135:
656:, an orbit lies in a particular, largely fixed plane around the Earth, which coincides with the center of the Earth, and may be inclined with respect to the equator. The relative motion of the spacecraft and the movement of the Earth's surface, as the Earth rotates on its axis, determine the position that the spacecraft appears in the sky from the ground, and which parts of the Earth are visible from the spacecraft.
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Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at
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speeds. The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.
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at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi), as
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Returning spacecraft (including all potentially crewed craft) have to find a way of slowing down as much as possible while still in higher atmospheric layers and avoiding hitting the ground (
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have demonstrated significant progress in their more incremental approach to reducing the cost of orbital spaceflight. Their potential for cost reduction comes mainly from pioneering
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There have been many proposed methods for achieving orbital spaceflight that have the potential of being much more affordable than rockets. Some of these ideas such as the
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240:, the lowest altitude at which an object in a circular orbit can complete at least one full revolution without propulsion is approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi).
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Even if the orbiting objects are expendable, most space authorities are pushing toward controlled re-entries to minimize hazard to lives and property on the planet.
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of about 9.3–10 km/s. This figure is mainly (~7.8 km/s) for horizontal acceleration needed to reach orbital speed, but allows for
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473:, and then progressively flattening the trajectory out at an altitude of 170+ km and accelerating on a horizontal trajectory (with the
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angled upwards to fight gravity and maintain altitude) for a 5–8-minute burn until orbital velocity is achieved. Currently, 2–4
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fuel or are otherwise non-functional) solve the problem of deceleration from orbital speeds through using atmospheric drag (
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and the United States on 30 May 2020, was the first successful human spaceflight by a private company to reach Earth orbit.
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503:, require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Other proposed ideas include ground accelerators such as
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that shows which part of the Earth a spacecraft is immediately above; this is useful for helping to visualise the orbit.
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Sub-orbital space flights, being at a much lower speed, do not generate anywhere near as much heat upon re-entry.
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554:. The initial stages of these improvements could reduce the cost of an orbital launch by an order of magnitude.
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707:. For spacecraft far from Earth—for example those in orbits around the Sun—an orbital maneuver is called a
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was the first human-made object to achieve orbital spaceflight. It was launched on 4 October 1957 by the
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The main proven technique involves launching nearly vertically for a few kilometers while performing a
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for small satellites instead launches from an aircraft at an altitude of 39,000 ft (12 km).
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of ~7.8 km/s. Orbital speed is slower for higher orbits, but attaining them requires greater
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An object in orbit at an altitude of less than roughly 200 km is considered unstable due to
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466:(depending on burn time and details of the trajectory and launch vehicle), and gaining altitude.
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913:"Where does space begin? – Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums"
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729:) or burning up. For many orbital space flights, initial deceleration is provided by the
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of 358 kilometers (222 mi). It remained in orbit for more than 12 years before its
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down into the atmosphere) onto a suborbital trajectory. Many spacecraft in
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for propulsion. To reach orbit, the rocket must impart to the payload a
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The expression "orbital spaceflight" is mostly used to distinguish from
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812:, was the first successful spaceflight by a woman to reach Earth orbit.
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944:"What's the difference between orbital and suborbital spaceflight?"
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802:, was the first successful human spaceflight to reach Earth orbit.
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are needed to achieve the required delta-v. Most launches are by
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of the craft's rocket engines, perturbing the orbit (by lowering
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in 2001. It must be periodically re-boosted to maintain its orbit
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Aerospace
Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums
538:, but also includes reuse of the other components such as the
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powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
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However, the exact behaviour of objects in orbit depends on
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of a spacecraft reaches space, but the perigee is too low.
798:, launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961, carrying
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to construct more efficient rocket engines, such as their
808:, launched by the Soviet Union on 16 June 1963, carrying
442:
Orbital spaceflight from Earth has only been achieved by
888:
Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage
885:
O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009). Darrin, Ann
Garrison (ed.).
27:
Spaceflight where spacecraft orbits an astronomical body
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calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than
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satellite around the Earth in 2000, transfering from a
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which can affect the height of the upper atmosphere.
