435:. Zoning was created as a means of organizing specific land uses in a city so as to avoid potentially harmful adjacencies like heavy manufacturing and residential districts, which were common in large urban areas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Zoning code also determines the permitted residential building types and densities in specific areas of a city by defining such things as single-family homes, and multi-family residential as being allowed as of right or not in certain areas. The overall effect of zoning in the last century has been to create areas of the city with similar land use patterns in cities that had previously been a mix of heterogenous residential and business uses. The problem is particularly severe right outside of cities, in suburban areas located around the periphery of a city where strict zoning codes almost exclusively allow for
468:
driving easier and second, design that makes all other forms of transportation more difficult. Frequently these two forces overlap in a compounding effect to induce more car dependence in an area that would have potential for a more heterogenous mix of transportation options. These factors include things like the width of roads, that make driving faster and therefore 'easier' while also making a less safe environment for pedestrians or cyclists that share the same road. The prevalence of on-street parking on most residential and commercial also streets makes driving easier while taking away street space that could be used for
439:. Strict zoning codes that result in a heavily segregated built environment between residential and commercial land uses contributes to car dependency by making it nearly impossible to access all one's given needs, such as housing, work, school and recreation without the use of a car. One key solution to the spatial problems caused by zoning would be a robust public transportation network. There is also currently a movement to amend older zoning ordinances to create more mixed-use zones in cities that combine residential and commercial land uses within the same building or within walking distance to create the so-called
671:
453:. Parking minimums require a certain number of parking spots based on the land use of a building and are often designed in zoning codes to represent the maximum possible need at any given time. This has resulted in cities having nearly eight parking spaces for every car in America, which have created cities almost fully dedicated to parking from free on-street parking to parking lots up to three times the size of the businesses they serve. This prevalence in parking has perpetuated a loss in competition between other forms of transportation such that driving becomes the
679:
663:
79:
383:
722:
transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behaviour. More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally rejected these findings: density, land use and public transport accessibility can influence travel behaviour, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence.
497:
390:
259:
38:
141:
188:
346:
These kinds of environments require automobiles to access them, thus inducing even more traffic onto the increased road space. This results in congestion, and the cycle above continues. Roads get ever bigger, consuming ever greater tracts of land previously used for housing, manufacturing, and other
653:
have replicated or modified Zipcar's business model to improve urban transportation to provide a broader audience with greater access to the benefits of a car and provide "last-mile" connectivity between public transportation and an individual's destination. Car sharing also reduces private vehicle
397:
As automobile use rose drastically in the 1910s, American road administrators favored building roads to accommodate traffic. Administrators and engineers in the interwar period spent their resources making small adjustments to accommodate traffic such as widening lanes and adding parking spaces, as
347:
socially and economically useful purposes. Public transit becomes less viable and socially stigmatized, eventually becoming a minority form of transportation. People's choices and freedoms to live functional lives without the use of the car are greatly reduced. Such cities are automobile-dependent.
757:
This study also reviewed evidence on local effects of building at higher densities. At the level of the neighbourhood or individual development, positive measures (like improvements to public transport) will usually be insufficient to counteract the traffic effect of increasing population density.
721:
This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection: people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low-density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use
627:
Removal of minimum parking requirements from building codes can alleviate the problems generated by car dependency. Minimum parking requirements occupy valuable space that otherwise can be used for housing. However, removal of minimum parking requirements will require implementation of additional
467:
The design of city roads can contribute significantly to the perceived and actual need to use a car over other modes of transportation in daily life. In the urban context car dependence is induced in greater numbers by design factors that operate in opposite directions - first, design that makes
406:, when urban infrastructure began to be built exclusively around the car. The resultant economic and built environment restructuring allowed wide adoption of automobile use. In the United States, the expansive manufacturing infrastructure, increase in consumerism, and the establishment of the
745:
All other things being equal, urban intensification which increases population density will reduce per capita car use, with benefits to the global environment, but will also increase concentrations of motor traffic, worsening the local environment in those locations where it
709:
Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense
750:
At the citywide level, it may be possible, through a range of positive measures to counteract the increases in traffic and congestion that would otherwise result from increasing population densities:
698:
and Jeff
Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology, but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in
754:
in
Germany is one example of a city which has been more successful in reducing automobile dependency and constraining increases in traffic despite substantial increases in population density.
734:, smart growth and their effects on automobile use, Melia et al. (2011) found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of smart growth. Planning policies that increase
624:
argued that investment in good public transit, centralized management by the public sector and appropriate policy priorities are more significant than issues of urban form and density.
