1328: 1289: 1265:

originally allowed any member of a Sejm to veto an individual law by shouting

986: 898: 890: 795: 198: 4134: 3961: 3643: 2397: 1955: 1769: 1609: 1529: 1443: 1033:

avoid allowing offering incentives (or "bribes") to change a heartfelt vote.

1001:

has been put forward as a voting method which better approximates consensus.

3803: 1906: 1457: 1114: 1105: 894: 732: 435: 95: 3879: 1717: 1601: 1427: 3915:"The Tao of IETF: A Novice's Guide to the Internet Engineering Task Force" 3856: 2444: 2348:"Street Theory: Grassroots Activist Interventions in Regimes of Knowledge" 1935: 1749: 294:

As consensus grew in popularity, it became less clear who influenced who.

2325: 1072:

towards an acceptable compromise. The technique was also used during the

411: 406:, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book on 87: 4048:

Ekiert, Grzegorz (1998). Lipset, Seymour Martin (ed.). "Veto, Liberum".

3938:"A Social Constructivism Model of Ethical Decision Making in Counseling" 3767:

The Origin of Satan: How Christians Demonized Jews, Pagans, and Heretics

3260: 2204: 1827: 1697: 1642: 1562: 913:

or judicial-like methods view explicit dissent as a symbol of strength.

322:(2011) made use of consensus in combination with techniques such as the 3372: 1888: 1854: 1014: 693: 461: 4126: 1521: 1100:, or Quakers, who adopted the technique as early as the 17th century. 969:

Some proponents of consensus decision-making view procedures that use

713:

Key components of Quaker-based consensus include a belief in a common

375:

as possible should be involved in a consensus decision-making process.

306:, adopted consensus for their organization. Consensus was used in the 3892: 1065: 974: 652: 3364: 3250: 2797:"A Handbook for Direct Democracy and the Consensus Decision Process" 2528:"A Comparison of Quaker-based Consensus and Robert's Rules of Order" 2053:"Articles on Meeting Facilitation, Consensus, Santa Cruz California" 1894:

movement; they just sit out that action and wait for one they like."

1870: 799:

Front face, back face and embossing mask for colored consensus cards

575:(2007), Emerson proposes a consensus oriented approach based on the 4017:

The new Cambridge modern history: The ascendancy of France, 1648–88

3579:"This simple negotiation tactic brought 195 countries to consensus" 3560:"Climate talks turn to South African indaba process to unlock deal" 2352:

Out of the Ruins: The Emergence of Radical Informal Learning Spaces

3999:

Juliusz, Bardach; Leśnodorski, Bogusław; Pietrzak, Michał (1987).

3312:

2010 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics

2904:

Rules for Reaching Consensus: A Modern Approach to Decision Making

2775:"Non-verbal communication - a solution for complex group settings" 1799:"Mary E. King » The short and the long of creating democracy" 1254: 590: 555: 471:

Requiring a block from two or more people to put a proposal aside.

396:

Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced

197: 54: 38: 1227:

US Bureau of Land Management collaborative stakeholder engagement

1118:

and convene in a way that assures that "everyone must be heard".

1068:, community leaders gather to listen to the public and negotiate 2027:

Northwest Intentional Communities Association guide to consensus

1855:"Ladies' Day at the Capitol: Women Strike for Peace versus HUAC" 1081: 1077: 534:

Modifying the proposal to generate as much agreement as possible

94:

and avoiding unproductive opinion differentiates consensus from

3914: 2029:. Northwest Intentional Communities Association. Archived from 2023:"Consensus Basics, Ingredients of successful consensus process" 682:

Ideas and solutions belong to the group; no names are recorded.

253:

An earlier account of consensus decision-making comes from the

2663: 1798: 893:

in the long run. Accordingly, it should not be confused with

383:: The consensus process should actively solicit the input and 2195: 2193: 944:, long-time progressive change activist Randy Schutt writes: 3290:

Welcome to the archived Rhizome website for useful resources

3106:"Consensus Is Not Unanimity: Making Decisions Cooperatively" 298:, which started in 1980 in connection with an occupation of 2074: 2072: 2070: 1247:

of 1569–1795 used consensus decision-making in the form of

2298:. Northwest Cooperative Development Center. Archived from 1191:

chair is supposed to articulate the "sense of the group."

