591:
793:
No-Conscription
Committee – an immense crowd of about 60,000 people gathered at Swanston St between Guild Hall and Princes Bridge, and for upwards of an hour the street was a surging area of humanity". An anti-conscription stop work meeting called by five trade unions held on the Yarra Bank mid-week on 4 October attracted 15,000 people. It was passed on 21 September 1916, and mandatory registration and enrolment commenced while the first referendum campaign was underway. By 5 October,
603:
44:
1006:, which was established in Sydney with other branches later formed in Wollongong, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Newcastle and Adelaide. The movement protested against conscription of Australians to fight in the Vietnam War and made the plight of men under 21, who were not yet eligible to vote, a focus of their campaign. In 1970, five Save-Our-Sons women were jailed in Melbourne for handing out anti-conscription pamphlets on government property. The group, which included
1022:
1180:
1166:
673:
736:
1106:. Reportedly, the cabinet considered instituting an option of alternative civilian work program for conscientious objectors in an attempt to reduce the numbers of objectors going to jail. That was never instituted but was widely rumoured at the time. Such work would have been menial labouring jobs in remote locations such as north and western
1093:
and
Victoria. They included men such as Bob Scates and Michael Hamel-Green. They went underground while maintaining a public presence, appeared at protests and were spirited away by the crowd before they could be arrested. In December 1972, while 'underground' as a draft resister, Barry Johnson stood
780:
The conscription issue deeply divided
Australia with large meetings held both for and against. The women's vote was seen as important, with large women's meetings and campaign information from both sides aimed at women voters. The campaigning for the first referendum was launched by Hughes at a huge
1153:
had an increasingly-political effect. Conscription ended in
December 1972, and the remaining seven men in Australian prisons for refusing conscription were freed in mid-to-late December 1972.ef 63,735 national servicemen served in the Army, of whom 15,381 were deployed to Vietnam. Approximately 200
1080:
in August showed that 55 percent of those surveyed favoured bringing
Australian troops home, and only 40 percent favoured them staying. That was the first poll to show less than 50% approval for the government's policy, and all polls after August 1969 were to reveal a majority in favour of bringing
1033:
Young men who were subject to the conscription lottery also formed their own anti-conscription organisation, the Youth
Campaign Against Conscription. Like Save Our Sons, it spread to other states: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia. It was the YCAC that imported the concept
1088:
Around then, opposition to conscription became more radical. Active non-compliers began to call themselves "draft resisters". Instead of waiting to be called up, draft resisters wrote letters to the
Minister for National Service detailing their intention not to comply with conscription. Under law,
768:
Many people thought positively of conscription as a sign of loyalty to
Britain and thought that it would also support those men who were already fighting. However, trade unions feared that their members might be replaced by cheaper foreign or female labour and so opposed conscription. Some groups
1038:
from the United States and ushered in a new form of resistance to conscription, active non-compliance. Instead of merely not registering (passive non-compliance with the
National Service Scheme), the young conscripts actively demonstrated their distaste for the government's actions by destroying
885:
of 1942 led to a significant reform in the composition of the
Australian Army. During the campaign, the restriction banning CMF personnel from serving outside Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and CMF. In late 1942 and early 1943, Prime Minister
792:
Anti-conscriptionists, especially in Melbourne, were also able to mobilise large crowds, with a meeting filling the Exhibition Building on 20 September 1916; 30,000 people on the Yarra bank on Sunday, 15 October, and 25,000 the following week; a "parade of women promoted by the United Women's
972:
was amended May 1964 to provide that national servicemen could be obliged to serve overseas, a provision that had been applied only once before, during World War II. The 1964 amendments applied only to the permanent military forces and excluded the Citizen Military Forces. In 1965, the
1072:
had been able to locate the man within hours and bring him to the studio when the federal police had been unable to capture him, and the event was made even more embarrassing for the government because the man was able to leave the studio before the police had arrived to arrest him.
989:
application. To be exempted on the basis of conscientious objection, an applicant needed to demonstrate his moral objection to "all" wars in court and to be legalised as a pacifist. That meant that the rate of success for conscientious objection applications was generally low.
