3601:'wanting' (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). But why one target becomes more 'wanted' than all others has not been fully explained. In addicts or agonist-stimulated patients, the repetition of dopamine-stimulation of incentive salience becomes attributed to particular individualized pursuits, such as taking the addictive drug or the particular compulsions. In Pavlovian reward situations, some cues for reward become more 'wanted' more than others as powerful motivational magnets, in ways that differ across individuals (Robinson et al., 2014b; Saunders and Robinson, 2013). ... However, hedonic effects might well change over time. As a drug was taken repeatedly, mesolimbic dopaminergic sensitization could consequently occur in susceptible individuals to amplify 'wanting' (Leyton and Vezina, 2013; Lodge and Grace, 2011; Wolf and Ferrario, 2010), even if opioid hedonic mechanisms underwent down-regulation due to continual drug stimulation, producing 'liking' tolerance. Incentive-sensitization would produce addiction, by selectively magnifying cue-triggered 'wanting' to take the drug again, and so powerfully cause motivation even if the drug became less pleasant (Robinson and Berridge, 1993).
1219:(Brigadier General and military historian) undertook interview studies of WWII infantry immediately following combat engagement. Marshall's well-known and controversial book, Men Against Fire, revealed that only 15% of soldiers fired their rifles with the purpose of killing in combat. Following acceptance of Marshall's research by the US Army in 1946, the Human Resources Research Office of the US Army began implementing new training protocols which resemble operant conditioning methods. Subsequent applications of such methods increased the percentage of soldiers able to kill to around 50% in Korea and over 90% in Vietnam. Revolutions in training included replacing traditional pop-up firing ranges with three-dimensional, man-shaped, pop-up targets which collapsed when hit. This provided immediate feedback and acted as positive reinforcement for a soldier's behavior. Other improvements to military training methods have included the timed firing course; more realistic training; high repetitions; praise from superiors; marksmanship rewards; and group recognition. Negative reinforcement includes peer accountability or the requirement to retake courses. Modern military training conditions
478:", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral measure. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-defined rule". The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.
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Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.
965:(sometimes called "sign tracking"), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby. Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training). Another apparent operant behavior that appears without reinforcement is
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article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units.
3543:& Stacy, 2006; Hickey et al., 2010a; Piech et al., 2010; Anderson et al., 2011). The CS even takes on some incentive properties similar to its UCS. An attractive CS often elicits behavioral motivated approach, and sometimes an individual may even attempt to 'consume' the CS somewhat as its UCS (e.g., eat, drink, smoke, have sex with, take as drug). 'Wanting' of a CS can turn also turn the formerly neutral stimulus into an instrumental conditioned reinforcer, so that an individual will work to obtain the cue (however, there exist alternative psychological mechanisms for conditioned reinforcement too).
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the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning because a neutral CS (conditioned stimulus) is paired with the aversive US (unconditioned stimulus); this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below.
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fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.
953:." This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.
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specific case of drug , cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will often themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of
Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). ...
443:
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497:, which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's audience.
414:(1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes. A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his
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influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other everyday consumables may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.
938:, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.
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selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables.
1016:(i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become
55:, who believed that much, if not all, of mind and behaviour can be explained as a result of environmental conditioning. Reinforcements are environmental stimuli that increase behaviors, whereas punishments are stimuli that decrease behaviors. Both kinds of stimuli can be further categorised into positive and negative stimuli, which respectively involve the addition or removal of environmental stimuli.
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rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect" shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock" if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed.
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determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock-shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response-shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew.
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several reward functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward.
684:: The effectiveness of a positive or "appetitive" stimulus will be reduced if the individual has received enough of that stimulus to satisfy his/her appetite. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence will then increase. A subject with a full stomach wouldn't feel as motivated as a hungry one.
702:: The size, or amount, of a stimulus often affects its potency as a reinforcer. Humans and animals engage in cost-benefit analysis. If a lever press brings ten food pellets, lever pressing may be learned more rapidly than if a press brings only one pellet. A pile of quarters from a slot machine may keep a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter.
696:: To be most effective, reinforcement should occur consistently after responses and not at other times. Learning may be slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, following only some instances of the same response. Responses reinforced intermittently are usually slower to extinguish than are responses that have always been reinforced.
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rather that the organism "escapes" an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two-factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS-US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see
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person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.
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980:; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenter's task is to work out how these interact.
459:(1904–1990) is referred to as the Father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His 1938 book "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis", initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of
757:" is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Example: a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of his/her food bag; a child reaches for candy when s/he sees it on a table.
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on medical lawsuits and the other group with no restrictions. The group of neurosurgeons were queried anonymously on their practice patterns. The physicians changed their practice in response to a negative feedback (fear from lawsuit) in the group that practiced in a state with no restrictions on medical lawsuits.
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is called "avoidance," as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-called "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below).
