66:
17:
25:
210:
enough change the ecological systems of the Arctic. As a result, Arctic shelf fish are being expelled and retract
Northwards as well. For some species, depth might limit their options and this will induce changes in the biodiversity of the Arctic Ocean. This change in marine ecosystem also influences the bird and mammal species living in the Arctic region.
118:
in summer. The loss of winter sea-ice means that in summer, the colder layer of freshwater at the surface is less replenished by melting ice, lessening the temperature difference between the layers. Also, a lack of sea-ice increases the influence of wind on the sea surface, mixing the layers further.
143:
At the moment, the largest part of inflowing heat from the
Atlantic Ocean is lost to the atmosphere within the Barents Sea. It is expected though, that the temperature in the Barents Sea will increase due to changes in the interaction with the atmosphere. As a result, the water flowing out from the
125:
However observations show a regime shift from winter sea ice cover to open water in the southern
Barents Sea in response to the warming of the inflowing Atlantic water. Observations also reveal the increasing influence of Atlantic water heat further to the east, in the eastern Eurasian Basin, where
117:
causes the warm
Atlantic water to mix with the fresh water at the surface. As can be seen in the figure below, the halocline weakens and therefore heat from the Atlantic water reaches the surface. This warming of the surface water causes a retreat in sea-ice in winter and a total absence of sea-ice
79:
The largest part of the Arctic Ocean has a strong division between ocean layers. At the top is a mixed layer of fresh water with a temperature near the freezing point and a salinity of around 30 psu (practical salinity unit). This water is fed by rivers and melting of sea-ice. Underneath this fresh
209:
blooms are moving further into the
Eurasian Basin each year. Typical species have moved 5 degrees further North compared to 1989. Also, fish communities are moving Northward at the pace of the local climate change, a process called borealization. Some predators that reach areas previously not warm
104:
than the surface layer. The cold freshwater therefore floats on top and the halocline across which mixing tends to be weak even under ice free conditions and therefore protects the surface from the heat in the
Atlantic water. Under the Atlantic water layer is a deep layer of Arctic bottom water
121:
Model predictions do not show an upward trend in volume transport into the Arctic from the North
Atlantic nor an increase in the temperature of the inflowing water leading some to conclude that the Atlantification of the Arctic is not caused by a process in the Atlantic Ocean but rather by
126:
in recent years the heat flux from the
Atlantic water towards the surface has overtaken the atmospheric contribution in this region. Furthermore, an observed weakening of the halocline over this period coincided increasing wind driven upper ocean currents, pointing to increased mixing.
271:
Polyakov, Igor V.; Pnyushkov, Andrey V.; Alkire, Matthew B.; Ashik, Igor M.; Baumann, Till M.; Carmack, Eddy C.; Goszczko, Ilona; Guthrie, John; Ivanov, Vladimir V.; Kanzow, Torsten; Krishfield, Richard; Kwok, Ronald; Sundfjord, Arild; Morison, James; Rember, Robert (2017-04-21).
130:
133:
Process of
Atlantification in the Eurasian Basin of the Barents Sea. Red arrows indicate heat transfer, the blue arrow indicated inflow of Atlantic water. The red and blue colors indicate warm and cold water respectively. Recreated from Polyakov et
783:
Polyakov, Igor V.; Rippeth, Tom P.; Fer, Ilker; Alkire, Matthew B.; Baumann, Till M.; Carmack, Eddy C.; Ingvaldsen, Randi; Ivanov, Vladimir V.; Janout, Markus; Lind, Sigrid; Padman, Laurie; Pnyushkov, Andrey V.; Rember, Robert (2020-09-15).
44:
is disappearing as a result. The process can be seen on the figure on the far right, where the sea surface temperature change in the past 50 years is shown, which is up to 5 degrees in some places. This change in the
196:
C in 2080. This shows that warm
Atlantic water will penetrate further into the Arctic Ocean, ultimately extending throughout the Eurasian basin, leading to reduction in sea-ice thickness in this region.
849:
Polyakov, Igor V.; Rippeth, Tom P.; Fer, Ilker; Baumann, Till M.; Carmack, Eddy C.; Ivanov, Vladimir V.; Janout, Markus; Padman, Laurie; Pnyushkov, Andrey V.; Rember, Robert (2020-08-28).
238:, meaning that if a critical point is reached, the system will settle around a different equilibrium state. In the Arctic this different state could be one with much less or no sea-ice.
500:
Lenn, Y. D.; Wiles, P. J.; Torres-Valdes, S.; Abrahamsen, E. P.; Rippeth, T. P.; Simpson, J. H.; Bacon, S.; Laxon, S. W.; Polyakov, I.; Ivanov, V.; Kirillov, S. (2009-03-03).