847:, all unmarried men aged 21 were to be called up for three months' military training. The men could serve only in Australia or its territories. Conscription was effectively introduced in mid-1942, when all men aged 18–35 and single men aged 35–45 were required to join the
805:
noted in the article "Influence of the IWW" that "the great bulk of the opposition to conscription is centred in Victoria". Many meetings in inner Melbourne and Sydney were disrupted by anti-conscriptionists with speakers being howled down from the audience in what
570:
In 1911 there were approximately 350,000 boys of an age (10–17 years) to register for compulsory training up to the end of 1915. Since 'universal' was a misnomer, about half that number were exempted from training, or perhaps never registered, reducing the group to
636:
Are you in favour of the Government having, in this grave emergency, the same compulsory powers over citizens in regard to requiring their military service, for the term of this War, outside the Commonwealth, as it now has in regard to military service within the
964:
or lottery draw based on date of birth, and conscripts were obligated to give two years of continuous full-time service, followed by a further three years on the active reserve list. The full-time service requirement was reduced to 18 months in October 1971.
940:. Later, the obligation was 140 days of training (77 days full-time) and three years' service in the CMF. In 1957 the system was changed to emphasise skill rather than numbers, then ended in 1959. The regular military forces remained voluntary.
1101:
Australian government cabinet documents released by Australian National Archives in 2001 show that in 1970, the conservative government was initially concerned about the growth of conscientious objection and of outright opposition to the
869:
in which Bluntschli filled his backpack with chocolate bars, rather than ammunition. However, several CMF Militia units fought under difficult conditions, suffered extremely high casualties in 1942 and slowed the Japanese advance on the
575:
There was quite extensive opposition to the so-called "boy conscription". By July 1915, there had been about 34,000 prosecutions and 7,000 detentions of trainees, parents, employers or other persons required to register.
1625:
1509:
1468:
977:
was again amended to require the CMF to serve overseas, which had not been included in the 1964 amendments. In March 1966, the government announced that national servicemen would be sent to
765:. Most trade unions actively opposed conscription. Archbishop Mannix, born in County Clare, stated that Ireland had been more wronged by Great Britain than Belgium had been by Germany.
212:
1855:
1825:
828:
By the end of the war in November 1918, a total of 416,809 men had voluntarily enlisted in the Army, representing 38.7 percent of the white male population aged between 18 and 44.
2590:
825:. Hughes denounced anti-conscriptionists as traitors and a climate of bitter sectarianism developed since most Roman Catholics opposed conscription and most others supported it.
817:
vigorously arguing the need for conscription for Australia to help the Allies win the war. They were supported by many within the party, including Labor's first prime minister,
208:
1141:
The documents reveal that draft resistance and draft dodging never posed a threat to the number of conscripts required, but the public opposition by draft resisters such as
1018:
women's prison in which they were incarcerated. Barbara Miller is understood to be related to the decorated conscript Simon Anderson, who mysteriously disappeared in 1970.
1113:
In Cabinet Submission Number 200 for 1970, Appendix 1, case studies of 17 men awaiting prosecution for failure to undertake service show a broad spectrum of opposition to
985:, on 13 May 1966. Men who wished to avoid national service could join the Citizen Military Forces and serve only inside Australia, claim a student deferment or attempt a
981:
to fight in units of the Australian Regular Army and for secondment to American forces. Requirements for overseas service were detailed by the Minister for the Army,
537:
for boys from 12 to 14 years of age and for youths of 18 to 20 years of age for the purposes of home defence. The Act, which passed with the combined support of the
2292:
2227:
657:
and his supporters left the Australian Labor Party parliamentary caucus and took with them a good deal of the parliamentary party's talent. They created a new
632:
was held on 28 October 1916 and narrowly rejected conscription with a margin of 49% for and 51% against. The referendum of 28 October 1916 asked Australians:
227:
1718:
1230:
313:
2266:
holds several collections providing insight into the complexity and divisiveness of the conscription debate, including the 'Stable Collection 1917–1991'.
899:
895:
1883:
1064:
story in which a conscientious objector, who had been on the run from police for several months, was interviewed live in the studio by the journalist
1026:
388:
2339:
747:
642:
629:
1252:
2595:
1150:
1089:
that immediately rendered them liable for service. A number of these young men formed a draft resisters' union, active in at least two states:
1047:
754:
453:
2246:
2115:
2093:
2074:
2036:
585:
552:
1852:
1822:
2365:
937:
2552:
2585:
2166:
2055:
1198:
393:
148:
143:
2556:
2297:
1302:
2185:
2140:
2015:
1996:
1137:
Opposition based upon the compulsion and authoritarian nature of conscription and its conflict with democratic processes and ideals.
398:
43:
2516:
661:, and Hughes survived as prime minister by forming a conservative Nationalist government, which was dependent for survival on the
2600:
2481:
2286:
1666:
852:
153:
707:
606:
338:
308:
1977:
1002:
and conscription grew in Australia. In 1965, a group of concerned Australian women formed the anti-conscription organisation
772:
South Africa and India were the only other participating countries not to introduce conscription during the First World War.