167:. The practice gained popularity in the 1970s through the 3595:

Regional Security in Southeast Asia: Beyond the ASEAN Way

2861:"Guide for Facilitators: Fist-to-Five Consensus-Building" 2232:

Participatory Decision-Making in a Cross-Cultural Context

1096:-making can be traced significantly further back, to the 1017:

and subsequent sabotage of the group as it takes action.

878:

Channeling decisions away from an inclusive group process

3880:"RFC 2418: IETF Working Group Guidelines and Procedures" 3085:

Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Knowledge (XXG)

3068:

Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Knowledge (XXG)

2610:. Quaker Foundations of Leadership, 1999. Archived from 2561:. Quaker Foundations of Leadership, 1999. Archived from 1206:, where all parties can speak their views at all times. 897:

in the immediate situation, which is often a symptom of

1281:, it dissolved under pressure from neighboring powers. 1590:"The rebirth of anarchism in North America, 1957-2007" 1543:

wings of the women's, peace, and antinuclear movements

338:

Characteristics of consensus decision-making include:

314:

in 2000 to do so too. Consensus was used at the first

86:. The focus on establishing agreement of at least the 685:

Ideally, differences are resolved by discussion. The

4003:. Warszawa: Państ. Wydaw. Naukowe. pp. 220–221. 3480:

The World's Business Cultures and How to Unlock Them

3083:

Available for free download in multiple formats at:

2110:

Facilitator's Guide to Participatory Decision-Making

595:

Flowchart of basic consensus decision-making process

27:

