114:
126:
41:
the
Opaline these striations are very much reduced in intensity, being almost absent in many individuals, particularly in small birds of yellow (as opposed to buff) feather. The cap of the Opaline extends further back over the top of the head, gradually merging into an area the same colour as the body which continues down the back of the head to form a 'V' shape between the wings. The intensity of the striations in this area is variable, but in the original mutations, particularly the Australian, the 'V' was very clear.
102:
483:' rather than 'Type II'. Because of the separation, the Cinnamon and Opaline alleles from Type II birds tend to be inherited separately in their progeny. When mated to Normal hens, Type II cocks produce predominantly Cinnamon and Opaline hens, with Cinnamon-Opaline and Normal hens resulting rarely from cross-overs. Roughly one third of the hens will be Cinnamon, one third Opaline, one sixth Cinnamon-Opaline and one sixth Normal.
457:' rather than 'Type I'. Because of the linkage, the Cinnamon and Opaline alleles from Type I cocks tend to be inherited together in their progeny. When mated to Normal hens, Type I cocks produce predominantly Cinnamon-Opaline and Normal hens, with Cinnamon and Opaline hens resulting rarely from a cross-over. Roughly one third of the hens will be Cinnamon-Opaline, one third Normal, one sixth Cinnamon and one sixth Opaline.
68:. These are dark grey with a clear central band across every feather from the 2nd primary to the 8th secondary. These clear areas are not visible in the folded wing, but form a prominent continuous band running right along the wing when it is stretched out. It is hidden from above by the coverts but is visible from beneath. In the Opaline this clear band is present on every flight feather and is much broader. Only the
209:) and bred three cocks and a hen in 1934, all Light Green in appearance. About November 1935 the three cocks were paired up, one to a Cinnamon Light Green, one to a Cobalt and one to his mother. The first two pairings produced six Opalines, all hens, and the third several Opalines, both cocks and hens. The name 'Opaline' was suggested in 1936 by R J Byfield of
138:
217:
grizzled, these markings extending over the bird's back." Mr Riley kept the bird and used it to try to improve the spots of his Light Greens, but further 'mis-marked' birds appeared. He disposed of them all soon afterwards and only a long time later did he see
Opalines and realise that he had bred them first and cast them aside.
157:, Scotland, bred what was described as a 'pied' Cobalt hen from a perfectly normal Skyblue cock and Mauve hen. The parents came from a strain kept locally which had never produced anything unusual, and Mr Brown bred no more than the one mutant, even though the same pair bred many Cobalts in both 1933 and 1935.
176:
In 1934 the Ashby's paired the mutant hen to a quality Light Green split blue cock and
Skyblues, Light Greens and a Dark Green of a perfectly normal appearance were bred. In 1935 one of the Skyblue cocks was mated back to the mutant hen, and the very first nest produced two Opaline Cobalt cocks and
76:
A similar effect occurs in all the wing feathers, most noticeably in the primary and secondary wing coverts, and also in the six tail feathers, which carry a similar clear band on feathers 2 to 6 in the non-Opaline. The first (longest) tail feather of the
Opaline also carries a rather blotchy clear
164:
purchased this 'pied' Cobalt, which they described as being "exceptionally large with a fine head and most excellent spots", although both parents were quite mediocre. The mutant's peculiarities were that the head, neck and nape were almost pure white with slight markings in places and nearly all
40:
The
Opaline mutation is characterised by several features which are invariably present, although many show variations in the intensity of their expression. The most obvious effect is on the striations which extend from the top of the head down the neck to between the wings in the non-Opaline. In
216:
But maybe neither Brown nor
Terrill were the first to breed an Opaline. In 1962 J Riley of Yorkshire wrote, "In 1930 or 1931 a pair of my Light Greens produced a chick that was of good size and type with mask and spots that were a living dream; the only snag was that its wings were mismarked and
52:
assume the same colour as the body, rather than the ground colour. This suffusion of body colour in the wings produces the opalescent effect which gave the mutation its name. The area of black pigmentation in each feather is reduced and in the original specimens the wing butts were particularly
425:
Cocks split for both
Cinnamon and Opaline have one Cinnamon allele and one Opaline allele together with one each of the corresponding wild-type alleles. The linkage between the Cinnamon and Opaline genes gives rise to two types of split cinnamon-opaline cocks, both visually identical.