669:, then expelled Hughes and all of those who had followed him. Following the split, Labor stayed out of office for ten years.
549:
1764:
2521:
2380:
520:
495:
353:
293:
559:
government instituted a system of compulsory military training for all males aged between 12 and 26 from 1 January 1911.
1085:, declared that if elected, the ALP would make sure that all Australian troops in Vietnam would be home 'by Christmas'.
478:
358:
65:
2531:
2476:
2560:
2491:
2471:
2443:
2400:
2390:
2332:
2263:
949:
697:
595:
373:
288:
283:
2410:
2511:
2466:
590:
2506:
2486:
1039:
their registration cards. Unlike in the United States, that was not legal and so its importance remained symbolic.
662:
446:
333:
183:
1798:
1368:
859:", or "chockos", because they were believed to melt under the conditions of battle, or it might be an allusion to
649:
Are you in favour of the proposal of the Commonwealth Government for reinforcing the Commonwealth Forces overseas?
956:
932:
725:
702:
363:
173:
2196:
1853:
Cabinet Submission Number 200 Appendix 1 – Men awaiting prosecution action for failure to undertake service
2276:
1193:
903:
686:
499:
2375:
936:. All Australian males aged 18 had to register for 176 days training (99 days full-time) and two years in the
2526:
2425:
1081:
the troops home. In October, during his policy speech for the 1969 federal elections, the opposition leader,
2501:
2420:
2282:
1918:
1689:
986:
875:
856:
848:
785:, where he outlined the government's proposals. That was followed by a huge pro-conscription meeting at the
716:
645:
was held on 20 December 1917 and defeated by 46% for and 54% against. This question was put to Australians:
503:
426:
408:
403:
303:
298:
263:
258:
248:
243:
233:
2415:
2405:
2395:
2385:
1891:
2496:
2448:
2370:
2325:
1126:
1043:
891:
556:
542:
383:
378:
368:
348:
343:
328:
323:
318:
273:
268:
253:
223:
198:
193:
75:
439:
238:
203:
762:
1256:
1011:
602:
2559:(14 October 2021) by Lynn Meyers, Specialist Librarian, State Library Of Queensland published by the
658:
278:
218:
1913:
2126:
1042:
There were several high-profile controversies caused by the government's heavy-handed treatment of
1003:
882:
860:
786:
538:
120:
85:
80:
1021:
1007:
906:
was the only CMF formation to serve outside Australian territory, however, when it formed part of
2221:
2205:
1035:
90:
70:
1409:
728:, was also arrested. Anti-conscriptionist publications, in one case, even when it was read into
2242:
2181:
2162:
2136:
2111:
2089:
2070:
2051:
2032:
2011:
1992:
1973:
1015:
911:
894:
to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the
105:
2026:
1171:
1146:
1122:
1065:
1060:
927:
865:
782:
525:
490:
474:
470:
188:
115:
110:
1859:
1829:
1670:
1663:
1306:
1090:
692:
1987:
Beaumont, Joan (1996). "Australia's war: Asia and the Pacific". In Beaumont, Joan (ed.).
1685:
1051:
982:
822:
758:
677:
17:
2579:
2307:
1823:
Cabinet Submission Number 200 for 1970 Appendix 2 – Possible Civilian Employment
1759:
1710:
1222:
1094:
as the Australian Labor Party (ALP) candidate in the seat of Hotham against Minister
1082:
978:
907:
814:
750:
95:
954:
In 1964, compulsory national service for 20-year-old males was introduced under the
799:
reported that of 11607 men examined, 4581 were found fit, approximately 40 percent.
2302:
1840:
1436:
1114:
871:
844:
818:
769:
argued that the whole war was immoral, and it was unjust to force people to fight.
711:
654:
614:
534:
163:
125:
35:
672:
485:'s nationhood. Military conscription for peacetime service was abolished in 1972.