Group decision-making aiming for universal agreement

1202:Much of the business of the IETF is carried out on 114:is Latin meaning "agreement, accord", derived from 4094:Many Voices One Song: Shared Power with Sociocracy 3764: 3224:"Consensus: a colourful farewell to majority rule" 2690:"How To Use a Consensus Process To Make Decisions" 1054:Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy Grand Council 1013:attempt to explore the implications of suppressed 63:Assembly reaching a consensus through deliberation 3981:. Bureau of Land Management. 2009. Archived from 2350:. In Haworth, Robert H.; Elmore, John M. (eds.). 872:Susceptibility to splitting and excluding members 849:, has a number of possible shortcomings, notably 30:For the Knowledge (XXG) policy on consensus, see 3828:Modern Japanese Organization and Decision-making 2234:. Canada World Youth. p. 37. Archived from 238:they were used to. MNS trained the anti-nuclear 51:(2011) where people aimed to establish consensus 4068:We the People: Consenting to a Deeper Democracy 3831:. University of California Press. p. 121. 3738:Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online 3509:Mohawk – Discovering the Valley of the Crystals 3255:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 3161:Schermers, Henry G.; Blokker, Niels M. (2011). 2802:. Zhaba Facilitators Collective. Archived from 2750:. Network Service Collaboration. Archived from 2451:. ConsensusDecisionMaking.org. 17 February 2015 946: 447: 392:Alternative to common decision-making practices 246:(1977) to use consensus, and in 1977 published 83: 1702:. Virginia Coover. : New Society Press. 1977. 4070:. United States Sociocracy. Info Press, 2017. 3703:"Church Leadership: A Historical Perspective" 3455:. National Defense University. Archived from 3099: 3097: 2201:"The Consensus Decision Process in Cohousing" 1173:(IETF), decisions are assumed to be taken by 1074:2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference 973:as undesirable for several reasons. Majority 742:The common roles in a consensus meeting are: 624:interpreting silence or inaction as agreement 269:, who had received nonviolence training from 257:(SNCC), the main student organization of the 8: 3167:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 547. 2748:"Meeting Facilitation – The No-Magic Method" 2326:"Amazing Graces' Guide to Consensus Process" 2203:. Canadian Cohousing Network. Archived from 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1426:McGann, Anthony J.; Latner, Michael (2013). 3669: 3667: 3226:. World Council of Churches. Archived from 2931:Heitzig, Jobst; Simmons, Forest W. (2012). 2683: 2681: 2662:. Food Not Bombs Publishing. Archived from 2590:Program in Quaker Foundations of Leadership 2264:. Frontier Education Center. Archived from 3656:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3628:. Metro Manila, Philippines. p. 151. 3006:"Consensus building and verbal desperados" 2346:Jeppesen, Sandra; Adamiak, Joanna (2017). 1972:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1782:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4096:. United States Sociocracy For All, 2018. 3891: 3286:"Near-consensus alternatives: Crowd Wise" 2979:The Collective Book on Collective Process 2522: 2520: 2445:"The Basics of Consensus Decision Making" 1937:The origins of collective decision making 1878: 1751:The origins of collective decision making 1669:"Anti-Nuclear Protests by Sanderson Beck" 860:Susceptibility to widespread disagreement 638:: The proposal is amended, re-phrased or 630:Identification and addressing of concerns 255:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee 250:, which included a section on consensus. 3598:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 3453:Strategic Leadership and Decision Making 2901:Saint, Steven; Lawson, James R. (1994). 2692:. Community Arts Network. Archived from 2475:. The Common Place. 2005. Archived from 2135:"Unanimity, Consensus and Majority Rule" 794: 179:movements, and has become normalized in 3942:Journal of Counseling & Development 2926: 2924: 2287:Rachel Williams; Andrew McLeod (2008). 1699:Resource manual for a living revolution 1418: 820:protesters in their group negotiations. 248:Resource Manual for a Living Revolution 3649: 2653: 2651: 2532:Quaker Foundations of Leadership, 1999 2260:Consensus Development Project (1998). 1965: 1775: 1723: 965:Criticism of majority voting processes 3482:. Thorogood Publishing. p. 109. 3353:American Journal of Political Science 3142:from the original on 13 February 2008 2658:C.T. Lawrence Butler; Amy Rothstein. 2557:Berry, Fran; Snyder, Monteze (1998). 2409: 2407: 2373: 2371: 2097:from the original on 26 October 2014. 