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Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS with an aversive US. The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER)
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Shaping is a conditioning method often used in animal training and in teaching nonverbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target") behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or
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Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. An organism trained on this schedule typically pauses for a while after a reinforcement and then responds at a high rate. If the response requirement is low there may be no
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An important goal in future for addiction neuroscience is to understand how intense motivation becomes narrowly focused on a particular target. Addiction has been suggested to be partly due to excessive incentive salience produced by sensitized or hyper-reactive dopamine systems that produce intense
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An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the
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Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of
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Several studies have been done on the effect cognitive-behavioral therapy and operant-behavioral therapy have on different medical conditions. When patients developed cognitive and behavioral techniques that changed their behaviors, attitudes, and emotions; their pain severity decreased. The results
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A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials,
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refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. in a room, or the interior of an operant conditioning chamber. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context
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Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response. As no measured
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When a
Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience. The CS becomes hard not to look at (Wiers
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One of the many reasons proposed for the dramatic costs associated with healthcare is the practice of defensive medicine. Prabhu reviews the article by Cole and discusses how the responses of two groups of neurosurgeons are classic operant behavior. One group practice in a state with restrictions
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Modern marksmanship training is such an excellent example of behaviorism that it has been used for years in the introductory psychology course taught to all cadets at the US Military
Academy at West Point as a classic example of operant conditioning. In the 1980s, during a visit to West Point, B.F.
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Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger
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that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (S), discriminative stimulus (S), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (S or S for reinforcers, sometimes S for
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during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food
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In free-operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals
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In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus
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Negative reinforcement is a special condition associated with a strengthening of behavioral responses that terminate some ongoing (presumably aversive) stimulus. In this case we can define a negative reinforcer as a motivational stimulus that strengthens such an "escape" response. Historically, in
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Abused substances (ranging from alcohol to psychostimulants) are initially ingested at regular occasions according to their positive reinforcing properties. Importantly, repeated exposure to rewarding substances sets off a chain of secondary reinforcing events, whereby cues and contexts associated
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The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior.
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reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations").
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Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this
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Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the
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As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. The theory does not say that the organism "avoids" the US in the sense of anticipating it, but
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Most behavior cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three-term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the
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typically occurs when a response is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a red light and not at a green light; in consequence, it pecks at red and stops pecking at green. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions
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occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. Example: a rat is first given food many times for pressing a lever, until the experimenter no longer gives out food as a reward. The rat would typically press the lever less often and then stop. The lever
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Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by
Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without
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as rewards or as items purchasable by real world funds. Boxes contains a random selection of in-game items. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot
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This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the
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Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields a "break-run" pattern of response; that is, after training on this schedule, the organism typically pauses after reinforcement, and then
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It is entirely possible that no one intentionally sat down to use operant conditioning or behavior modification techniques to train soldiers in this area…But from the standpoint of a psychologist who is also a historian and a career soldier, it has become increasingly obvious to me that this is
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Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to
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occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less probable. Occasional reinforcement can lead to an even longer delay before behavior extinction due to the learning factor of repeated
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As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of
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Operant behavior is said to be "emitted"; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a "new" bodily structure, namely, variation and
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Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management and
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Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price
648:
Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used
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that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally-occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered on purpose.
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Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli." A so-called
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Human beings have an innate resistance to killing and are reluctant to act in a direct, aggressive way towards members of their own species, even to save life. This resistance to killing has caused infantry to be remarkably inefficient throughout the history of military warfare.
622:(penalty) (also called "punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus. Example: taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior by it, which would result in a decrease in the undesirable behavior.
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Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior as it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior.
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Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute period of
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Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a relatively steady rate of response that varies with the average time between
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stimulus, thereby increasing the original behavior's frequency. In the
Skinner Box experiment, the aversive stimulus might be a loud noise continuously inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever to turn off the
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Wong, S.E.; Martinez-Diaz, J.A.; Massel, H.K.; Edelstein, B.A.; Wiegand, W.; Bowen, L.; Liberman, R.P. (1993). "Conversational skills training with schizophrenic inpatients: A study of generalization across settings and conversants".
910:, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to
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parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
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Garland, Ann F.; Hawley, Kristin M.; Brookman-Frazee, Lauren; Hurlburt, Michael S. (May 2008). "Identifying Common
Elements of Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Children's Disruptive Behavior Problems".
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is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a pigeon might also peck at "pink", though usually less
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Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "B. F. Skinner: The role of reinforcement and
Punishment", subsection in: Psychology; Second Edition. New York: Worth, Incorporated, 2011, 278–288.
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The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis. They have also been applied to the study of
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Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a very high, persistent rate of response.
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of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of
28:, is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition (or removal) of reward or aversive stimuli. The frequency or duration of the behavior may increase through
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relation to drug addiction, this phenomenon has been consistently observed in humans whereby drugs of abuse are self-administered to quench a motivational need in the state of withdrawal (Wikler, 1952).
668:
Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after each response. Organisms typically respond as rapidly as they can, given the time taken to obtain and consume reinforcement, until they are satiated.
690:: An immediate consequence is more effective than a delayed one. If one gives a dog a treat for sitting within five seconds, the dog will learn faster than if the treat is given after thirty seconds.
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of these studies showed an influence of cognitions on pain perception and impact presented explained the general efficacy of
Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT) and Operant-Behavioral therapy (OBT).
988:
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. The following are some examples.
418:, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences
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Dardig, Jill C.; Heward, William L.; Heron, Timothy E.; Nancy A. Neef; Peterson, Stephanie; Diane M. Sainato; Cartledge, Gwendolyn; Gardner, Ralph; Peterson, Lloyd R.; Susan B. Hersh (2005).
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persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.
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is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto
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may be absent, or altered, in another. This may cause difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur in other situations.
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Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative.
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Simonsen, Brandi; Fairbanks, Sarah; Briesch, Amy; Myers, Diane; Sugai, George (2008). "Evidence-based
Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice".
463:, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.
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have been studied; for example an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another.
976:, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of
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Bleda, Miguel Ángel Pérez; Nieto, José Héctor Lozano (2012). "Impulsivity, Intelligence, and
Discriminating Reinforcement Contingencies in a Fixed-Ratio 3 Schedule".
853:). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.
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theorised that behaviors arise as a result of whether their consequences are satisfying or discomforting. In the 20th century, operant conditioning was studied by
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Miltenberger, R. G., & Crosland, K. A. (2014). Parenting. The wiley blackwell handbook of operant and classical conditioning. (pp. 509–531) Wiley-Blackwell.
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A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of
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Jenkins, H. M. "Animal Learning & Behavior Theory" Ch. 5 in Hearst, E. "The First Century of Experimental Psychology" Hillsdale N. J., Earlbaum, 1979
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Richardson RT, DeLong MR (1991): Electrophysiological studies of the function of the nucleus basalis in primates. In Napier TC, Kalivas P, Hamin I (eds),
606:(also referred to as "punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus. Example: pain from a
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with drug use may themselves become reinforcing and thereby contribute to the continued use and possible abuse of the substance(s) of choice. ...
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Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (
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that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed that
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Forgatch MS, Patterson GR (2010). Parent management training — Oregon model: An intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents.
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Michael J. Frank, Lauren C. Seeberger, and Randall C. O'Reilly (2004) "By Carrot or by Stick: Cognitive Reinforcement Learning in Parkinsonism,"
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as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing
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A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus,
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Gardner, R. A. & Gardner B.T. (1998) The structure of learning from sign stimuli to sign language. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Kazdin AE (2010). Problem-solving skills training and parent management training for oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder.
1336:, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing. This can lead to the pathology of
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or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example, if a rat in a
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Operant Conditioning and the Practice of Defensive Medicine. Vikram C. Prabhu World Neurosurgery, 2016-07-01, Volume 91, Pages 603–605
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instances becoming necessary to get reinforcement, when compared with reinforcement being given at each opportunity before extinction.
1429:(old expression for ABA; modifies behavior either through consequences without incorporating stimulus control or involves the use of
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of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.
434:
being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.
4487:
3443:
1476:
1111:
738:
behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".
4926:
3937:"Effects of differential reinforcement on the generalization of a replacement mand in three children with severe language delays"
3290:
Peden, B.F.; Brown, M.P.; Hearst, E. (1977). "Persistent approaches to a signal for food despite food omission for approaching".
1480:
1358:
boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries. However, methods to use those items as
4889:
710:). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is an effective reinforcer. When the organism's
4916:
2068:
1542:
1461:
1176:
2569:
4936:
2894:
Tucker, M.; Sigafoos, J.; Bushell, H. (1998). "Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior".
2168:
4593:"Task clarification, performance feedback, and social praise: Procedures for improving the customer service of bank tellers"
2776:
481:
Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior. In 1948 he published
3612:
McGreevy, P & Boakes, R."Carrots and Sticks: Principles of Animal Training".(Sydney: "Sydney University Press"., 2011)
2073:
3426:
Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder".
487:, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles. In 1957,
4931:
471:
4334:
Domjan, M. (2009). The Principles of Learning & Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 6th Edition. pages 244–249.
4133:"The effects of a seatbelt-gearshift delay prompt on the seatbelt use of motorists who do not regularly wear seatbelts"
3409:
Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S., & Gibbon, J. (1981) Autoshaping and conditioning theory. New York: Academic Press.
2296:
2271:
2230:
1988:
3317:
Gardner, R.A.; Gardner, B.T. (1988). "Feedforward vs feedbackward: An ethological alternative to the law of effect".
4884:
4879:
2286:
2240:
2028:
1547:
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1492:
1434:
1155:
1139:
1131:
1127:
877:
3839:"Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys"
2235:
2163:
2023:
1405:
1099:
1080:
4860:
2245:
1717:
1455:
1240:
Skinner identified modern military marksmanship training as a near-perfect application of operant conditioning.
1045:
2520:
Thorndike, E.L. (1901). "Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals".
62:, which is a process where stimuli are paired with biologically significant events to produce involuntary and
581:
gets food when it presses a lever, its rate of pressing will go up. This procedure is usually called simply
2366:
2205:
1907:
1653:
1512:
1350:
1280:
1143:
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pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many
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193:
111:
37:
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2210:
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1963:
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589:
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59:
2639:
Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. "Schedules of Reinforcement", 1957 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
809:
Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free-operant avoidance learning.
66:
behaviors. In contrast, operant conditioning is voluntary and depends on the consequences of a behavior.
4505:"Naturalistic assessment of children's compliance to teachers' requests and consequences for compliance"
4503:
Strain, Phillip S.; Lambert, Deborah L.; Kerr, Mary Margaret; Stagg, Vaughan; Lenkner, Donna A. (1983).
4377:
2939:"Noncontingent reinforcement: an inappropriate description of time-based schedules that reduce behavior"
2855:
Schacter et al.2011 Psychology 2nd ed. pg.280–284 Reference for entire section Principles version 130317
2314:
2309:
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1426:
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replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as
384:
4921:
3622:
Dillenburger, K.; Keenan, M. (2009). "None of the As in ABA stand for autism: dispelling the myths".
3199:
2463:
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2088:
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2008:
1958:
1572:
1337:
1170:
962:
723:
4894:
4210:"Effects of public posting, goal setting, and oral feedback on the skills of female soccer players"
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1968:
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2324:
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1998:
1852:
1022:
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behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal
714:
reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective or even aversive.