2236:
2103:
1179:
1077:
1055:
999:
887:
721:
666:
622:
618:
100:
2551:
1185:
1161:
1107:
923:
49:
1865:
1835:
2132:
1142:
1095:
1029:
shortly before they and the battalion were deployed to South Vietnam in 1966
961:
813:
The issue deeply divided the Labor Party, with ministers such as Hughes and
482:
2567:
2557:
Stable collection 1917–1991: treasure collection of the John Oxley Library
2317:
2198:
Draftmen Go Free: A History of the Anti-Conscription Movement in Australia
2159:
The Australian Century: The Political Struggle in the Building of a Nation
2028:
The Torch and the Sword: A History of the Army Cadet Movement in Australia
2088:. Elite. Martin Windrow (consultant editor). Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
2008:
The Wobblies at War: A History of the IWW and the Great War in Australia
477:, has a controversial history which dates back to the implementation of
1514:
1473:
1441:
795:
735:
729:
2128:
Hell no! We won't go! Postwar resistance to conscription in Australia
1395:
9 November 1916 quoted on page 80 Ashton, Paul & Anderson, Mark,
1054:(who later became a well-known television personality). In 1969 the
2310:- the federal act which provides for mandatory service under § 60 (
2287:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
2564:
1068:, who then posed awkward questions to the Army Minister about why
1020:
835:
were suspended, ending 18 years of conscription for home defence.
734:
671:
617:, full conscription for overseas service was attempted during the
601:
589:
545:, did not allow soldiers to be conscripted for overseas service.
2238:
Encyclopedia of Cold War espionage, spies, and secret operations
2178:
A Documentary History of the Australian Labor Movement 1850–1975
2321:
1587:, 9 October 1916; "Women's Only Meeting at Fitzroy Town Hall",
810:
described as "disgraceful exhibition" and "disorderly scenes".
548:
Following recommendations arising from a visit to Australia by
1626:"National Museum of Australia - Second World War conscription"
746:
Other notable opponents to Conscription included the Catholic
1462:
1460:
831:
On 1 November 1929, the mandatory service provisions of the
1535:
1533:
665:. The remainder of the Labor Party, under the new leader,
2312:
Proclamation calling upon persons to serve in time of war
1970:
Falling in: Australians and 'Boy Conscription', 1911-1915
1550:
1548:
1110:, western New South Wales and northern South Australia.
680:, were used both to recruit and to promote conscription.
1869: – statements by Michael Matteson and Geoff Mullen
1369:"Changing The World: The Women's Political Association"
1076:
By 1969, public opinion was turning against the war. A
1305:. National Archives of Australia. 2017. Archived from
1058:
administration was severely embarrassed by a renowned
696:
to arrest and prosecute anti-conscriptionists such as
1289:
732:, were seized by government censors in police raids.
2555:
This Knowledge (XXG) article incorporates text from
2067:
A Certain Grandeur: Gough Whitlam's Life in Politics
684:
After the first referendum, the government used the
562:
John Barrett, in his study of boyhood conscription,
2457:
2434:
2353:
1397:
Australia in the 20th Century: Working Historically
1326:
1324:
1410:"Conscription during the First World War, 1914–18"
998:During the late 1960s, domestic opposition to the
555:to report on the country's defence readiness, the
1134:Moral opposition to the Vietnam War in particular
1010:, Irene Miller and Jo Maclaine-Ross, was dubbed "
1686:"Appendix: The national service scheme, 1964–72"
1583:, 7 October 1916; "Meeting at South Melbourne",
2050:. Men at Arms. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey.
1866:Australian Draft Resistance and the Vietnam War
1836:Australian Draft Resistance and the Vietnam War
1664:Fact Sheet 163 – National Service, 1951–59
1367:Women's Political Association (8 August 2022).
2216:– via The Commons Social Change Library.
2152:– via The Commons Social Change Library.
2333:
498:to authorise conscription for service in the
447:
8:
2591:Industrial Workers of the World in Australia
960:. The selection of conscripts was made by a
2303:Australian War Memorial – Conscription
2293:Military Conscription: Issues for Australia
2277:Conscription (a Sth Australian perspective)
2157:Manne, Robert (2001). Manne, Robert (ed.).
1939:
1890:. Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from
1839: – statements by Michael Matteson and
1719:Office of Parliamentary Counsel (Australia)
1231:Office of Parliamentary Counsel (Australia)
653:After the failure of the first referendum,
2340:
2326:
2318:
2226:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2135:: Interventions (published 22 June 2022).
2106:; Balderstone, Simon; Bowan, John (2006).
714:, who had three sons at the front, of the
594:Supporters of conscription campaigning at
454:
440:
31:
2069:(revised ed.). Viking. p. 247.
1612:
1303:"Conscription Referendums, 1916 and 1917"
1255:. Australian War Memorial. Archived from
1025:Five national servicemen assigned to the
1650:
1638:
1342:
1027:6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
2543:
2298:Conscription referendums, 1916 and 1917
1951:
1600:
1467:Cockerill, George (22 September 1916).
1399:Macmillan Education AU, 1 December 2004
1277:
1214:
417:
162:
134:
56:
34:
2219:
1809:
1786:
1345:. (Caucus minutes of 14 November 1916)
1877:
1875:
1799:Whitlam's 1969 Election Policy Speech
1508:Cockerill, George (16 October 1916).