173:, were edged with cobalt in place of white, making the bird almost a 'Cobalt-wing'. The mutant was not a pied of any of the present-day types (these were not established in 1933), but an Opaline, although the variety was not to be known by that name until a few years later.
213:, Tasmania, on being particularly impressed by the vividness of colour shown by these young birds in nest feather. Terrill adopted the name and after he suggested it in the Budgerigar Bulletin in September 1936 it rapidly gained universal acceptance throughout the world.
72:
half of the flight feather is dark, with the clear zone extending from the midpoint to the shaft. Because it is broader it is visible in the primaries of the folded wing of the
Opaline, just beneath the secondaries and primary wing coverts, as a small clear patch.
197:
market. He bought her, and described her special features as "... almost complete absence of barring on the back of the neck and mantle and its replacement by the body colour ... the mask being extended back, covering the top of the head ... the bars on the wing
53:
devoid of black pigment, resulting in a clear area often called the 'thumb-print'. These thumb-prints appear to be associated with a clear 'V', but are now seen less often, since the
Budgerigar Standard calls for normal wing markings in the Opaline.
224:. Mr Higham imported two Opaline Mauve cocks and one Opaline Greywing Mauve hen from Mr Raymaekers in 1937 and Cyril Rogers confirmed they were the same mutation as the Scottish one, although their wing barring seemed noticeably lighter.
413:
values between
Opaline and these linked genes has not been measured accurately, but results collected by C Warner and T Daniels found 41 crossovers in 113 between Cinnamon and Opaline, giving a recombination ratio of 36±6%. Since the
189:, under the care of his aviary manager, Len Hillas. From these two studs came the vast majority of British Opalines, most of them carrying the wide head and large spots which first caught the attention of the Ashby's.
180:
Early in 1936 circumstances forced the Ashby's to dispose of all their Opalines, which at that time were known as 'Marbled', and the entire stock, with the exception of two pairs which went to Andy Wilson of
192:
In Australia, also around 1933 (the exact date is uncertain), Mr S E Terrill discovered a mutant budgerigar, a Light Green hen in nest feather, among thousands of wild birds caught by trappers and sent to
80:
Most Opalines show a brighter body colour than the corresponding non-Opaline, particularly in nest feather and particularly in the rump area. This is due to a reduction in the melanin content of the
422:
locus, the recombination ratio between Opaline and both Ino and Sex-linked Clearbody must also be around 36%. The opinion has been expressed that there is a close link between Opaline and Slate.
363:
In birds, the cock has two X chromosomes and the hen has one X and one Y chromosome. So in hens whichever allele is present on the single X chromosome is fully expressed in the
367:. Hens cannot be split for Opaline (or any other sex-linked mutation). In cocks, because Opaline is recessive, the Opaline allele must be present on both X chromosomes (
95:) is the colour of the down feathers of the young nestling. These are white instead of the usual grey, and this allows Opalines to be identified at a very early age.
922:
113:
991:
402:
971:
77:
area of somewhat variable extent, and the suffusion of body colour present to a small degree in the non-Opaline is intensified in the Opaline.
1213:
1130:
1135:
1022:
895:
1140:
1012:
915:
385:
to other genes located on the X chromosome, i.e. to the genes of other sex-linked mutations. These sex-linked mutations include the
1074:
1043:
1017:
25:
205:
Mr Terrill, who lived near Adelaide, paired the hen to a Blue Silver (the Australian name at the time for the variety now known as
1069:
1048:
375:
for Opaline are identical to the corresponding Normal. Such birds are said to be split for Opaline, usually written '/opaline'.