194:
168:
1085:
Descamps, SĂ©bastien; Aars, Jon; Fuglei, Eva; Kovacs, Kit M.; Lydersen, Christian; Pavlova, Olga; Pedersen, Ă
shild Ă.; Ravolainen, Virve; StrĂžm, Hallvard (2016-06-02).
726:
Wang, Qiang; Wekerle, Claudia; Wang, Xuezhu; Danilov, Sergey; Koldunov, Nikolay; Sein, Dmitry; Sidorenko, Dmitry; Appen, WilkenâJon; Jung, Thomas (2020-02-16).
1207:
89:
84:
layer. Below this layer, the temperature increases with depth to above the freezing point. This layer which holds this temperature gradient is called the
205:
Atlantification as part of the climate changing in the Arctic has major consequences for all organisms living there. Due to the warming of Barents Sea,
345:
Ivanov, Vladimir; Alexeev, Vladimir; Koldunov, Nikolay V.; Repina, Irina; SandĂž, Anne Britt; Smedsrud, Lars Henrik; Smirnov, Alexander (2016-05-01).
702:
235:
1038:
Fossheim, Maria; Primicerio, Raul; Johannesen, Edda; Ingvaldsen, Randi B.; Aschan, Michaela M.; Dolgov, Andrey V. (2015-05-18).
65:
728:"Intensification of the Atlantic Water Supply to the Arctic Ocean Through Fram Strait Induced by Arctic Sea Ice Decline"
57:, where sea-ice is disappearing faster than in any other Arctic region, impacting the local and global ecosystem.
985:"Increased intrusion of warming Atlantic water leads to rapid expansion of temperate phytoplankton in the Arctic"
563:"Wind-driven mixing at intermediate depths in an ice-free Arctic Ocean: WIND MIXING IN AN ICE-FREE ARCTIC OCEAN"
428:
403:
144:
Barents Sea in between Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (Barents Sea exit) will warm significantly from -0.2
646:"Observed Atlantification of the Barents Sea Causes the Polar Front to Limit the Expansion of Winter Sea Ice"
1202:
558:
1197:
785:
1051:
996:
929:
862:
797:
739:
657:
615:
513:
415:
358:
285:
114:
404:"A One-Dimensional Time-Dependent Model for the Vertical Stratification of the Upper Arctic Ocean"
1116:
1020:
965:
898:
831:
765:
683:
584:
539:
482:
384:
327:
80:
water is a layer where the salinity increases strongly but the temperature remains low: the cold
36:
water in the Arctic. Warmer and saltier Atlantic water is extending its reach northward into the
786:"Weakening of Cold Halocline Layer Exposes Sea Ice to Oceanic Heat in the Eastern Arctic Ocean"
254:
Data provided by Physical Sciences Laboratory, NOAA, Boulder, Colorado, from their Web site at
173:
147:
1173:
1155:
1108:
1067:
1012:
957:
890:
823:
757:
675:
531:
474:
433:
376:
319:
311:
274:"Greater role for Atlantic inflows on sea-ice loss in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean"
1163:
1147:
1098:
1059:
1004:
947:
937:
880:
870:
813:
805:
747:
665:
623:
574:
521:
464:
423:
366:
301:
293:
20:
Sea surface temperature difference between the decades 1960-1970 and 2010-2020 in degrees C.
113:
The increasing influence of Atlantic water flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the loss of
88:
layer. The water underneath is warm and salty, carried in from the Atlantic Ocean by the
1055:
1000:
984:
933:
866:
801:
743:
661:
619:
517:
419:
362:
289:
1168:
46:
129:
16:
1191:
969:
902:
835:
769:
687:
486:
388:
331:
206:
1120:
1087:"Climate change impacts on wildlife in a High Arctic archipelago - Svalbard, Norway"
588:
543:
1024:
74:
37:
234:
There are growing concerns that the Arctic climate might be moving to a so-called
1040:"Recent warming leads to a rapid borealization of fish communities in the Arctic"
851:"Intensification of NearâSurface Currents and Shear in the Eastern Arctic Ocean"
703:"Explainer: How 'Atlantification' is making the Arctic Ocean saltier and warmer"
223:
69:
Temperature and salinity profiles in the Arctic Ocean. Image created by Brn-Bld.
54:
50:
1039:
469:
452:
347:"Arctic Ocean Heat Impact on Regional Ice Decay: A Suggested Positive Feedback"
1151:
85:
24:
1159:
1071:
961:
942:
917:
894:
827:
809:
761:
679:
535:
478:
453:"Stability of the arctic halocline: a new indicator of arctic climate change"
437:
380:
315:
273:
1135:
670:
645:
371:
346:
297:
215:
211:
81:
1177:
1112:
1016:
323:
918:"The Role of Atlantic Heat Transport in Future Arctic Winter Sea Ice Loss"
1063:
885:
875:
850:
752:
727:
603:
579:
562:
526:
501:
226:
live on seals and are also strongly dependant on the sea-ice to live on.