1330:
676:Cartoons such as this one, by artist
586:World War I conscription in Australia
27:Overview of conscription in Australia
7:
2010:. Melbourne: Spectrum Publications.
1914:"National Service Scheme, 1951-1972"
1768:. Australian Women's Archive Project
1760:"Save Our Sons Movement (1965–1973)"
1579:"Meeting at Collingwood Town Hall",
1354:
2086:The Australian Army in World War II
1884:"Conscription: The Birthday Ballot"
1290:Lewis, Balderstone & Bowan 2006
1253:"Universal Service Scheme, 1911–29"
2048:The Australian Army in World War I
1758:Morrell, Elle (15 February 2001).
1435:Cockerill, G (19 September 1916).
1199:Billy Hughes egg-throwing incident
481:and service in the first years of
25:
1373:The Commons Social Change Library
855:(AIF) scorned CMF conscripts as "
502:, provided it is approved by the
2550:
1972:. Sydney: Hale & Iremonger.
1178:
1164:
902:was passed in January 1943. The
878:, then an Australian territory.
42:
2570:, accessed on 19 January 2023.
1715:Federal Register of Legislation
1416:. Australian War Memorial. 2018
1227:Federal Register of Legislation
890:overcame opposition within the
708:Industrial Workers of the World
607:Industrial Workers of the World
523:introduced an amendment to the
2366:Federated States of Micronesia
2241:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1882:Australian Government (2012).
1674:National Archives of Australia
706:and many other members of the
609:anti-conscription poster, 1916
533:, which allowed for a form of
488:However, in times of war, the
1:
2596:Cold War history of Australia
1991:. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
1888:Australia and the Vietnam War
1121:Religious opposition such as
496:Governor-General of Australia
2110:. New Holland. p. 119.
2108:Events That Shaped Australia
2065:Freudenberg, Graham (2009).
479:compulsory military training
66:Alternative civilian service
2561:State Library of Queensland
2264:State Library of Queensland
2208:(published 10 October 2022)
1765:Australian Women's Register
1739:C of A Hansard 8 March 1966
950:Military history of Oceania
851:(CMF). Volunteers with the
753:, Queensland Labor Premier
613:Under Labor Prime Minister
596:Mingenew, Western Australia
2617:
2235:Trahair, R. C. S. (2004).
1989:Australia's War, 1939–1945
1748:C of A Hansard 13 May 1966
947:
663:Commonwealth Liberal Party
583:
2586:Conscription in Australia
2025:Stockings, Craig (2007).
1721:. 7 June 1965. Section 16
957:National Service Act 1964
933:National Service Act 1951
930:was introduced under the
853:Australian Imperial Force
843:In 1939, at the start of
726:Victorian Socialist Party
693:Unlawful Associations Act
515:Universal Training Scheme
467:Conscription in Australia
2517:Northern Mariana Islands
2283:Conscription (Australia)
2176:McKinley, Brian (1979).
2046:Fleming, Robert (2012).
1858:9 September 2006 at the
1194:Australian Defence Force
1131:Moral opposition to wars
781:overflow meeting at the
2601:Conscription by country
2482:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
2348:Conscription in Oceania
2125:Oliver, Bobbie (2021).
2084:Johnston, Mark (2007).
1919:Australian War Memorial
1690:Australian War Memorial
1044:conscientious objectors
987:conscientious objection
849:Citizen Military Forces
748:Archbishop of Melbourne
724:, then a member of the
504:Parliament of Australia
18:Australian Conscription
1968:Barrett, John (1979).
1030:
892:Australian Labor Party
821:and NSW Labor Premier
743:
681:
651:
639:
610:
599:
573:
557:Australian Labor Party
543:Australian Labor Party
76:Conscientious objector
2460:and other territories
1024:
900:necessary legislation
739:1917 Handbill –
738:
675:
647:
634:
605:
593:
568:
135:By historical country
48:1780 caricature of a
2195:Scates, Bob (1988).
2006:Cain, Frank (1993).
1828:3 March 2007 at the
1669:2 April 2015 at the
1566:"Influence of IWW",
1104:National Service Act
922:In 1951, during the
659:National Labor Party
418:By geographical area
389:United Arab Emirates
2161:. Text Publishing.
1498:, 21 September 1916
1127:Jehovah's Witnesses
861:George Bernard Shaw
787:Melbourne Town Hall
687:War Precautions Act
539:Protectionist Party
121:Penal military unit
86:Counter-recruitment
81:Conscription crisis
2206:Richmond, Victoria
1894:on 22 October 2016
1711:"Defence Act 1965"
1223:"Defence Act 1903"
1036:draft-card burning
1031:
914:in 1943 and 1944.