1743: 1741: 1428:"The Calculus of Consensus Democracy" 658:The Quaker model has been adapted by 581:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 528:Collaboratively generating a proposal 261:, founded in 1960. Early SNCC member 7: 2973:The Common Wheel Collective (2002). 1553: 1551: 1257:(legislative assemblies). A type of 573:Designing an All-Inclusive Democracy 561:A16 Washington D.C. protests in 2000 300:Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant 208:Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant 4092:Rau, Ted J., Koch-Gonzalez, Jerry. 2505:. Seeds for Change. 1 December 2005 1504:Leach, Darcy K. (1 February 2016). 1269:(Latin: "I stop the activity!") or 916:In his book about Knowledge (XXG), 512: 455:Blocking and other forms of dissent 4081:Sociocracy - a Brief Introduction. 4001:Historia państwa i prawa polskiego 3954:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01941.x 3577:Rathi, Akshat (12 December 2015). 3388:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 2834:. Seeds for Change. Archived from 2727:from the original on 7 August 2020 312:S11 (World Economic Forum protest) 25: 4020:. CUP Archive. pp. 561–562. 3855:. Japanese123.com. Archived from 3538:"Dating the Iroquois Confederacy" 2415:"What is a modified Borda count?" 961:exclusion of the contrary views. 434:Consensus is not synonymous with 118:meaning "feel together". A noun, 3592:Anthony, Mely Caballero (2005). 3449:"Consensus Team Decision Making" 3400:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2011.01249.x 2228:"If Agreement Cannot Be Reached" 1145:(Lewis Carroll) in 1884, and by 1005:Additional critical perspectives 866:Stagnation and group dysfunction 531:Identifying unsatisfied concerns 4083:N.p.: Sociocracy For All, 2022. 4066:Buck, John., Villines, Sharon. 4014:Francis Ludwig Carsten (1961). 3713:(2). Kindred Productions: 18–27 3619:Asian Development Bank (2009). 3164:International Institutional Law 2863:. Freechild.org. Archived from 2170:Christian, Diana Leafe (2003). 2081:"16. Consensus Decision Making" 1994:Hartnett, Tim (26 April 2011). 1171:Internet Engineering Task Force 151:groups that were active in the 3104:Schutt, Randy (13 June 2016). 1826:. 1 April 2010. Archived from 1641:. 1 April 2010. Archived from 1561:. 1 April 2010. Archived from 1245:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1239:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 854:Preservation of the status quo 1: 4050:The Encyclopedia of Democracy 3222:Friedrich Degenhardt (2006). 3063:"The challenges of consensus" 2779:Zhaba Facilitators Collective 2112:. John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1432:Comparative Political Studies 1113:priests in an illegally held 931:, a rigged process (where an 814:A similar set of hand signals 318:(2006) and subsequent camps. 127:the outcome (e.g. "to decide 3917:. The Internet Society. 2006 3435:10.1016/0090-2616(74)90005-9 2262:"FRONTIER: A New Definition" 2108:Kaner, Sam (26 April 2007). 1098:Religious Society of Friends 1009:Some formal models based on 636:Modification of the proposal 220:Religious Society of Friends 183:spheres in conjunction with 163:movements in the USA during 2975:"Introduction to Consensus" 2660:"On Conflict and Consensus" 2289:"Consensus Decision-Making" 2147:10.1007/978-1-349-27291-4_7 1462:Online Etymology Dictionary 1210:Social constructivism model 1064:(South African) process of 1023:United States Supreme Court 889:Consensus seeks to improve 165:counterculture of the 1960s 4222: 4114:The Sociological Quarterly 3936:Cottone, R. Rocco (2001). 3536:Bruce E. Johansen (1995). 3320:10.1109/ICSMC.2010.5641917 3071:. MIT Press. p. 100. 2608:"Our Distinctive Approach" 2378:Emerson, Peter J. (2007). 2324:Dorcas; Ellyntari (2004). 2296:Cooperative Starter Series 2176:. New Society Publishers. 2000:. New Society Publishers. 1510:The Sociological Quarterly 1304:Consensus based assessment 1279:Constitution of 3 May 1791 1165:IETF rough consensus model 942:Consensus is not Unanimity 216:Movement for a New Society 106:Origin and meaning of term 29: 3678:. Philica. Archived from 3608:– via Google Books. 3209:10.1080/01463379009369748 3136:Consensus Decision-Making 3045:10.1080/01463379009369748 2952:10.1007/s00355-010-0517-y 2940:Social Choice and Welfare 2503:Consensus Decision Making 2449:Consensus Decision Making 2354:. PM Press. p. 291. 1880:2027/spo.0499697.0008.303 1485:", accessed 6 March 2021. 1324:Consensus theory of truth 1233:Bureau of Land Management 567:Modified Borda Count vote 308:1999 Seattle WTO protests 135:consensus was reached"). 68:Consensus decision-making 32:Knowledge (XXG):Consensus 3505:"League of the Iroquois" 3503:M. Paul Keesler (2008). 3249:McGann, Anthony (2006). 2688:Sheila Kerrigan (2004). 2226:Richard Bruneau (2003). 