93:
33:
818:
502:"Vertical mixing at intermediate depths in the Arctic boundary current"
101:
97:
92:(AMOC). This layer is warmer than the surface layer but because of its
41:
1103:
1086:
1008:
952:
627:
644:
Barton, Benjamin I.; Lenn, Yueng-Djern; Lique, Camille (2018-08-01).
451:
Polyakov, Igor V; Pnyushkov, Andrey V; Carmack, Eddy C (2018-12-17).
306:
219:
122:
atmospheric forcing in the Arctic region, amplified by sea-ice loss.
128:
64:
23:
15:
983:
Neukermans, Griet; Oziel, Laurent; Babin, Marcel (2018-02-02).
916:Ă
rthun, Marius; Eldevik, Tor; Smedsrud, Lars H. (2019-06-01).
429:
10.1175/1520-0485(1989)019<0052:AODTDM>2.0.CO;2
222:
depend directly on the fish populations. Land mammals like
604:"Retreat of the cold halocline layer in the Arctic Ocean"
255:
40:. The Arctic Ocean is becoming warmer and saltier and
561:; Williams, William J.; Bacon, Sheldon (2016-09-28).
557:
Lincoln, Ben J.; Rippeth, Tom P.; Lenn, Yueng-Djern;
176:
150:
100:
than the water above. This means this layer is less
188:
162:
28:Location of the Barents Sea in the Arctic Ocean.
32:Atlantification is the increasing influence of
602:Steele, Michael; Boyd, Timothy (1998-05-15).
8:
90:Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
1167:
1102:
951:
941:
884:
874:
817:
751:
669:
578:
525:
468:
427:
370:
305:
180:
175:
154:
149:
608:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
247:
105:extending to the bottom of the ocean.
7:
639:
637:
266:
264:
1208:Climate change and the environment
14:
1134:Lenton, Timothy M. (2012-02-01).
650:Journal of Physical Oceanography
408:Journal of Physical Oceanography
351:Journal of Physical Oceanography
1136:"Arctic Climate Tipping Points"
53:, a shallow shelf sea north of
457:Environmental Research Letters
1:
61:Structure of the Arctic Ocean
855:Geophysical Research Letters
732:Geophysical Research Letters
567:Geophysical Research Letters
506:Geophysical Research Letters
701:Dunne, Daisy (2020-01-16).
402:Björk, Göran (1989-01-01).
1224:
109:Process of Atlantification
72:
1152:10.1007/s13280-011-0221-x
189:{\displaystyle ^{\circ }}
163:{\displaystyle ^{\circ }}
49:is most prominent in the
943:10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0750.1
810:10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0976.1
470:10.1088/1748-9326/aaec1e
671:10.1175/JPO-D-18-0003.1
559:Timmermans, Mary Louise
372:10.1175/JPO-D-15-0144.1
298:10.1126/science.aai8204
190:
164:
135:
70:
29:
21:
1091:Global Change Biology
1044:Nature Climate Change
989:Global Change Biology
256:https://psl.noaa.gov/
191:
165:
132:
68:
27:
19:
1064:10.1038/nclimate2647
876:10.1029/2020GL089469
753:10.1029/2019GL086682
580:10.1002/2016GL070454
527:10.1029/2008GL036792
174:
148:
1056:2015NatCC...5..673F
1001:2018GCBio..24.2545N
934:2019JCli...32.3327A
867:2020GeoRL..4789469P
802:2020JCli...33.8107P
744:2020GeoRL..4786682W
662:2018JPO....48.1849B
620:1998JGR...10310419S
614:(C5): 10419â10435.
518:2009GeoRL..36.5601L
420:1989JPO....19...52B
363:2016JPO....46.1437I
290:2017Sci...356..285P
922:Journal of Climate
790:Journal of Climate
186:
160:
136:
71:
30:
22:
1104:10.1111/gcb.13381
1009:10.1111/gcb.14075
928:(11): 3327â3341.
796:(18): 8107â8123.
628:10.1029/98JC00580
573:(18): 9749â9756.
284:(6335): 285â291.
1215:
1182:
1181:
1171:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1106:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1035:
1029:
1028:
995:(6): 2545â2553.
980:
974:
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955:
945:
913:
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888:
878:
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840:
839:
821:
780:
774:
773:
755:
723:
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692:
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673:
656:(8): 1849â1866.