896:South West Pacific
857:chocolate soldiers
763:Women's Peace Army
744:
682:
611:
600:
91:Draft-card burning
71:Civil conscription
2540:
2539:
2532:Wallis and Futuna
2477:Clipperton Island
2435:Associated states
2248:978-0-313-31955-6
2117:978-1-74110-492-9
2095:978-1-84603-123-6
2076:978-0-670-07375-7
2038:978-0-86840-838-5
1641:, pp. 41–42.
1603:, pp. 40–41.
1591:, 11 October 1916
1570:, 12 October 1916
1542:, 23 October 1916
1414:Memorial articles
912:Dutch East Indies
789:on 21 September.
643:second referendum
521:Deakin government
464:
463:
164:By modern country
16:(Redirected from
2608:
2571:
2554:
2548:
2522:Pitcairn Islands
2492:French Polynesia
2472:Christmas Island
2401:Papua New Guinea
2381:Marshall Islands
2354:Sovereign states
2342:
2335:
2328:
2319:
2308:Defence Act 1903
2252:
2231:
2225:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2203:
2191:
2172:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2121:
2099:
2080:
2061:
2042:
2021:
2002:
1983:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1940:Freudenberg 2009
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1879:
1870:
1849:
1843:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1681:
1675:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1577:
1571:
1564:
1558:
1557:, 5 October 1916
1552:
1543:
1537:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1406:
1400:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1319:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1233:. September 2021
1219:
1188:
1183:
1182:
1174:
1172:Australia portal
1169:
1168:
1167:
1147:Michael Matteson
1123:Christadelphians
1066:Richard Carleton
1061:This Day Tonight
1012:The Fairlea Five
928:national service
866:Arms and the Man
783:Sydney Town Hall
700:, the editor of
630:first referendum
531:Defence Act 1909
526:Defence Act 1903
506:within 90 days.
491:Defence Act 1903
475:Second World War
471:National Service
469:, also known as
456:
449:
442:
116:National service
111:Military service
57:Related concepts
46:
32:
21:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2459:
2453:
2436:
2430:
2411:Solomon Islands
2349:
2346:
2281:Joan Beaumont:
2273:
2260:
2258:Further reading
2255:
2249:
2234:
2218:
2211:
2209:
2201:
2194:
2188:
2175:
2169:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2124:
2118:
2102:
2096:
2083:
2077:
2064:
2058:
2045:
2039:
2024:
2018:
2005:
1999:
1986:
1980:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1897:
1895:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1860:Wayback Machine
1850:
1846:
1830:Wayback Machine
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1769:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1722:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1684:Langford, Sue.
1683:
1682:
1678:
1671:Wayback Machine
1661:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1578:
1574:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1546:
1538:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1480:
1478:
1466:
1465:
1458:
1448:
1446:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1375:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1341:
1337:
1329:
1322:
1312:
1310:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1091:New South Wales
996:
952:
946:
920:
883:Papuan campaign
841:
778:
619:First World War
588:
582:
517:
512:
460:
431:
413:
339:the Philippines
309:the Netherlands
158:
130:
52:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2614:
2612:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2512:Norfolk Island
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2467:American Samoa
2463:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2440:
2438:
2437:of New Zealand
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2279:
2272:
2271:External links
2269:
2268:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2232:
2192:
2186:
2173:
2168:978-1875847211
2167:
2154:
2141:
2122:
2116:
2100:
2094:
2081:
2075:
2062:
2057:978-1849086325
2056:
2043:
2037:
2031:. UNSW Press.
2022:
2016:
2003:
1997:
1984:
1978:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1954:, p. 333.
1944:
1932:
1905:
1871:
1844:
1814:
1802:
1791:
1779:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1702:
1676:
1655:
1643:
1631:
1617:
1613:Stockings 2007
1605:
1593:
1572:
1559:
1544:
1529:
1500:
1488:
1456:
1427:
1401:
1385:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1320:
1309:on 5 July 2016
1294:
1292:, p. 119.