1444:10.1177/0010414012463883 909:and other proponents of 676:and sharing information. 3878:Bradner, Scott (1998). 3825:Vogel, Ezra F. (1975). 3732:Ralph A Lebold (1989). 3674:Ethan Mitchell (2006). 3511:. North Country Press. 3423:Organizational Dynamics 3284:Rhizome (2 June 2011). 3197:Communication Quarterly 3033:Communication Quarterly 3004:Alan McCluskey (1999). 2886:The Salt Lake Tribune. 2773:Haverkamp, Jan (1999). 2584:Woodrow, Peter (1999). 2055:. Groupfacilitation.net 1588:Graeber, David (2010). 1481:Cambridge Dictionary, " 614:Formation of a proposal 408:Parliamentary Procedure 403:Robert's Rules of Order 387:of all decision-makers. 316:Camp for Climate Action 267:Nashville student group 206:'s first occupation of 189:participatory democracy 3763:Elaine Pagels (1996). 3701:Dueck, Abe J. (1990). 3314:. pp. 2841–2846. 2717:"Meeting Facilitation" 2419:The de Borda Institute 2133:Weale, Albert (1999). 2079:Bressen, Tree (2006). 1934:Blunden, Andy (2016). 1853:Swerdlow, Amy (1982). 1748:Blunden, Andy (2016). 1730:: CS1 maint: others ( 1602:10.36132/hao.v0i21.419 1594:Historia Actual Online 1396:Social representations 1376:Quaker decision-making 955: 911:deliberative democracy 800: 665:Its process includes: 608:Discussion of the item 596: 452: 285:Women Strike for Peace 279:Highlander Folk School 236:Quaker decision-making 222:(Quakers) against the 211: 193:prefigurative politics 74:(often abbreviated to 64: 52: 18:Overwhelming consensus 4176:Group decision-making 3110:www.vernalproject.org 3061:(30 September 2010). 3059:Reagle, Joseph M. Jr. 1361:Libertarian socialism 1253:('free veto') in its 1220:social constructivist 1135:Jean-Charles de Borda 1070:figurative thresholds 841:Criticism of blocking 798: 594: 513:§ Decision rules 398:group decision-making 310:, which inspired the 259:civil rights movement 232:A Quaker Action Group 201: 80:group decision-making 58: 42: 4171:Community organizing 3525:on 17 December 2007. 2841:on 27 September 2007 2785:on 23 February 2005. 2746:Berit Lakey (1975). 2644:on 12 December 2008. 2382:. Berlin: Springer. 2241:on 27 September 2007 2141:. pp. 124–147. 1381:Scientific consensus 1334:Copenhagen Consensus 1314:Consensus government 1216:Robert Rocco Cottone 1123:Modified Borda Count 999:Modified Borda Count 672:Discussion involves 577:Modified Borda Count 497:Declare reservations 3988:on 14 January 2012. 3566:. 10 December 2016. 3261:10.3998/mpub.189565 2867:on 19 February 2015 2754:on 31 December 2006 2268:on 12 December 2006 2207:on 26 February 2007 1616:on 13 February 2023 1350:Ethics of Dissensus 1309:Consensus democracy 824:First-past-the-post 324:people's microphone 100:consensus democracy 4181:Evaluation methods 3682:on 22 October 2007 3230:on 6 December 2006 3012:on 9 February 2007 2721:The Otesha Project 2666:on 26 October 2011 2614:on 20 October 2011 2596:on 28 August 2008. 2565:on 11 October 2008 2538:on 20 October 2011 2479:on 15 October 2006 2472:What is Consensus? 2033:on 9 February 2007 1406:Systemic Consensus 1267:Sisto activitatem! 1231:The United States 818:Occupy Wall Street 801: 696:" of the decision. 648:Quaker-based model 620:Call for consensus 597: 320:Occupy Wall Street 304:Clamshell Alliance 240:Clamshell Alliance 212: 204:Clamshell Alliance 181:anti-authoritarian 173:anti-globalization 65: 53: 49:Occupy Wall Street 4127:10.1111/tsq.12137 4027:978-0-521-04544-5 3859:on 11 August 2011 3778:978-0-679-73118-4 3635:978-971-561-847-2 3540:. Akwesasne Notes 3489:978-1-85418-369-9 3329:978-1-4244-6586-6 3270:978-0-472-09949-8 3078:978-0-262-01447-2 2914:978-0-893-84256-7 2361:978-1-62963-319-0 2183:978-0-86571-471-7 2156:978-0-333-56755-5 2007:978-0-86571-689-6 1947:978-90-04-31963-9 1761:978-90-04-31963-9 1522:10.1111/tsq.12137 1319:Consensus reality 1259:unanimous consent 1153:Japanese business 1104:, including some 1048:Similar practices 791:Tools and methods 302:organized by the 72:consensus process 16:(Redirected from 4213: 4166:Anarchist theory 4146: 4097: 4090: 4084: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3980: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3895: 3893:10.17487/RFC2418 3875: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3806:on 13 March 2016 3802:. Archived from 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3771:. Random House. 3770: 3760: 3754: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3744:on 13 March 2007 3740:. 