641:
632:
631:
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592:
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547:
529:
497:
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472:
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357:(5): 1437â1456.
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96:it has a higher
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12:
11:
5:
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1211:
1210:
1205:
1203:Atlantic Ocean
1200:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1183:
1126:
1097:(2): 490â502.
1077:
1050:(7): 673â677.
1030:
975:
908:
841:
775:
718:
693:
633:
594:
549:
492:
463:(12): 125008.
443:
394:
337:
260:
246:
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228:
202:
199:
183:
179:
157:
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115:stratification
110:
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62:
59:
47:Arctic climate
13:
10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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886:11250/2733427
882:
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845:
842:
837:
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829:
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568:
564:
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553:
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541:
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523:
519:
515:
512:(5): L05601.
511:
507:
503:
496:
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488:
484:
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471:
466:
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458:
454:
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236:tipping point
230:Tipping point
229:
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217:
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208:
207:phytoplankton
200:
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67:
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58:
56:
52:
48:
43:
39:
35:
26:
18:
1198:Arctic Ocean
1146:(1): 10â22.
1143:
1139:
1129:
1094:
1090:
1080:
1047:
1043:
1033:
992:
988:
978:
925:
921:
911:
858:
854:
844:
793:
789:
778:
735:
731:
721:
710:. Retrieved
707:Carbon Brief
706:
696:
653:
649:
611:
607:
597:
570:
566:
552:
509:
505:
495:
460:
456:
446:
414:(1): 52â67.
411:
407:
397:
354:
350:
340:
281:
277:
250:
233:
204:
142:
139:Consequences
124:
120:
112:
78:
75:Arctic Ocean
38:Arctic Ocean
31:
819:10037/19601
224:polar bears
55:Scandinavia
51:Barents Sea
1192:Categories
953:1956/22030
712:2023-04-11
242:References
86:pycnocline
73:See also:
1160:1654-7209
1072:1758-6798
970:134670803
962:0894-8755
903:225229292
895:0094-8276
836:224975091
828:0894-8755
770:211572378
762:0094-8276
688:134212469
680:0022-3670
536:0094-8276
487:158108872
479:1748-9326
438:0022-3670
389:129560108
381:0022-3670
332:206653114
316:0036-8075
307:1912/8975
212:Sea birds
201:Organisms
182:∘
156:∘
82:halocline
1178:22270703
1121:34897286
1113:27250039
1017:29394007
589:41714220
544:56420618
324:28386025
94:salinity
34:Atlantic
1169:3357822
1052:Bibcode
1025:3386710
997:Bibcode
930:Bibcode
863:Bibcode
798:Bibcode
740:Bibcode
658:Bibcode
616:Bibcode
514:Bibcode
416:Bibcode
359:Bibcode
286:Bibcode
278:Science
102:buoyant
98:density
42:sea-ice
1176:
1166:
1158:
1119:
1111:
1070:
1023:
1015:
968:
960:
901:
893:
861:(16).
834:
826:
768:
760:
686:
678:
587:
542:
534:
485:
477:
436:
387:
379:
330:
322:
314:
220:whales
170:to 2.2
1140:Ambio
1117:S2CID
1021:S2CID
966:S2CID
899:S2CID
832:S2CID
766:S2CID
738:(3).
684:S2CID
585:S2CID
540:S2CID
483:S2CID
385:S2CID
328:S2CID
216:seals
1174:PMID
1156:ISSN
1109:PMID
1068:ISSN
1013:PMID
958:ISSN
891:ISSN
824:ISSN
758:ISSN
676:ISSN
532:ISSN
475:ISSN
434:ISSN
377:ISSN
320:PMID
312:ISSN
218:and
1164:PMC
1148:doi
1099:doi
1060:doi
1005:doi
948:hdl
938:doi
881:hdl
871:doi
814:hdl
806:doi
748:doi
666:doi
624:doi
612:103
575:doi
522:doi
465:doi
424:doi
367:doi
302:hdl
294:doi
282:356
134:al.
1194::
1172:.
1162:.
1154:.
1144:41
1142:.
1138:.
1115:.
1107:.
1095:23
1093:.
1089:.
1066:.
1058:.
1046:.
1042:.
1019:.
1011:.
1003:.
993:24
991:.
987:.
964:.
956:.
946:.
936:.
926:32
924:.
920:.
897:.
889:.
879:.
869:.
859:47
857:.
853:.
830:.
822:.
812:.
804:.
794:33
792:.
788:.
764:.
756:.
746:.
736:47
734:.
730:.
705:.
682:.
674:.
664:.
654:48
652:.
648:.
636:^
622:.
610:.
606:.
583:.
571:43
569:.
565:.
538:.
530:.
520:.
510:36
508:.
504:.
481:.
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