1282:
1270:
1259:on 2 July 2016
1244:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1175:
1159:
1156:
1139:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1052:Simon Townsend
995:
992:
983:Malcolm Fraser
948:Main article:
945:
942:
919:
916:
840:
837:
823:William Holman
777:
776:Divided nation
774:
759:Vida Goldstein
741:The Blood Vote
678:Norman Lindsay
584:Main article:
581:
578:
516:
513:
511:
508:
473:following the
462:
461:
459:
458:
451:
444:
436:
433:
432:
430:
429:
423:
420:
419:
415:
414:
412:
411:
406:
401:
396:
394:United Kingdom
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
221:
216:
213:child soldiers
209:Congo-Kinshasa
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
170:
167:
166:
160:
159:
157:
156:
151:
149:Russian Empire
146:
144:Ottoman Empire
140:
137:
136:
132:
131:
129:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
106:Levée en masse
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
62:
59:
58:
54:
53:
47:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2613:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:New Caledonia
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2487:Easter Island
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2343:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2207:
2200:
2199:
2193:
2189:
2187:0-909081-29-8
2183:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2144:
2142:9780645253412
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2017:0-86786-339-0
2013:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1998:1-86448-039-4
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1933:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1767:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1703:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1651:Johnston 2007
1647:
1644:
1640:
1639:Beaumont 1996
1635:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1615:, p. 86.
1614:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1489:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1431:
1428:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1386:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:McKinley 1979
1339:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1271:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1176:
1173:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1154:were killed.
1152:
1151:Robert Martin
1148:
1144:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1086:
1084:
1083:Gough Whitlam
1079:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:William White
1045:
1040:
1037:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:Save Our Sons
1001:
993:
991:
988:
984:
980:
979:South Vietnam
976:
971:
966:
963:
959:
958:
951:
943:
941:
939:
935:
934:
929:
925:
917:
915:
913:
909:
908:Merauke Force
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
879:
877:
873:
868:
867:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
838:
836:
834:
829:
826:
824:
820:
816:
815:George Pearce
811:
809:
804:
800:
798:
797:
790:
788:
784:
775:
773:
770:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
751:Daniel Mannix
749:
742:
737:
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
718:
713:
709:
705:
704:
703:Direct Action
699:
695:
694:
689:
688:
679:
674:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
650:
646:
644:
638:
637:Commonwealth?
633:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
608:
604:
597:
592:
587:
579:
577:
572:
567:
565:
560:
558:
554:
551:
550:Field Marshal
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
527:
522:
519:In 1909, the
514:
509:
507:
505:
501:
500:Defence Force
497:
493:
492:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
457:
452:
450:
445:
443:
438:
437:
435:
434:
428:
425:
424:
422:
421:
416:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
399:United States
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
229:
225:
222:
220:
217:
214:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
171:
169:
168:
165:
161:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
139:
138:
133:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
96:Draft evasion
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
63:
61:
60:
55:
51:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
30:
19:
2546:
2458:Dependencies
2444:Cook Islands
2360:
2311:
2237:
2210:. Retrieved
2197:
2180:. Drummond.
2177:
2158:
2146:. Retrieved
2127:
2107:
2104:Lewis, Wendy
2085:
2066:
2047:
2027:
2007:
1988:
1969:
1961:Bibliography
1952:Trahair 2004
1947:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1917:
1908:
1896:. Retrieved
1892:the original
1887:
1864:
1863:analysed in
1851:
1847:
1841:Geoff Mullen
1834:
1833:analysed in
1821:
1817:
1805:
1794:
1782:
1770:. Retrieved
1763:
1753:
1744:
1735:
1723:. Retrieved
1714:
1705:
1693:. Retrieved
1679:
1662:
1658:
1653:, p. 8.