635:
Actors (e.g. a rat) are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the
3667:"AIDS prevention: Improving nurses' compliance with glove wearing through performance feedback"
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2003:
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71:
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Neuroscience for Addiction Medicine: From Prevention to Rehabilitation - Constructs and Drugs
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Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of
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2450:
Tarantola, Tor; Kumaran, Dharshan; Dayan, Peters; De Martino, Benedetto (10 October 2017).
4901:
4131:
Van Houten, R.; Malenfant, J.E.L.; Austin, J.; Lebbon, A. (2005). Vollmer, Timothy (ed.).
3504:"From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation"
3483:
3159:"Rats' responses to a moving object related to food or water: A behavior-systems analysis"
2391:
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1001:
915:
911:
907:
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3040:
4035:"Reinforcement of compliance with respiratory treatment in a child with cystic fibrosis"
3243:"Auto-maintenance in the pigeon: sustained pecking despite contingent non-reinforcement"
3203:
2467:
1223:
response to combat pressure by closely simulating actual combat, using mainly Pavlovian
765:
Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:
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2013:
1993:
1983:
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923:
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pause; if the response requirement is high the organism may quit responding altogether.
427:
4194:
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1005:
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176:
48:
29:
3765:
Focus on behavior analysis in education: achievements, challenges, and opportunities
3227:
3143:
2923:
2614:
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projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the
4874:
4478:
History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research
3888:"The long-term effects of a token economy on safety performance in open-pit mining"
3651:
2396:
2381:
2250:
2058:
1928:
1859:
1842:
1789:
1748:
1530:(conceptual theory of behavior analysis that expands behaviorism to also encompass
1517:
1262:
1095:
593:(a.k.a. escape) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an
456:
4591:
Crowell, Charles R.; Anderson, D. Chris; Abel, Dawn M.; Sergio, Joseph P. (1988).
4456:
3085:
Neuron 63:244–253, 2009, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3: Article 13, 2009
4569:
4381:
3577:
3211:
3190:
Neuringer, A.J. (1969). "Animals respond for food in the presence of free food".
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1821:
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1502:
1420:
1329:
1232:
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1103:
927:
711:
707:
578:
52:
3790:"Independent use of activity materials by the elderly in a residential setting"
3435:
2820:
2556:
2476:
4642:"The effect of vicarious reinforcement on attentive behavior in the classroom"
3635:
3330:
3303:
2907:
2053:
2038:
1973:
1799:
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1733:
1386:
483:
460:
33:
4520:
4274:
4259:"The role of applied behavior analysis in zoo management: Today and tomorrow"
4225:
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3903:
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3805:
3731:
3682:
3378:
3258:
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is a confusing term, so the procedure is usually referred to as "punishment".
4808:
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4608:
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4001:
3555:
3553:
3551:
2401:
1827:
1784:
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1276:
1049:
1032:
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is
997:
946:
654:
begins to respond rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.
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4626:
4577:
4538:
4365:
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4117:
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3823:
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2606:
2503:
3970:
3921:
3872:
3700:
3219:
3135:
3027:
2915:
2880:
Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures".
2867:
Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures".
2538:
Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures".
1423:(branch of psychology referring to methodological and radical behaviorism)
1052:, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of
4404:
On Killing: the Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society
2724:
Skinner, B. F. "Verbal Behavior", 1957. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
2452:"Prior preferences beneficially influence social and non-social learning"
2406:
1864:
1640:
1617:
1609:
1430:
1354:
1344:
1220:
1191:
942:
919:
607:
594:
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4710:
3175:
3158:
2752:
2735:
2697:
Mecca Chiesa (2004) Radical Behaviorism: The philosophy and the science
2354:
2137:
2018:
1026:
4323:
Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.),
4310:
Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.),
2706:
Skinner, B. F. "Science and Human Behavior", 1953. New York: MacMillan
3986:"Positive reinforcement of litter removal in the natural environment"
2598:
2411:
2376:
1978:
1816:
1300:
1041:
895:
63:
4558:
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
1279:
which argues that indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced
673:
Factors that alter the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment
4702:
4084:"Pyramidal training for families of children with problem behavior"
677:
The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed.
1953:
1772:
3363:"Rethinking reinforcement: Allocation, induction and contingency"
2994:"Operant hoarding: A new paradigm for the study of self-control"
1247:
states about operant conditioning and US Military training that:
1106:, HIV prevention, conservation of natural resources, education,
16:
Type of associative learning process for behavioral modification
1706:
1582:
1146:. Some of these applications are among those described below.
540:
increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while
2585:
Skinner, B. F. (1950). "Are theories of learning necessary?".
4429:
Men Against Fire: the Problem of Battle Command in Future War
3430:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76.
3421:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3292:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes
2805:"Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data"
1702:
1458:(theory of internal mechanisms without reference to behavior)
446:
B.F. Skinner at the Harvard Psychology Department, circa 1950
792:
Behavioral sequences: conditioned reinforcement and chaining
4772:
Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents
3716:"Office paper recycling: A function of container proximity"
1578:
610:, which would often result in a decrease in that behavior.
470:
To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the
3767:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
2982:
Pierce & Cheney (2004) Behavior Analysis and Learning
1085:
Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by
3714:
Brothers, K.J.; Krantz, P.J.; McClannahan, L.E. (1994).
2784:. Cambridge, MA: The B.F. Skinner Foundation. p. 70
846:
Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction.
515:
Modifying operant behavior: reinforcement and punishment
4455:
Murray KA, Grossman D, Kentridge RW (21 October 2018).