738:
in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is weak. So, doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use.
635:
and transit viability, or the nature of viable alternatives to automobiles that provide the same degree of flexibility and speed. There is also research into the future of
1700:
331:
of cities adjusts to the needs of automobiles in terms of movement and space. Buildings are replaced by parking lots. Open-air shopping streets are replaced by enclosed
370:, the private automobile produces physical separation between people and reduces the opportunities for unstructured social encounters that is a significant aspect of
631:
There are, of course, many who argue against a number of the details within any of the complex arguments related to this topic, particularly relationships between
1209:
706:, has been largely accepted, but the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar.
300:
In many modern cities, automobiles are convenient and sometimes necessary to move easily. When it comes to automobile use, there is a spiraling effect where
1091:
335:. Walk-in banks and fast-food stores are replaced by drive-in versions of themselves that are inconveniently located for pedestrians. Town centers with a
911:
718:
residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and income.
889:
162:
149:
695:
988:
1823:
198:
209:
100:
1151:"Exploring the Influence of Built Environment on Car Ownership and Use with a Spatial Multilevel Model: A Case Study of Changchun, China"
1859:
1668:
939:
491:
512:, which is the main reference in European Union for assessing the externalities of cars, the main external costs of driving a car are:
1884:
1074:
1818:
1648:
1629:
1352:
245:
227:
122:
65:
1313:
1686:
1879:
1047:
Bronin, Sarah (2021). "Zoning by a
Thousand Cuts: The Prevalence and Nature of Incremental Regulatory Constraints on Housing".
819:
674:
Car dependency is inherent with wide, high speed roadways and spaced out business properties. US 22 in
Springfield, New Jersey.
51:
1864:
581:
436:
1693:
670:
1552:
568:
Other negative externalities may include increased cost of building infrastructure, inefficient use of space and energy,
1874:
1777:
869:
601:
485:
343:, 'category-killer' retail boxes, and 'multiplex' entertainment complexes, each surrounded by large tracts of parking.
840:
93:
87:
678:
1726:
645:
is one example of a solution to automobile dependency. Research has shown that in the United States, services like
1364:
Mindali, O.; Raveh, A.; Salomon, I. (2004). "Urban density and energy consumption: a new look at old statistics".
662:
154:
1772:
1287:
794:
407:
398:
opposed to larger projects that would change the built environment altogether. American cities began to tear out
1353:
Cities and
Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook, Newman P and Kenworthy J, Gower, Aldershot, 1989.
1258:
104:
1478:"Correlation or causality between the built environment and travel behavior? Evidence from Northern California"
1098:
359:
919:
666:
A diagram showing an inverse correlation between urban density and car use for selected North
American cities
649:, have reduced demand by about 500,000 cars. In the developing world, companies like eHi, Carrot, Zazcar and
596:
There are a number of planning and design approaches to redressing automobile dependency, known variously as
1710:
774:
or intensify accompanied by more direct measures such as parking restrictions, closing roads to traffic and
382:
355:
1869:
1434:"The impact of residential neighborhood type on travel behavior: A structural equations modeling approach"
814:
639:
itself in terms of shared usage, size reduction, road-space management and more sustainable fuel sources.
432:
323:
These measures make automobile use more advantageous at the expense of other modes of transport, inducing
1123:
1854:
1798:
1013:
864:
731:
202:
that states a
Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
1546:
Ostermeijer, Francis; Koster, Hans R A; van
Ommeren, Jos; Nielsen, Victor Mayland (18 February 2022).
1721:
1489:
1445:
1373:
948:
751:
1327:
449:
are also a part of modern zoning codes, and contribute to car dependency through a process known as
1473:
1429:
1414:
859:
789:
585:
469:
57:
636:
1782:
1598:
824:
735:
650:
591:
516:
411:
301:
1736:
1644:
1625:
1190:
1172:
1070:
994:
984:
809:
562:
522:
1808:
1767:
1746:
1590:
1561:
1528:
1497:
1453:
1381:
1180:
1162:
956:
874:
509:
281:
843: – Air pollution emitted by motor vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and other engines
496:
414:
was established in
America, reinvesting gasoline taxes back into car-based infrastructure.
389:
1803:
1762:
1731:
799:
550:
534:
446:
367:
1400:
Frank, L.; Pivot, G. (1994). "Impact of Mixed Use and
Density on Three Modes of Travel".