463:
are bred by mating Cinnamons to Opalines and have the Cinnamon and Opaline mutant alleles on opposite chromatids, symbolised as
125:
44:
In the non-Opaline the wings show dark grey or black markings over a yellow or white ground, but in the Opaline the ends of the
1038:
956:
908:
29:
1053:
976:
951:
386:
92:
69:
1109:
1182:
1094:
996:
966:
206:
1161:
1156:
1114:
1099:
986:
390:
378:
The table on the right shows the appearance of all possible genetic combinations involving the Opaline mutation.
101:
961:
946:
713:
654:
628:
607:
586:
566:
549:
981:
864:
533:
398:
818:
780:
743:
675:
509:
202:
reduced in number and intensity, their yellow margins being greatly enlarged and nuch suffused in green."
1166:
410:
1192:
876:
137:
827:
789:
751:
684:
487:
Hens cannot be split for any sex-linked gene, so only cocks exist in Type I and Type II form.
433:
are bred by mating Cinnamon-Opalines to Normals and have the two mutant alleles on the same
237:
199:
49:
840:
802:
764:
697:
480:
454:
406:
382:
170:
166:
65:
61:
57:
1207:
372:
245:
24:. It is the underlying mutation of the Opaline variety. When combined with the
233:
931:
368:
154:
21:
434:
364:
261:
253:
249:
186:
220:
The Opaline appeared yet again in 1935, in the aviaries of L Raymaekers in
20:
is one of approximately 30 mutations affecting the colour or appearance of
1187:
626:
Higham, W E (Dec 1936), "The "Opaline", the Latest Budgerigar Mutation",
221:
194:
711:
Rogers, C H (Sep 1937), "The Opaline, Grey and Yellow-faced Varieties",
900:
182:
85:
81:
45:
264:
210:
890:
652:
Terrill, S E (Sep 1936), "A New Budgerigar Mutation in Australia",
241:
904:
161:
605:
Ashby, R G (Sep 1935), "Report: The Breeding of Pied Birds",
177:
an Opaline Skyblue hen. The Opaline mutation had been fixed.
507:
Daniels, T (30 Jan 1982), "The Popular Opaline Mutation",
584:
Brown, A (Dec 1935), "Letter: Mrs Ashby's Pied Bird",
277:
371:) to be expressed in the phenotype. Cocks which are
1175:
1149:
1123:
1087:
1062:
1031:
1005:
939:
547:Bland, W P (Mar 1962), "A History of Budgerigars",
160:Towards the end of 1933 Mr and Mrs Ashby of nearby
91:The final characteristic of the Opaline (and the
393:mutations and the two allelic mutations at the
916:
8:
32:mutations the Rainbow variety is produced.
1002:
923:
909:
901:
647:
645:
643:
502:
500:
496:
418:locus is known to be very close to the
97:
836:
825:
798:
787:
760:
749:
693:
682:
564:Hillas, L (Dec 1949), "The Opaline",
7:
461:Type II split cinnamon-opaline cocks
431:Type I split cinnamon-opalines cocks
891:World Budgerigar Organisation (WBO)
271:and the Opaline allele is notated
14:
256:. The gene locus has the symbol
861:Genetics for Budgerigar Breeders
530:Genetics for Budgerigar Breeders
136:
124:
112:
100:
60:of the budgerigar consist of 10
859:Taylor, T G; Warner, C (1986),
816:Fullilove, A F (22 Nov 1962),
1:
731:Private communication (1979)
1214:Budgerigar colour mutations
741:Rogers, C H (26 Mar 1964),
185:, went to Walter Higham of
18:Opaline budgerigar mutation
1230:
1183:Budgerigar colour genetics
873:The Cult of the Budgerigar
778:Rogers, C H (1 Jan 1959),
479:. Geneticists call this '
453:. Geneticists call this '
336:
291:
267:at this locus is notated
232:The Opaline mutation is
714:The Budgerigar Bulletin
673:Riley, J (2 Aug 1962),
655:The Budgerigar Bulletin
629:The Budgerigar Bulletin