2715:
Skinner, B.F. (1948). Walden Two. Indianapolis: Hackett
972:
These observations and others appear to contradict the
4730:
4728:
4550:
4548:
2736:"Operant variability: Evidence, functions, and theory"
1029:
upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
949:, thus broadcasting a global reinforcement signal to
3984:
Powers, R.B.; Osborne, J.G.; Anderson, E.G. (1973).
3665:
DeVries, J.E.; Burnette, M.M.; Redmon, W.K. (1991).
548:
reduce the probability of behavior that they follow.
4082:Kuhn, S.A.C.; Lerman, D.C.; Vorndran, C.M. (2003).
2571:
The Behavior of Organisms: An experimental Analysis
2295:
2264:
2198:
2156:
1916:
1873:
1747:
1740:
1672:
1639:
1616:
74:, helping to clarify certain phenomena such as the
4475:
1036:in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of
1012:of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it
3935:Drasgow, E.; Halle, J.W.; Ostrosky, M.M. (1998).
2863:
2861:
631:pressing would then be said to be "extinguished."
4885:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
4689:Brophy, Jere (1981). "On praising effectively".
3367:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
3247:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
2998:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
2649:Staddon, J. E. R; D. T Cerutti (February 2003).
506:Origins of operant behavior: operant variability
43:Operant conditioning originated in the work of
3886:Fox, D.K.; Hopkins, B.L.; Anger, W.K. (1987).
3110:"Predictive Reward Signal of Dopamine Neurons"
3076:PNAS 93:11219-24 1996, Science 279:1714–8 1998
3055:
3053:
3041:"Activity of pallidal neurons during movement"
2978:
2976:
2974:
1366:or trading for real world money has created a
4304:
4302:
3065:Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology
1718:
1594:
1568:Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior
1534:(thoughts and feelings) as forms of behavior)
1102:(ASD) research on the principles influencing
8:
2635:
2633:
761:Discrimination, generalization & context
1374:Operant Conditioning and Defensive Medicine
1150:Child behavior – parent management training
3067:), vol. 295. New York, Plenum, pp. 232–252
1744:
1725:
1711:
1703:
1601:
1587:
1579:
1017:
552:Another procedure is called "extinction".
4665:
4616:
4528:
4282:
4233:
4156:
4107:
4058:
4009:
3960:
3911:
3862:
3813:
3739:
3690:
3585:
3527:
3386:
3266:
3174:
3125:
3017:
2962:
2828:
2751:
2674:
2522:Psychological Review Monograph Supplement
2493:
2475:
2186:Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder
1215:This phenomenon was not understood until
894:The first scientific studies identifying
564:There are a total of five consequences.
4770:Weisz, John R.; Kazdin, Alan E. (2010).
3560:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
3061:The Basal Forebrain: Anatomy to Function
1267:Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in
1096:early intensive behavioral interventions
1009:
441:
383:
4033:Hagopian, L.P.; Thompson, R.H. (1999).
2433:
1483:in operant and respondent conditioning)
1370:market that is under legal evaluation.
406:Operant conditioning, sometimes called
3479:
3469:
2667:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124
4450:
4448:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4391:
3837:De Luca, R.V.; Holborn, S.W. (1992).
3241:Williams, D.R.; Williams, H. (1969).
1353:during the 2010s, some games offered
573:occurs when a behavior (response) is
365:
363:
354:
352:
350:
316:
314:
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299:
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288:
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124:
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109:
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88:
86:
84:
7:
4880:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4646:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4597:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4509:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4482:. Baltimore: University Park Press.
4263:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4257:Forthman, D.L.; Ogden, J.J. (1992).
4214:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4137:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4088:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
4039:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3990:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3941:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3892:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3843:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3794:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3720:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
3671:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
2943:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
2574:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
2515:
2513:
2174:Right-wing authoritarian personality
1231:operant conditioning (both forms of
1186:Gambling – variable ratio scheduling
742:Stimulus control of operant behavior
4737:Education and Treatment of Children
4461:killology.com/behavioral-psychology
3788:Gallagher, S.M.; Keenan M. (2000).
1523:Negative (positive) contrast effect
1142:, pediatric feeding disorders, and
918:regions. Evidence also exists that
410:, was first extensively studied by
4358:10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n3.39384
4312:211–226. New York: Guilford Press.
1144:zoo management and care of animals
58:Operant conditioning differs from
14:
4346:The Spanish Journal of Psychology
4325:159–78. New York: Guilford Press.
2740:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1477:Experimental analysis of behavior
957:Questions about the law of effect
4431:. Washington: Infantry Journal.
3520:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x
2937:Poling, A.; Normand, M. (1999).
1389:
1018:conditioned positive reinforcers
813:Discriminated avoidance learning
370:Behavior avoids noxious stimulus
3562:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
1543:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
1462:Consumer demand tests (animals)
1252:exactly what has been achieved.
1177:Consumer demand tests (animals)
841:Classical conditioning of fear.
831:Two-process theory of avoidance
822:Free-operant avoidance learning
422:behavior and some consequences
3163:Animal Learning & Behavior
3114:The Journal of Neurophysiology
2169:Authoritarian leadership style
857:Operant or "one-factor" theory
1:
4802:Hood, Vic (12 October 2017).
4691:The Elementary School Journal
4208:Brobst, B.; Ward, P. (2002).