1493:
1449:
1377:
952:
1185:
1150:
879:
835:
556:
540:
450:
440:
371:
363:
351:
324:
273:
1848:
1828:
1582:
1516:
1090:
Maibach, M.; Schreyer, C.; Sutter, D.; van Essen, H.P.; et al. (February 2008).
703:
632:
613:
528:
340:
332:
313:
17:
1602:
1235:
304:
produces the 'demand' for more and bigger roads and the removal of 'impediments' to
830:
775:
691:
687:
609:
605:
597:
403:
339:
of commercial, retail, and entertainment functions are replaced by single-function
328:
305:
1532:
694:
has been fiercely contested for several decades. The influential study in 1989 by
258:
1149:
Wang, Xiaoquan; Shao, Chunfu; Yin, Chaoying; Zhuge, Chengxiang (September 2018).
933:
Mattioli, Giulio; Roberts, Cameron; Steinberger, Julia K.; Brown, Andrew (2020).
1833:
1813:
1741:
1678:
1433:
884:
846:
263:
1641:
Automobility in Transition? A Socio-Technical Analysis of Sustainable Transport
961:
934:
1501:
1385:
1210:"Sticks Not Carrots Needed To Get Drivers Out Of Cars, Say Climate Scientists"
642:
309:
27:
Concept that city layouts favor automobiles over other modes of transportation
1176:
998:
1477:
804:
621:
569:
336:
1194:
1167:
393:
Cars per 1000 inhabitants in US, European, and Australian cities, 1960–2000
140:
1566:
1547:
1457:
935:"The political economy of car dependence: A systems of provision approach"
854:
849: – Gases emitted as a result of fuel reactions in combustion engines
711:
473:
455:
410:
set forth the conditions for car dependence in communities. In 1956, the
402:
systems in the 1920s. Car dependency itself saw its formation around the
715:
289:
285:
1291:
316:, cyclists, and various forms of street-based public transit, such as
1664:
690:
does or can reduce problems of automobile dependency associated with
646:
617:
428:
350:
Automobile dependency is seen primarily as an issue of environmental
1594:
741:
These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification:
276:
wherein existing and planned infrastructure prioritizes the use of
677:
669:
661:
495:
388:
381:
366:. It is also an issue of social and cultural sustainability. Like
257:
1155:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
1092:
Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector
699:
628:
policies to manage the increase in alternative parking methods.
506:
Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector
399:
317:
1682:
1673:
277:
181:
134:
72:
31:
1259:"Car-Sharing, Social Trends Portend Challenge for Auto Sales"
702:, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in
199:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
1014:"The History Behind Car (In)Dependence in the US vs World"
1482:
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
1331:
459:
choice for many people even when alternatives do exist.
205:
1622:
A Very Public Solution:transport in the dispersed city
827: – Lobbying supporting the fossil fuels industry
1275:
1791:
1755:
1639:Geels, F.; Kemp, R.; Dudley, G.; Lyons, G. (2012).
1624:. Carlton South, Vic.: Melbourne University Press.
1366:
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
608:. Most of these approaches focus on the physical
374:formation and maintenance in urban environments.
1097:(Report). CE Delft. p. 332. Archived from
979:Wells, Christopher W.; Cronon, William (2014).
431:ordinance was introduced in New York City, the
1694:
1583:"Tale of Two Ecosuburbs in Freiburg, Germany"
1515:Melia, S.; Barton, H.; Parkhurst, G. (2011).
761:This leaves policy-makers with four choices:
8:
1587:Journal of the Transportation Research Board
682:Urban Transport and Morphology - Los Angeles
280:over other modes of transportation, such as
981:Car country : an environmental history
912:"Dependence on cars in urban neighborhoods"
765:intensify and accept the local consequences
476:, or other forms of public transportation.
66:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1701:
1687:
1679:
1415:Transport Reviews Volume 29 Issue 3 (2009)
1565:
1184:
1166:
960:
246:Learn how and when to remove this message
228:Learn how and when to remove this message
123:Learn how and when to remove this message
1665:Automobile Dependency (TDM Encyclopedia)
1049:Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy
768:sprawl and accept the wider consequences
165:of all important aspects of the article.
86:This article includes a list of general
1234:Samsonova, Tatiana (25 February 2021).
902:
771:a compromise with some element of both
161:Please consider expanding the lead to
1257:Boudette, Neal E. (3 February 2014).
480:Negative externalities of automobiles
7:
1824:Public transport accessibility level
1060:
1058:
974:
972:
940:Energy Research & Social Science
890:2008–2010 automotive industry crisis
1669:Victoria Transport Policy Institute
492:Environmental impact of automobiles
1417:was entirely devoted to this issue
983:. University of Washington Press.
92:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
1819:Passengers per hour per direction
1240:The International Transport Forum
47:This article has multiple issues.
1674:Smart Cities concept cars at MIT
1517:"The Paradox of Intensification"
1208:Reid, Carlton (17 August 2023).
1124:"What Is Automobile Dependency?"
1012:Robinson, Grayson (2 May 2021).
186:
139:
77:
36:
1548:"Automobiles and urban density"
1314:"Sustainable Cities Collective"
820:Effects of the car on societies
153:may be too short to adequately
55:or discuss these issues on the
1402:Transportation Research Record
726:The paradox of intensification
582:Alternatives to the automobile
546:costs for nature and landscape
437:single family detached housing
360:production of greenhouse gases
163:provide an accessible overview
1:
1553:Journal of Economic Geography
1533:10.1016/j.tranpol.2010.05.007
1067:The High Cost of Free Parking
658:Urban sprawl and smart growth
1778:Transit-oriented development
870:Transit-oriented development
602:transit-oriented development
486:Externalities of automobiles
841:Mobile source air pollution
1901:
1860:Sustainable urban planning
1727:Transportation forecasting
1438:Annals of Regional Science
1246:: 41 – via OECD/ITF.
1236:"Reversing Car Dependency"
962:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101486
914:. Canadian Social Trends.
730:Reviewing the evidence on
589:
579:
489:
483:
354:due to the consumption of
1885:History of the automobile
1773:Green transport hierarchy
1717:
1581:Broaddus, Andrea (2010).
1502:10.1016/j.trd.2005.05.002
1386:10.1016/j.tra.2003.10.004
910:Turcotte, Martin (2008).
795:Accessibility (transport)
572:and per capita fatality.
500:Automobile Inefficiencies
408:Interstate Highway System
378:Origins of car dependency
312:, signalized crossings,
1711:transportation planning
1069:. New York: Routledge.
356:non-renewable resources
325:greater traffic volumes
107:more precise citations.
1880:Industries (economics)
1168:10.3390/ijerph15091868
1065:Shoup, Donald (2011).
815:Cycling infrastructure
683:
675:
667:
501:
433:1916 Zoning Resolution
394:
386:
266:
208:by rewriting it in an
1865:Sustainable transport
1799:Automobile dependency
1643:. Oxford: Routledge.
1589:. December: 114–122.
1458:10.1007/s001680200083
865:Sustainable transport
732:urban intensification
681:
673:
665:
499:
392:
385:
261:
18:Automobile dependency
1722:Land use forecasting
1472:Handy, S.; Cao, X.;
897:Notes and references
752:Freiburg im Breisgau
736:population densities
576:Addressing the issue
470:protected bike lanes
418:Urban design factors
327:. Additionally, the
1875:Automotive industry
1567:10.1093/jeg/lbab047
1494:2005TRPD...10..427H
1450:2002ARegS..36..279B
1378:2004TRPA...38..143M
1294:on 16 November 2018
1263:Wall Street Journal
953:2020ERSS...6601486M
860:Sedentary lifestyle
790:Automotive industry
586:Mobility transition
272:is a phenomenon in
1792:Modal measurements
1783:Pedestrian village
1334:on 11 October 2019
1104:on 2 November 2012
922:on 8 January 2019.
825:Fossil fuels lobby
684:
676:
668:
592:Congestion pricing
519:and scarcity costs
502:
427:In 1916 the first
412:Highway Trust Fund
395:
387:
302:traffic congestion
267:
210:encyclopedic style
197:is written like a
1842:
1841:
1737:Trip distribution
1620:Mees, P. (2000).
1605:– via SAGE.
1430:Mokhtarian, P. L.
990:978-0-295-99429-1
916:Statistics Canada
810:Car-free movement
563:energy dependency
504:According to the
423:Land-use (zoning)
368:gated communities
256:
255:
248:
238:
237:
230:
180:
179:
133:
132:
125:
70:
16:(Redirected from
1892:
1809:Cycling mobility
1768:Bicycle friendly
1747:Route assignment
1703:
1696:
1689:
1680:
1654:
1635:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1560:(5): 1073–1095.
1543:
1537:
1536:
1521:Transport Policy
1512:
1506:
1505:
1474:Mokhtarian, P.L.