608:The Budgerigar Bulletin
587:The Budgerigar Bulletin
567:The Budgerigar Bulletin
550:The Budgerigar Bulletin
207:Dilute Skyblue or White
119:Opaline Light Green hen
865:The Budgerigar Society
534:The Budgerigar Society
819:Cage and Aviary Birds
781:Cage and Aviary Birds
744:Cage and Aviary Birds
676:Cage and Aviary Birds
510:Cage and Aviary Birds
244:being carried on the
165:the flight feathers,
1063:Yellowface mutations
992:Sex-linked Clearbody
871:Watmough, W (1951),
528:Watmough, W (1951),
403:Sex-linked Clearbody
381:The Opaline gene is
143:Opaline Skyblue cock
153:In 1933 A Brown of
1193:Selective breeding
972:Dominant Clearbody
318:Normal (/opaline)
1201:
1200:
1150:Feather mutations
1088:Pattern mutations
1083:
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835:Missing or empty
797:Missing or empty
759:Missing or empty
692:Missing or empty
361:
360:
1221:
1131:Clearflight Pied
1006:Fallow mutations
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940:Colour mutations
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896:WBO Colour Guide
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149:Historical notes
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1176:Related topics
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1049:English Grey
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837:|title=
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246:X chromosome
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48:of the wing
43:
39:
17:
15:
171:secondaries
131:Cobalt cock
66:secondaries
22:budgerigars
1167:Half-sider
1110:Saddleback
1039:Anthracite
932:Budgerigar
877:Cage Birds
852:References
407:cross-over
397:locus—the
369:homozygous
287:Phenotype
234:sex-linked
155:Kilmarnock
36:Appearance
1095:Blackface
957:Clearwing
934:mutations
481:repulsion
435:chromatid
365:phenotype
262:wild-type
254:wild-type
250:recessive
248:. It is
187:Blackburn
167:primaries
62:primaries
30:Clearwing
1208:Category
1188:Mutation
977:Greywing
952:Cinnamon
828:citation
790:citation
752:citation
685:citation
636:: 98–101
455:coupling
401:and the
387:Cinnamon
357:Opaline
332:Opaline
284:Genotype
228:Genetics
222:Brussels
195:Adelaide
93:Cinnamon
82:barbules
1157:Crested
1115:Spangle
1105:Opaline
1100:Mottled
721:: 68–69
662:: 68–71
553:: 25–30
405:. The
346:Normal
304:Normal
260:. The
240:of its
200:coverts
183:Glasgow
84:of the
64:and 10
50:coverts
997:Violet
967:Dilute
517:: 2, 6
383:linked
292:Cocks
265:allele
236:, the
211:Hobart
70:distal
987:Slate
962:Dark
822:: 519
679:: 106
615:: 107
594:: 153
491:Notes
391:Slate
337:Hens
238:locus
46:barbs
947:Blue
841:help
803:help
784:: 11
765:help
698:help
389:and
242:gene
169:and
56:The
28:and
16:The
982:Ino
473:cin
465:cin
447:cin
439:cin
420:cin
416:ino
409:or
399:Ino
395:ino
281:Sex
252:to
162:Ayr
1210::
832::
830:}}
826:{{
794::
792:}}
788:{{
756::
754:}}
750:{{
719:43
717:,
689::
687:}}
683:{{
660:39
658:,
642:^
634:40
632:,
613:35
611:,
592:36
590:,
572:85
570:,
532:,
513:,
499:^
477:op
469:op
451:op
443:op
354:/Y
352:op
343:/Y
341:op
328:op
324:op
314:op
310:op
300:op
296:op
275:.
273:op
269:op
258:op
88:.
924:e
917:t
910:v
843:)
839:(
805:)
801:(
767:)
763:(
700:)
696:(
515:5
475:-
471:/
467:-
449:-
445:/
441:-
326:/
312:/
298:/
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