4195:10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80270-9
3319:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2074:Social construction of gender
1489:(also called desensitization)
1010:a primary positive reinforcer
876:object after some delay. See
395:
4861:Resources in other libraries
4570:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816765c2
3578:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
3212:10.1126/science.166.3903.399
2069:Rally 'round the flag effect
1287:the motives, incentives and
472:operant conditioning chamber
2655:Annual Review of Psychology
2272:Asch conformity experiments
1989:Identification (psychology)
1351:monetization of video games
1008:; that is, it functions as
934:. A study of patients with
733:Noncontingent reinforcement
4955:
4804:"Are loot boxes gambling?"
3502:Berridge KC (April 2012).
3436:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005
2821:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014
2778:Science and Human Behavior
2557:10.1002/9781118468135.ch20
2477:10.1038/s41467-017-00826-8
2287:Stanford prison experiment
2029:Normative social influence
1548:Preference tests (animals)
1497:systematic desensitization
1493:Graduated exposure therapy
1435:prolonged exposure therapy
1349:As part of a trend in the
1342:
1321:
1298:
1260:
1204:
1189:
1174:
1168:
1156:Parent management training
1153:
1078:
1063:
887:
884:Neurobiological correlates
878:schedules of reinforcement
745:
721:
644:Schedules of reinforcement
518:
449:
399:
361:following correct behavior
304:Remove appetitive stimulus
277:following correct behavior
4856:Resources in your library
4427:Marshall, S.L.A. (1947).
3636:10.1080/13668250902845244
3331:10.1017/s0140525x00058258
3304:10.1037/0097-7403.3.4.377
3108:Schultz, Wolfram (1998).
2908:10.1177/01454455980224005
2236:Normalization of deviance
2164:Authoritarian personality
1406:Abusive power and control
1081:Applied behavior analysis
1075:Applied behavior analysis
396:Thorndike's law of effect
344:
342:
340:
332:
328:
322:
264:
262:
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250:
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160:
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156:
154:
146:
142:
140:
134:
132:
130:
26:instrumental conditioning
4640:Kazdin, Alan E. (1973).
4521:10.1901/jaba.1983.16-243
4406:. Boston: Little Brown.
4275:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-647
4226:10.1901/jaba.2002.35-247
4051:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-233
3953:10.1901/jaba.1998.31-357
3904:10.1901/jaba.1987.20-215
3855:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-671
3806:10.1901/jaba.2000.33-325
3732:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-153
3683:10.1901/jaba.1991.24-705
3379:10.1901/jeab.2012.97-101
3259:10.1901/jeab.1969.12-511
3010:10.1901/jeab.1990.53-247
2955:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-237
2246:Preference falsification
1618:Non-associative learning
1456:Cognitivism (psychology)
1100:autism spectrum disorder
1046:psychological dependence
992:Addiction and dependence
430:through this procedure.
53:behavioral psychologists
4927:Experimental psychology
4609:10.1901/jaba.1988.21-65
4457:"Behavioral Psychology"
4402:Grossman, Dave (1995).
4149:10.1901/jaba.2005.48-04
4100:10.1901/jaba.2003.36-77
4002:10.1901/jaba.1973.6-579
3624:J Intellect Dev Disabil
2568:Skinner, B. F. (1938).
1908:Tyranny of the majority
1513:Learned industriousness
1479:(experimental research
1132:severe mental disorders
1006:intrinsically rewarding
1004:. An addictive drug is
906:broadly throughout the
902:neurons, which release
525:Punishment (psychology)
501:Concepts and procedures
359:Remove noxious stimulus
275:Add appetitive stimulus
4917:Educational technology
4900:2 October 2011 at the
4890:Negative reinforcement
4786:Behavioral Game Design
4658:10.1901/jaba.1973.6-71
3157:Timberlake, W (1983).
3127:10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1
2775:Skinner, B.F. (2014).
2651:"Operant Conditioning"
2211:Communal reinforcement
1964:False consensus effect
1659:Observational learning
1649:Classical conditioning
1472:Educational technology
1467:Educational psychology
1451:Classical conditioning
1332:are designed around a
1254:
1245:Lt. Col. Dave Grossman
1242:
1225:classical conditioning
978:classical conditioning
851:Classical conditioning
755:three-term contingency
590:Negative reinforcement
570:Positive reinforcement
538:negative reinforcement
534:Positive reinforcement
447:
392:
283:Negative reinforcement
272:Positive reinforcement
76:false consensus effect
60:classical conditioning
4937:History of psychology
4895:scienceofbehavior.com
4474:Kazdin, Alan (1978).
2896:Behavior Modification
2809:Physiological Reviews
2734:Neuringer, A (2002).
2456:Nature Communications
2315:Anti-social behaviour
2310:Anti-authoritarianism
2049:Pluralistic ignorance
1896:National conservatism
1891:Left-wing nationalism
1874:Governmental pressure
1433:—also referred to as
1427:Behavior modification
1249:
1237:
1175:Further information:
1098:for children with an
1044:and sweating) and/or
932:primary visual cortex
888:Further information:
682:Satiation/Deprivation
445:
408:instrumental learning
387:
4871:Operant conditioning
4847:Operant conditioning
3361:Baum, W. M. (2012).
2587:Psychological Review
2277:Breaching experiment
2064:Operant conditioning
2009:Mere exposure effect
1664:Operant conditioning
1641:Associative learning
1573:Spontaneous recovery
1338:video game addiction
1171:Behavioral economics
1120:language acquisition
951:postsynaptic neurons
801:Escape and avoidance
724:Shaping (psychology)
389:Edward Lee Thorndike
293:Add noxious stimulus
98:Operant conditioning
32:or decrease through
22:Operant conditioning
4932:Behavioral concepts
3204:1969Sci...166..399N
2992:Cole, M.R. (1990).