1468:
1462:
1461:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1330:. Archived from
1324:
1318:
1317:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1290:. Archived from
1284:
1278:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1188:
1170:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1130:. 7 January 2019
1120:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1103:
1096:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1044:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1018:ArcGIS StoryMaps
1009:
1003:
1002:
976:
967:
966:
964:
930:
924:
923:
918:. Archived from
907:
875:Transport divide
510:Delft University
447:Parking minimums
404:Second World War
362:responsible for
308:. For instance,
251:
244:
233:
226:
222:
219:
213:
190:
189:
182:
175:
172:
166:
143:
135:
128:
121:
117:
114:
108:
103:this article by
94:inline citations
81:
80:
73:
62:
40:
39:
32:
21:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1804:Bicycle counter
1787:
1763:Automotive city
1751:
1732:Trip generation
1713:
1707:
1661:
1651:
1638:
1632:
1619:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1595:10.3141/2187-15
1580:
1579:
1575:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1428:Bagley, M. N.;
1427:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1335:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1218:
1216:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1133:
1131:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1077:
1064:
1063:
1056:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1010:
1006:
991:
978:
977:
970:
932:
931:
927:
909:
908:
904:
899:
894:
800:Automotive city
785:
728:
660:
594:
588:
580:Main articles:
578:
551:water pollution
535:noise pollution
494:
488:
482:
465:
425:
420:
380:
298:
252:
241:
240:
239:
234:
223:
217:
214:
206:help improve it
203:
191:
187:
176:
170:
167:
160:
148:This article's
144:
129:
118:
112:
109:
99:Please help to
98:
82:
78:
41:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1898:
1896:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1756:Modes favoured
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1660:
1659:External links
1657:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1636:
1630:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1573:
1538:
1507:
1488:(6): 427–444.
1463:
1419:
1407:
1404:(1446): 44–52.
1391:
1372:(2): 143–162.
1356:
1345:
1319:
1305:
1279:
1268:
1249:
1226:
1200:
1141:
1115:
1082:
1076:978-1884829987
1075:
1054:
1039:
1030:
1004:
989:
968:
925:
901:
900:
898:
895:
893:
892:
887:
882:
880:Urban planning
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
851:
850:
838:
836:Jevons paradox
833:
828:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
786:
784:
781:
780:
779:
772:
769:
766:
748:
747:
727:
724:
659:
656:
618:landuse zoning
577:
574:
566:
565:
559:
557:soil pollution
553:
547:
544:
541:climate change
538:
532:
526:
520:
484:Main article:
481:
478:
464:
461:
451:induced demand
441:15-minute city
424:
421:
419:
416:
379:
376:
372:social capital
364:global warming
352:sustainability
341:business parks
333:shopping malls
314:traffic lights
297:
294:
282:public transit
274:urban planning
270:Car dependency
254:
253:
236:
235:
194:
192:
185:
178:
177:
157:the key points
147:
145:
138:
131:
130:
113:September 2019
85:
83:
76:
71:
45:
44:
42:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1897:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1870:Car ownership
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1829:Traffic count
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1685:
1684:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1652:
1650:9780415885058
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1631:0-522-84867-2
1627:
1623:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1574:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1467:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1395:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1227:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1129:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1043:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1005:
1000:
996:
992:
986:
982:
975:
973:
969:
963:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
941:
936:
929:
926:
921:
917:
913:
906:
903:
896:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
848:
845:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
787:
782:
777:
776:carfree zones
773:
770:
767:
764:
763:
762:
759:
755:
753:
744:
743:
742:
739:
737:
733:
725:
723:
719:
717:
713:
707:
705:
704:North America
701:
697:
693:
689:
680:
672:
664:
657:
655:
652:
648:
644:
640:
638:
634:
633:urban density
629:
625:
623:
619:
615:
614:urban density
611:
607:
603:
599:
593:
587:
583:
575:
573:
571:
564:
560:
558:
554:
552:
548:
545:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
529:air pollution
527:
524:
521:
518:
515:
514:
513:
511:
507:
498:
493:
487:
479:
477:
475:
471:
463:Street design
462:
460:
458:
457:
452:
448:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
422:
417:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
384:
377:
375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
348:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
295:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
265:
260:
250:
247:
232:
229:
221:
211:
207:
201:
200:
195:This article
193:
184:
183:
174:
164:
158:
156:
151:
146:
142:
137:
136:
127:
124:
116:
106:
102:
96:
95:
89:
84:
75:
74:
69:
67:
60:
59:
54:
53:
48:
43:
34:
33:
30:
19:
1855:Urban design
1640:
1621:
1614:Bibliography
1586:
1576:
1557:
1551:
1541:
1527:(1): 46–52.