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Instead, a 1166: 1163: 1154: 1151: 1110:Martyrs' Synod 1049: 1046: 1031:voting systems 1006: 1003: 981:, rather than 966: 963: 886: 883: 882: 881: 875: 869: 863: 857: 842: 839: 837: 834: 833: 832: 821: 806: 792: 789: 788: 787: 781: 766: 760: 754: 723: 720: 711: 710: 706: 703: 700: 697: 690: 683: 680: 677: 670: 649: 646: 645: 644: 633: 627: 617: 611: 588: 585: 568: 565: 543: 540: 536: 535: 532: 529: 521: 520:Process models 518: 517: 516: 506: 500: 489: 486: 485: 484: 481: 478: 475: 472: 469: 456: 453: 431: 430:Decision rules 428: 427: 426: 423: 420: 393: 390: 389: 388: 376: 364: 360:Egalitarianism 356: 348: 335: 332: 296:Food Not Bombs 228:Lawrence Scott 140: 137: 107: 104: 61:Shimer College 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4218: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4196:Collaboration 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4103: 4095: 4089: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4041: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3995: 3992: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3929: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3871: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3845: 3840: 3834: 3830: 3829: 3821: 3818: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3780: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3759: 3756: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3725: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3694: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3631: 3624: 3623: 3615: 3612: 3607: 3605:9789812302601 3601: 3597: 3596: 3588: 3585: 3580: 3573: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3552: 3539: 3532: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3518:9781595310217 3514: 3510: 3506: 3499: 3496: 3491: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3471: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3303: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3277: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3245: 3242: 3229: 3225: 3218: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3176: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3157: 3154: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3087: at the 3086: 3080: 3074: 3070: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3024: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2997: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2934: 2927: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2910: 2906: 2905: 2897: 2894: 2889: 2882: 2879: 2866: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2837: 2830: 2824: 2821: 2805: 2798: 2792: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2766: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2711: 2708: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2613: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2577: 2564: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2504: 2500: 2499:"The Process" 2494: 2491: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2466: 2463: 2450: 2446: 2440: 2437: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2389:9783540331643 2385: 2381: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2342: 2339: 2327: 2320: 2317: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2253: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2222: 2219: 2206: 2202: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2166: 2163: 2158: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2129: 2126: 2121: 2119:9780787982669 2115: 2111: 2104: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2082: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2054: 2048: 2045: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2009: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1969: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1939: 1938: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1912: 1908: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1829: 1825: 1819: 1816: 1812: 1800: 1793: 1790: 1785: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1727: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1709:0-686-28494-1 1705: 1701: 1700: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1674: 1670: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1627: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1584: 1581: 1577: 1564: 1560: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1500: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1475: 1463: 1459: 1453: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1422: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1351: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1271:Nie pozwalam! 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Retrieved 1828:the original 1818: 1809: 1802:. Retrieved 1797:King, Mary. 1792: 1750: 1698: 1692: 1683: 1676:. Retrieved 1673:san.beck.org 1672: 1663: 1654: 1647:. Retrieved 1643:the original 1633: 1625: 1618:. Retrieved 1614:the original 1593: 1583: 1574: 1567:. Retrieved 1563:the original 1541: 1516:(1): 36–70. 1513: 1509: 1499: 1490: 1477: 1465:. 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