2468:2017NatCo...8..817T
2157:Individual pressure
2034:Passing (sociology)
1969:Fear of missing out
1934:Closure (sociology)
1848:Enemy of the people
1692:Inductive reasoning
1687:Deductive reasoning
1682:Abductive reasoning
1563:Social conditioning
1528:Radical behaviorism
1416:Behavioral contrast
1269:behavioural science
1207:Military psychology
1201:Military psychology
1112:health and exercise
1090:aversive stimuli).
1038:physical dependence
936:Parkinson's disease
619:Negative punishment
612:Positive punishment
603:Positive punishment
546:negative punishment
542:positive punishment
412:Edward L. Thorndike
301:Negative punishment
290:Positive punishment
4749:10.1353/etc.0.0007
3176:10.3758/bf03199781
2803:Schultz W (2015).
2753:10.3758/bf03196324
2325:Civil disobedience
2282:Milgram experiment
2221:Creeping normality
2123:Social integration
2059:Psychosocial issue
1999:Invented tradition
1853:Enemy of the state
1124:medical procedures
1023:drug paraphernalia
1014:incentive salience
448:
393:
306:following behavior
295:following behavior
4842:Library resources
4774:. Guilford Press.
4438:978-0-8061-3280-8
3774:978-0-13-111339-8
3198:(3903): 399–401.
3047:, 34:414–27, 1971
2882:Thomson/Wadsworth
2869:Thomson/Wadsworth
2540:Thomson/Wadsworth
2425:
2424:
2305:Alternative media
2194:
2193:
2133:Spiral of silence
2004:Memory conformity
1944:Consensus reality
1837:Persona non grata
1758:Damnatio memoriae
1700:
1699:
1553:Premack principle
1397:Psychology portal
1116:industrial safety
1104:criminal behavior
1034:self-administered
967:contrafreeloading
836:escape response:
376:
375:
198:Decrease behavior
181:Increase behavior
72:social psychology
4944:
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4199:
4198:
4183:Behavior Therapy
4177:
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4128:
4122:
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4079:
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3610:
3604:
3603:
3589:
3557:
3546:
3545:
3531:
3514:(7): 1124–1143.
3508:Eur. J. Neurosci
3499:
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3099:
3098:4, November 2004
3092:
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3074:
3068:
3057:
3048:
3045:J. Neurophysiol.
3038:
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2599:10.1037/h0054367
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2497:
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2441:
2438:
2350:Devil's advocate
2320:Auto-segregation
2216:Countersignaling
2143:Toxic positivity
2118:Social influence
2079:Social contagion
1924:Bandwagon effect
1881:Authoritarianism
1745:
1727:
1720:
1713:
1704:
1674:Insight learning
1603:
1596:
1589:
1580:
1487:Exposure therapy
1441:Carrot and stick
1399:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1360:virtual currency
1328:The majority of
1273:political theory
1130:, seatbelt use,
866:Operant hoarding
748:Stimulus control
367:Active avoidance
82:
81:
45:Edward Thorndike
4954:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4945:
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4907:
4906:
4902:Wayback Machine
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4400:
4389:
4352:(15): 922–929.
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3043:, M.R. DeLong,
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2519:
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2511:
2449:
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2426:
2421:
2392:Insubordination
2340:Culture jamming
2330:Cosmopolitanism
2291:
2260:
2231:Internalization
2190:
2152:
1912:
1903:Totalitarianism
1869:
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1364:online gambling
1347:
1334:compulsion loop
1326:
1324:Compulsion loop
1320:
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1297:
1289:decision making
1265:
1259:
1217:S.L.A. Marshall
1209:
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1136:substance abuse
1083:
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1066:Animal training
1062:
1060:Animal training
1054:drug withdrawal
1002:drug dependence
994:
986:
959:
912:neuroplasticity
908:cerebral cortex
900:nucleus basalis
892:
886:
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658:reinforcements.
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519:Main articles:
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494:Verbal Behavior
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428:learning curves
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4836:External links
4834:
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2886:
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2873:
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562:
561:
550:
549:
516:
513:
507:
504:
502:
499:
450:Main article:
439:
436:
400:Main article:
397:
394:
381:
378:
374:
372:
371:
364:
362:
353:
351:
348:
347:
345:
343:
341:
339:
337:
334:
333:
331:
329:
327:
325:
323:
321:
319:
317:
315:
313:
310:
308:
307:
298:
296:
287:
285:
280:
278:
268:
267:
265:
263:
261:
259:
257:
255:
253:
251:
249:
247:
245:
242:
241:
239:
237:
235:
233:
231:
229:
227:
225:
223:
221:
219:
217:
215:
213:
211:
209:
207:
205:
202:
200:
199:
190:
188:
186:
184:
182:
173:
171:
168:
167:
165:
163:
161:
159:
157:
155:
153:
151:
148:
147:
145:
143:
141:
139:
137:
135:
133:
131:
129:
127:
125:
123:
121:
118:
116:
115:
108:
106:
104:
102:
100:
95:
93:
91:
89:
87:
85:
80:
24:, also called
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4950:
4949:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4903:
4899:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4835:
4826:
4823:
4811:
4810:
4805:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4784:John Hopson:
4781:
4778:
4773:
4766:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4729:
4725:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4685:
4682:
4677:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4636:
4633:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4587:
4584:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4551:
4549:
4545:
4540:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4499:
4496:
4491:
4489:9780839112051
4485:
4480:
4479:
4470:
4467:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4420:
4415:
4409:
4405:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4340:
4337:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4294:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4269:(3): 647–52.