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169:is placed on a trajectory where it could remain in
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
205:. To remain in orbit at this altitude requires an
942:February 2020, Adam Mann 10 (10 February 2020).
507:, rocket-assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as
181:, it must be on a free trajectory which has an
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972:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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604:over the Pacific Ocean on 31 March 1970.
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1549:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
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233:from the atmosphere to support itself.
2548:Transposition, docking, and extraction
1571:Psychological and sociological effects
965:
891:. Advances in engineering. CRC Press.
592:. For example, on 1 February 1958 the
462:of a 20 m long dense fueled vehicle),
215:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
1001:from the original on 10 December 2013
987:Belfiore, Michael (9 December 2013).
923:from the original on 17 November 2015
458:(approximately 300 m/s with the
7:
695:, an orbital maneuver is the use of
58:adding citations to reliable sources
745:or spacecraft that have run out of
1280:Weather and environment monitoring
1021:"Explorer 1 – NSSDC ID: 1958-001A"
25:
2608:Kepler's laws of planetary motion
954:from the original on 16 June 2020
260:
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2603:Interplanetary Transport Network
2483:Collision avoidance (spacecraft)
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1027:from the original on 27 May 2019
833:
633:There are three main "bands" of
34:
2568:Astronomical coordinate systems
2322:Longitude of the ascending node
1324:Space launch market competition
534:booster stage as well as their
45:needs additional citations for
2641:Retrograde and prograde motion
1561:Health threat from cosmic rays
659:It is possible to calculate a
247:, which are flights where the
1:
2588:Equatorial coordinate system
144:geostationary transfer orbit
1677:Self-replicating spacecraft
1513:International Space Station
570:during its construction in
568:International Space Station
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2340:Longitude of the periapsis
1191:Space Liability Convention
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686:reaction control thrusters
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2651:Specific angular momentum
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1554:Space adaptation syndrome
709:deep-space maneuver (DSM)
515:powered spaceplanes, and
483:expendable launch systems
263:Orbital human spaceflight
1287:Communications satellite
245:sub-orbital spaceflights
2646:Specific orbital energy
1791:reusable launch systems
1408:Extravehicular activity
1319:Commercial use of space
1223:Militarisation of space
1196:Registration Convention
1112:Accidents and incidents
848:Levels of spaceflight:
509:Reaction Engines Skylon
2058:Geostationary transfer
1839:Mission control center
1801:Non-rocket spacelaunch
1235:Billionaire space race
699:systems to change the
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2631:Orbital state vectors
2573:Characteristic energy
2543:Trans-lunar injection
2331:Argument of periapsis
2008:Prograde / Retrograde
1969:Hyperbolic trajectory
1689:Spacecraft propulsion
1139:European Space Agency
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613:ballistic coefficient
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460:ballistic coefficient
229:to derive sufficient
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69:"Orbital spaceflight"
2695:Spaceflight concepts
2478:Bi-elliptic transfer
1998:Parabolic trajectory
1314:Satellite navigation
810:Valentina Tereshkova
715:Deorbit and re-entry
217:has established the
54:improve this article
18:Orbital space launch
2518:Low-energy transfer
1699:Electric propulsion
1386:Life-support system
1270:Imagery and mapping
1230:Private spaceflight
647:geostationary orbit
602:atmospheric reentry
223:Theodore von Kármán
155:orbital spaceflight
148:geostationary orbit
2700:1957 introductions
2513:Inclination change
2161:Distant retrograde
1652:Robotic spacecraft
1578:Space and survival
1433:Space colonization
1329:Space architecture
1181:Outer Space Treaty
841:Spaceflight portal
816:Crew Dragon Demo-2
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643:medium Earth orbit
637:around the Earth:
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528:propulsive landing
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2095:Orbit of the Moon
1954:Highly elliptical
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1824:Flight controller
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1334:Space exploration
1260:Earth observation
898:978-1-4200-8431-3
721:Atmospheric entry
654:orbital mechanics
615:, and details of
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191:boundary of space
173:for at least one
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1144:European Union
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1038:
1012:
994:Foreign Policy
979:
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876:
874:
871:
870:
869:
867:List of orbits
864:
854:interplanetary
845:
844:
828:
825:
824:
823:
818:, launched by
813:
803:
793:
781:
778:
743:nanosatellites
719:Main article:
716:
713:
671:Main article:
668:
665:
627:Main article:
624:
621:
578:Main article:
559:
556:
536:Dragon capsule
497:space elevator
490:Pegasus rocket
464:gravity losses
448:rocket engines
438:
437:
434:
431:
428:
424:
423:
420:
417:
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266:
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256:
255:Orbital launch
253:
193:as defined by
159:orbital flight
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2712:
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2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2621:-body problem
2620:
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2526:
2524:
2523:Oberth effect
2521:
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2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
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2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2442:Orbital speed
2436:
2434:
2427:
2425:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2398:
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2235:
2231:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2197:
2196:Earth's orbit
2194:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
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2162:
2159:
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2149:
2147:
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2068:
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2056:
2054:
2053:Geostationary
2051:
2050:
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2045:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
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1926:
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1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1777:Direct ascent
1775:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1759:Intergalactic
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1694:Rocket engine
1692:
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1690:
1687:
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1633:
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1628:
1627:
1626:
1625:Space capsule
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1588:Space nursing
1586:
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1579:
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1567:
1564:
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1544:
1542:Health issues
1540:
1534:
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1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
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1507:
1504:
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1499:
1497:
1496:Space Shuttle
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1429:
1428:Space tourism
1426:
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1349:Space weather
1347:
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1213:Space command
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1208:Space warfare
1206:
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1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
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1177:
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1169:United States
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1090:
1088:
1087:Astrodynamics
1085:
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831:
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736:
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728:
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714:
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706:
702:
698:
694:
687:
683:
682:Space Shuttle
679:
674:
666:
664:
662:
657:
655:
652:According to
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
630:
622:
620:
618:
617:space weather
614:
610:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
581:
580:Orbital decay
573:
569:
564:
557:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
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267:
264:
254:
252:
250:
246:
241:
239:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:orbital speed
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:. To do this
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
149:
145:
141:
136:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
2636:Perturbation
2618:
2593:Ground track
2503:Gravity turn
2454:
2447:
2440:
2431:
2422:
2402:
2393:
2384:
2377:True anomaly
2375:
2360:Mean anomaly
2358:
2338:
2329:
2320:
2311:
2291:
2278:
2269:
2262:Eccentricity
2260:
2218:Lunar cycler
2191:Heliocentric
2131:other points
2080:Medium Earth
1978:Non-inclined
1769:Space launch
1754:Interstellar
1731:
1720:Destinations
1489:Apollo–Soyuz
1438:Space diving
1423:Space toilet
1247:Applications
1164:Soviet Union
1124:Space policy
1119:Space launch
1029:. Retrieved
1015:
1003:. Retrieved
992:
982:
956:. Retrieved
947:
937:
925:. Retrieved
916:
907:
887:
880:
862:intergalatic
858:interstellar
800:Yuri Gagarin
790:Soviet Union
775:
772:
763:
727:lithobraking
724:
708:
690:
661:ground track
658:
651:
632:
606:
583:
521:
505:launch loops
494:
487:
471:gravity turn
468:
441:
272:First launch
262:
242:
235:
199:US Air Force
158:
154:
152:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
2598:Hill sphere
2433:Mean motion
2313:Inclination
2302:Orientation
2203:Mars cycler
2141:Areocentric
2013:Synchronous
1727:Sub-orbital
1662:Space probe
1528:New Shepard
1506:Shuttle–Mir
1265:Archaeology
1218:Space force
1201:Moon Treaty
1073:Spaceflight
1005:11 December
927:10 November
852:, orbital,
759:aerobraking
751:aerobraking
731:retrofiring
693:spaceflight
645:(MEO), and
572:Earth orbit
544:3D printing
530:with their
412:Crew Dragon
275:Last launch
219:Kármán line
165:in which a
163:spaceflight
2689:Categories
2538:Rendezvous
2234:Parameters
2070:High Earth
2040:Geocentric
1993:Osculating
1950:Elliptical
1796:Launch pad
1787:Expendable
1737:Geocentric
1704:Solar sail
1647:Spaceplane
1607:Spacecraft
1401:Space suit
1379:commercial
1307:Television
1102:Space Race
873:References
850:Suborbital
767:hypersonic
755:mesosphere
705:spacecraft
697:propulsion
594:Explorer 1
552:SuperDraco
548:superalloy
522:From 2015
269:Spacecraft
167:spacecraft
110:March 2008
80:newspapers
2583:Ephemeris
2560:mechanics
2470:Maneuvers
2413:Variation
2176:Libration
2171:Lissajous
2075:Low Earth
2065:Graveyard
1964:Horseshoe
1806:Spaceport
1657:Satellite
1374:Astronaut
1302:Telephone
1255:Astronomy
1176:Space law
1129:Australia
1031:21 August
948:Space.com
786:Sputnik 1
558:Stability
501:rotovator
446:that use
278:Launches
138:Orbit of
2349:Position
1974:Inclined
1945:Circular
1858:Category
1523:Tiangong
1518:Shenzhou
1447:Programs
1292:Internet
1097:Timeline
1025:Archived
1023:. NASA.