1524:
1520:
1510:
1485:
1481:
1466:
1441:
1437:
1422:
1410:
1401:
1394:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1348:
1336:. Retrieved
1332:the original
1322:
1308:
1296:. Retrieved
1292:the original
1282:
1271:
1262:
1252:
1243:
1239:
1229:
1217:. Retrieved
1213:
1203:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1132:. Retrieved
1127:
1118:
1108:20 September
1106:. Retrieved
1099:the original
1085:
1066:
1048:
1042:
1037:70 Stat. 374
1033:
1021:. Retrieved
1017:
1007:
980:
944:
938:
928:
920:the original
915:
905:
831:Forced rider
760:
756:
749:
740:
729:
720:
708:
696:Peter Newman
692:urban sprawl
688:smart growth
685:
641:
637:automobility
630:
626:
610:urban design
606:smart growth
598:New Urbanism
595:
567:
508:made by the
505:
503:
472:, dedicated
466:
454:
445:
426:
396:
349:
345:
329:urban design
322:
306:traffic flow
299:
269:
268:
242:
224:
215:
196:
168:
152:
150:lead section
119:
110:
91:
63:
56:
50:
49:Please help
46:
29:
1834:Walkability
1814:Modal share
1742:Mode choice
1161:(9): 1868.
885:Walkability
847:Exhaust gas
654:ownership.
643:Car-sharing
620:of cities.
310:pedestrians
296:Description
278:automobiles
264:Los Angeles
262:Traffic in
105:introducing
1849:Categories
1444:(2): 279.
1134:2 December
1128:WorldAtlas
1023:1 December
947:: 101486.
590:See also:
555:costs for
549:costs for
517:congestion
490:See also:
218:March 2023
171:March 2022
88:references
52:improve it
1219:23 August
1177:1661-7827
999:932622166
805:Car costs
622:Paul Mees
570:pollution
561:costs of
523:collision
474:bus lanes
155:summarize
58:talk page
1603:15698518
1476:(2005).
1432:(2002).
1328:"Zazcar"
1298:20 March
1288:"Carrot"
1195:30158467
855:Peak car
783:See also
712:suburban
686:Whether
456:de facto
358:and the
286:bicycles
1490:Bibcode
1446:Bibcode
1374:Bibcode
1186:6165495
949:Bibcode
746:occurs.
716:exurban
337:mixture
290:walking
204:Please
101:improve
1709:Urban
1647:
1628:
1601:
1470:e.g.,
1426:e.g.,
1398:e.g.,
1338:14 May
1214:Forbes
1193:
1183:
1175:
1073:
997:
987:
647:Zipcar
604:, and
429:zoning
288:, and
90:, but
1599:S2CID
1102:(PDF)
1095:(PDF)
543:costs
537:costs
531:costs
525:costs
318:trams
1645:ISBN
1626:ISBN
1340:2021
1300:2018
1221:2023
1191:PMID
1173:ISSN
1136:2023
1110:2015
1071:ISBN
1025:2021
995:OCLC
985:ISBN
714:and
700:Asia
651:Zoom
616:and
584:and
400:tram
1591:doi
1562:doi
1529:doi
1498:doi
1454:doi
1382:doi
1276:eHi
1244:181
1181:PMC
1163:doi
957:doi
1851::
1667:,
1597:.
1585:.
1558:22
1556:.
1550:.
1525:18
1523:.
1519:.
1496:.
1486:10
1484:.
1480:.
1452:.
1442:36
1440:.
1436:.
1380:.
1370:38
1368:.
1261:.
1242:.
1238:.
1212:.
1189:.
1179:.
1171:.
1159:15
1157:.
1153:.
1126:.
1057:^
1016:.
993:.
971:^
955:.
945:66
943:.
937:.
612:,
600:,
443:.
320:.
292:.
284:,
61:.
1702:e
1695:t
1688:v
1653:.
1634:.
1593::
1570:.
1564::
1535:.
1531::
1504:.
1500::
1492::
1460:.
1456::
1448::
1388:.
1384::
1376::
1342:.
1316:.
1302:.
1265:.
1223:.
1197:.
1165::
1138:.
1112:.
1079:.
1051:.
1027:.
1001:.
965:.
959::
951::
778:.
249:)
243:(
231:)
225:(
220:)
216:(
212:.
173:)
169:(
159:.
126:)
120:(
115:)
111:(
97:.
68:)
64:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