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4250:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4220:(3): 247–57.
4219:
4215:
4211:
4204:
4201:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4078:
4075:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4045:(2): 233–36.
4044:
4040:
4036:
4029:
4026:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3996:(4): 579–86.
3995:
3991:
3987:
3980:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3947:(3): 357–74.
3946:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3898:(3): 215–24.
3897:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3879:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3849:(3): 671–79.
3848:
3844:
3840:
3833:
3830:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3800:(3): 325–28.
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3781:
3776:
3770:
3766:
3759:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3726:(1): 153–60.
3725:
3721:
3717:
3710:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3677:(4): 705–11.
3676:
3672:
3668:
3661:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3630:(2): 193–95.
3629:
3625:
3618:
3615:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3473:
3466:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3445:9780444635457
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3357:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2933:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2796:
2780:
2779:
2771:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2727:
2721:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2694:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2642:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2573:
2572:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2545:
2542:, 2008. p. 9.
2541:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2428:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2387:Individualism
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:Herd behavior
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2181:Control freak
2179:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2128:Socialization
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Peer pressure
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2024:Normalization
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1949:Culture shock
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1805:Deplatforming
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1631:Sensitization
1629:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1592:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1558:Sensitization
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1538:Reinforcement
1536:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:(also called
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1368:skin gambling
1365:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1164:
1162:
1157:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:psychotherapy
1126:, parenting,
1125:
1122:, littering,
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1088:
1087:B. F. Skinner
1082:
1074:
1072:
1067:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
991:
989:
983:
981:
979:
975:
974:law of effect
970:
968:
964:
956:
954:
952:
948:
944:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
904:acetylcholine
901:
897:
891:
890:Reward system
883:
881:
879:
874:
865:
863:
856:
854:
852:
847:
844:– "fear." b)
842:
837:
830:
828:
821:
819:
812:
810:
807:
800:
798:
791:
785:
782:
778:
775:
771:
768:
767:
766:
760:
758:
756:
749:
741:
739:
732:
730:
725:
717:
715:
713:
709:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
679:
678:
672:
667:
664:
660:
656:
652:
651:
650:
643:
641:
638:
629:
628:
624:
621:
620:
616:
613:
609:
605:
604:
600:
596:
592:
591:
587:
584:
583:reinforcement
580:
576:
572:
571:
567:
566:
565:
558:
555:
554:
553:
547:
543:
539:
535:
532:
531:
530:
526:
522:
521:Reinforcement
514:
512:
505:
500:
498:
496:
495:
490:
486:
485:
479:
477:
473:
468:
464:
462:
458:
453:
452:B. F. Skinner
444:
438:B. F. Skinner
437:
435:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
416:law of effect
413:
409:
403:
402:Law of effect
390:
386:
379:
373:
368:
357:
349:
346:
338:
336:
335:
330:
326:
324:
320:
318:
311:
309:
302:
291:
284:
273:
269:
266:
258:
256:
254:
246:
244:
243:
238:
234:
232:
228:
226:
218:
214:
212:
208:
206:
203:
201:
196:
195:
179:
178:
177:Reinforcement
169:
166:
152:
150:
149:
144:
138:
136:
128:
126:
119:
117:
114:
113:
99:
83:
79:
77:
73:
67:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
49:law of effect
46:
41:
39:
35:
31:
30:reinforcement
27:
23:
19:
4875:Scholarpedia
4846:
4825:
4813:. Retrieved
4807:
4797:
4780:
4771:
4765:
4740:
4736:
4694:
4690:
4684:
4652:(1): 71–78.
4649:
4645:
4635:
4603:(1): 65–71.
4600:
4596:
4586:
4561:
4557:
4512:
4508:
4498:
4477:
4469:
4460:
4428:
4422:
4403:
4349:
4345:
4339:
4330:
4322:
4317:
4309:
4266:
4262:
4252:
4217:
4213:
4203:
4186:
4182:
4175:
4140:
4136:
4126:
4094:(1): 77–88.
4091:
4087:
4077:
4042:
4038:
4028:
3993:
3989:
3979:
3944:
3940:
3930:
3895:
3891:
3881:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3797:
3793:
3783:
3764:
3758:
3723:
3719:
3709:
3674:
3670:
3660:
3627:
3623:
3617:
3608:
3599:
3569:
3565:
3541:
3511:
3507:
3457:
3427:
3405:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3347:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3295:
3291:
3285:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3117:
3113:
3103:
3095:
3090:
3081:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3044:
3036:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2946:
2942:
2932:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2876:
2851:
2842:
2812:
2808:
2798:
2786:. Retrieved
2777:
2770:
2743:
2739:
2729:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2623:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2570:
2563:
2547:
2534:
2525:
2521:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2436:
2397:Pueblo clown
2382:Idiosyncrasy
2367:Eccentricity
2251:Social proof
2063:
1959:Echo chamber
1939:Collectivism
1929:Brainwashing
1860:Scapegoating
1843:Public enemy
1835:
1826:
1790:Blacklisting
1777:
1756:
1749:Proscription
1663:
1518:Matching law
1377:
1348:
1327:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1266:
1263:Nudge theory
1257:Nudge theory
1250:
1243:
1238:
1214:
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