999:Archived
968:cite web
952:Archived
921:Archived
827:See also
806:Vostok 6
796:Vostok 1
684:forward
611:, their
609:altitude
513:scramjet
396:Shenzhou
201:and the
183:altitude
2558:Orbital
2528:Phasing
2488:Delta-v
2293:Apsides
2287:,
2085:Molniya
2003:Parking
1940:Capture
1928:General
1732:Orbital
1533:Artemis
1464:Voskhod
1459:Mercury
1367:General
1107:Records
1092:History
1080:General
958:13 July
780:History
741:(e.g.,
735:perigee
649:(GEO).
641:(LEO),
598:perigee
452:delta-v
419:Ongoing
403:Ongoing
380:Shuttle
355:Ongoing
316:Voskhod
300:Mercury
236:Due to
211:delta-v
187:perigee
161:) is a
94:scholar
2214:Other
2115:Tundra
1983:Kepler
1959:Escape
1912:orbits
1869:Portal
1862:
1851:
1667:Lander
1620:Rocket
1484:Skylab
1479:Apollo
1469:Gemini
1454:Vostok
1159:Russia
895:
820:SpaceX
623:Orbits
524:SpaceX
499:, and
479:stages
475:rocket
364:Apollo
332:Gemini
284:Vostok
249:apogee
213:. The
197:, the
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2456:Epoch
2245:Shape
2183:Lunar
2137:Mars
2129:About
2100:Polar
1920:Types
1672:Rover
1474:Soyuz
1297:Radio
1154:Japan
1149:India
1134:China
703:of a
701:orbit
635:orbit
546:of a
427:Total
348:Soyuz
175:orbit
171:space
146:to a
140:AMC-8
101:JSTOR
87:books
2248:Size
2187:Sun
2166:Halo
2018:semi
1834:Pass
1789:and
1033:2019
1007:2013
974:link
960:2020
929:2015
893:ISBN
860:and
566:The
517:RBCC
488:The
436:333
416:2020
400:2003
390:134
387:2011
384:1981
371:1975
368:1968
358:146
352:1967
339:1966
336:1965
323:1965
320:1964
307:1963
304:1962
291:1963
288:1961
195:NASA
157:(or
73:news
2023:sub
1935:Box
1501:Mir
691:In
422:11
374:15
342:10
203:FAA
185:at
153:An
56:by
2691::
2371:,
2367:,
1976:/
1952:/
997:.
991:.
970:}}
966:{{
950:.
946:.
919:.
915:.
856:,
761:.
711:.
511:,
485:.
406:9
326:2
310:4
294:6
2619:n
2451:0
2448:t
2438:v
2429:n
2420:T
2400:l
2391:L
2382:E
2373:f
2369:θ
2365:ν
2356:M
2336:ϖ
2327:ω
2318:Ω
2309:i
2289:q
2285:Q
2276:b
2267:a
2258:e
1903:e
1896:t
1889:v
1065:e
1058:t
1051:v
1035:.
1009:.
976:)
962:.
931:.
901:.
792:.
433:-
430:-
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
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