1646:
1634:
1620:
1608:
1601:Fleming 2012
1596:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1567:
1562:
1554:
1539:
1520:. Retrieved
1513:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1479:. Retrieved
1472:
1447:. Retrieved
1440:
1430:
1418:. Retrieved
1413:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1376:. Retrieved
1372:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1311:. Retrieved
1307:the original
1297:
1285:
1278:Barrett 1979
1273:
1261:. Retrieved
1257:the original
1247:
1235:. Retrieved
1226:
1217:
1140:
1115:conscription
1112:
1103:
1100:
1087:
1075:
1069:
1059:
1046:, including
1041:
1032:
1008:Jean Maclean
997:
974:
969:
967:
955:
953:
931:
921:
904:11th Brigade
880:
872:Kokoda Track
864:
845:World War II
842:
839:World War II
832:
830:
827:
819:Chris Watson
812:
807:
802:
801:
794:
791:
779:
771:
767:
745:
740:
720:. The young
717:Daily Herald
715:
712:E. H. Coombe
701:
691:
685:
683:
655:Billy Hughes
652:
648:
640:
635:
627:
615:Billy Hughes
612:
574:
569:
563:
561:
547:
535:conscription
530:
524:
518:
489:
487:
466:
465:
359:South Africa
178:
154:Soviet Union
126:War resister
36:Conscription
29:
2391:New Zealand
1810:Scates 1988
1787:Oliver 2021
1518:. p. 6
1477:. p. 6
1445:. p. 6
1420:10 December
1117:including:
1078:Gallup Poll
1000:Vietnam War
975:Defence Act
970:Defence Act
944:Vietnam War
888:John Curtin
833:Defence Act
722:John Curtin
667:Frank Tudor
623:referendums
580:World War I
494:allows the
374:Switzerland
314:New Zealand
289:South Korea
284:North Korea
101:Impressment
2580:Categories
2212:5 November
1979:0908094566
1725:26 January
1695:25 October
1522:23 January
1510:"No title"
1481:23 January
1469:"No title"
1449:23 January
1437:"No title"
1331:Manne 2001
1313:29 January
1237:23 January
1205:References
1186:Law portal
1108:Queensland
994:Opposition
924:Korean War
918:Korean War
898:, and the
876:New Guinea
755:T. J. Ryan
698:Tom Barker
564:Falling In
334:Mozambique
184:Azerbaijan
50:press gang
2361:Australia
2222:cite book
2133:Melbourne
1393:The Argus
1378:5 October
1355:Cain 1993
1210:Citations
1143:John Zarb
1096:Don Chipp
962:sortition
566:, noted:
553:Kitchener
483:Australia
364:Sri Lanka
354:Singapore
299:Lithuania
228:reduction
179:Australia
174:Argentina
2376:Kiribati
2148:4 August
1925:2 August
1898:9 August
1856:Archived
1826:Archived
1772:8 August
1667:Archived
1158:See also
1014:" after
761:and the
690:and the
571:175,000.
541:and the
2568:licence
2527:Tokelau
2426:Vanuatu
1589:The Age
1585:The Age
1581:The Age
1568:The Age
1555:The Age
1540:The Age
1515:The Age
1496:The Age
1474:The Age
1442:The Age
1263:28 June
1016:Fairlea
910:in the
808:The Age
803:The Age
796:The Age
730:Hansard
621:in two
598:in 1917
510:History
427:Ireland
409:Vietnam
404:Ukraine
304:Myanmar
264:Germany
259:Georgia
249:Finland
244:Eritrea
234:Denmark
189:Bermuda
2563:under
2502:Hawaii
2421:Tuvalu
2285:, in:
2245:
2184:
2165:
2139:
2114:
2092:
2073:
2054:
2035:
2014:
1995:
1976:
1056:Gorton
529:, the
384:Turkey
379:Taiwan
369:Sweden
349:Serbia
344:Russia
329:Monaco
324:Mexico
319:Norway
294:Latvia
274:Israel
269:Greece
254:France
224:Cyprus
199:Canada
194:Brazil
2565:CC BY
2416:Tonga
2406:Samoa
2396:Palau
2386:Nauru
2202:(PDF)
239:Egypt
204:China
2497:Guam
2449:Niue
2371:Fiji
2243:ISBN
2228:link
2214:2022
2182:ISBN
2163:ISBN
2150:2022
2137:ISBN
2112:ISBN
2090:ISBN
2071:ISBN
2052:ISBN
2033:ISBN
2012:ISBN
1993:ISBN
1974:ISBN
1927:2022
1900:2016
1774:2023
1727:2023
1697:2019
1524:2023
1483:2023
1451:2023
1422:2018
1380:2022
1315:2017
1265:2016
1239:2023
1149:and
1050:and
968:The
881:The
710:and
628:The
279:Iran
219:Cuba
1070:TDT
1034:of
938:CMF
874:in
863:'s
2582::
2224:}}
2220:{{
2204:.
2131:.
1916:.
1886:.
1874:^
1762:.
1717:.
1713:.
1688:.
1547:^
1532:^
1512:.
1471:.
1459:^
1439:.
1412:.
1371:.
1323:^
1229:.
1225:.
1145:,
1125:,
1098:.
926:,
757:,
641:A
625:.
2341:e
2334:t
2327:v
2314:)
2289:.
2251:.
2230:)
2190:.
2171:.
2120:.
2098:.
2079:.
2060:.
2041:.
2020:.
2001:.
1982:.
1942:.
1929:.
1902:.
1812:.
1789:.
1776:.
1729:.
1699:.
1628:.
1526:.
1485:.
1453:.
1424:.
1382:.
1357:.
1333:.
1317:.
1280:.
1267:.
1241:.
455:e
448:t
441:v
230:)
226:(
215:)
211:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
