934:. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added. As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state, so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.
2974:
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1104:
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685:
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1085:. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air thermometer, where the air volume would reach "nothing". This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from −271.1 °C (−455.98 °F) to −274.5 °C (−462.10 °F), derived from laboratory measurements and observations of
992:. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the pressure, or "spring" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling point of water at +73 and the melting point of ice at +
946:
34:
1188:
131:
2025:( whence it appears that the extreme cold of this thermometer would be that which would reduce the air to supporting no load by its spring, ) In other words, the lowest temperature which can be measured by a thermometer which is based on the expansion and contraction of air is that temperature at which the air's pressure ("spring") has decreased to zero.
666:. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by the Boltzmann constant, and is on the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical
1330:") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is, however, cold. When it then emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can continue emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative.
1159:. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was the first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low-temperature record of −252 °C (−421.6 °F; 21.1 K). However, Kamerlingh Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the
1006:, so that the zero was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale. Amontons held that the absolute zero cannot be reached, so never attempted to compute it explicitly. The value of −240 °C, or "431 divisions below the cold of freezing water" was published by
692:
atoms at a temperature within a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero. Left: just before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure
1289:
was observed to have been releasing gases at a speed of 500,000 km/h (310,000 mph) for the last 1,500 years. This has cooled it down to approximately 1 K, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the lowest natural temperature ever
2582:
2607:
1341:
in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to 0.006 kelvins (−273.144 °C; −459.659 °F) for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous
1115:
had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching −130 °C (−202 °F; 143 K). Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and
366:
The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a constant value. An adiabat is a state with constant entropy, typically represented on a graph as a curve in a manner similar to isotherms and isobars.
1163:. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium −269 °C (−452.20 °F; 4.15 K). By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium, he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the
1837:
Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (30 August 2021).
926:
system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system.
430:
Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.
1076:
approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on
1060:) by about 1/273 parts per degree Celsius of temperature's change up or down, between 0° and 100° C. This suggested that the volume of a gas cooled at about −273 °C would reach zero.
1207:
predict that the average temperature of the universe is decreasing over time. This temperature is calculated as the mean density of energy in space; it should not be confused with the mean
539:
2618:
1640:
Donley, Elizabeth A.; Claussen, Neil R.; Cornish, Simon L.; Roberts, Jacob L.; Cornell, Eric A.; Wieman, Carl E. (2001). "Dynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose–Einstein condensates".
361:
1349:
cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvin, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules somewhat further.
937:
On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that for the first time they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom.
235:
indicate that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent
976:. But all of them seemed to agree that, "There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality."
239:. Even a system at absolute zero, if it could somehow be achieved, would still possess quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero; the
208:
state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the
1136:
at −195 °C (−319.0 °F; 78.1 K). This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen −218 °C (−360.4 °F; 55.1 K) by the Polish professors
1028:, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below.
1234:
has produced temperatures of less than a billionth of a kelvin. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including
2142:"Essay II. On the force of steam or vapour from water and various other liquids, both in vacuum and in air" and Essay IV. "On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat,"
1297:
was discovered and is one of the coldest known objects in the Solar System. With an average surface temperature of -400°F (-240°C), due to its extremely far orbit of 903
1905:
984:
The question of whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist
1368:. In this space-based laboratory, temperatures as low as 1 picokelvin (10 K) are projected to be achievable, and it could further the exploration of unknown
910:
Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar
Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain
834:-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the
387:
the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189–190)
709:
confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest
466:
slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed
470:
shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of
2049:
1271:
2442:
968:. The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four
1548:
2011:[The thermometer reduced to a fixed & certain measurement, & the means of relating to it observations made with old thermometers].
922:
quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than
1426:
1199:
The average temperature of the universe today is approximately 2.73 kelvins (−454.76 °F), or about −270.42 °C, based on measurements of
1195:, a bi-polar, filamentary, likely proto-planetary nebula in Centaurus, has a temperature of 1 K, the lowest observed outside of a laboratory.
1098:
2973:
1395:
2891:
2872:
2845:
2471:
1531:
788:
2009:"Le thermomètre rèduit à une mesure fixe & certaine, & le moyen d'y rapporter les observations faites avec les anciens Thermométres"
2654:
1215:
1164:
2461:
1504:, it remains common practice to express a thermodynamic temperature, symbol T, in terms of its difference from the reference temperature T
1491:
1013:
This close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C for the zero of the air thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by
2023:" d'où il paroît que l'extrême froid de ce Thermométre seroit celui qui réduiroit l'air à ne soutenir aucune charge par son ressort, "
1338:
2188:"On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's observations"
857:
806:
In 2021, University of Bremen physicists achieved a BEC with a temperature of only 38 pK, the current coldest temperature record.
1124:
demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877,
1103:
2711:
1817:
1705:
1431:
1259:
1073:
758:
117:
1739:
161:
reach their minimum value. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical,
1379:
The current world record for effective temperatures was set in 2021 at 38 picokelvin (pK) through matter-wave lensing of rubidium
246:
Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as
2954:
1204:
1111:
With a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab. By 1845,
255:
1717:
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in 1913. Kamerlingh Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing
1121:
55:
51:
20:
1078:
98:
2017:
Amontons described the relation between his new thermometer (which was based on the expansion and contraction of alcohol (
407:. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For
186:
174:
70:
2964:
2234:
1913:
1380:
1365:
1243:
869:
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698:
679:
383:
S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can
2767:
1357:
1200:
404:
372:
295:
861:
384:
77:
2741:
2503:
1769:
Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, TA; Saba, M; Schirotzek, A; Shin, Y; Kielpinski, D; Pritchard, DE; Ketterle, W (2003).
1007:
499:
44:
2944:
1436:
1279:
915:
872:(for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing
815:
742:, which published it. Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.
738:
569:
146:
2276:
2321:
2013:
Histoire de l'Académie Royale des
Sciences, avec les Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique pour la même Année
1214:
Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of
209:
84:
2385:"History of temperature changes in the Universe revealed—First measurement using the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect"
1160:
321:
2157:
1972:
1053:
1036:
gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3,000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.
1014:
2446:
1316:
1227:
1152:
1086:
439:
266:
At temperatures near 0 K (−273.15 °C; −459.67 °F), nearly all molecular motion ceases and Δ
232:
66:
2797:
1552:
395:
structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational
2949:
2671:
1305:
1223:
1082:
930:
Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their
736:). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the
667:
1137:
1120:, were permanent gases and could not be liquefied. Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist
1020:
Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period.
3016:
2538:
2073:
2064:
Talbot, G.R.; Pacey, A.C. (1972). "Antecedents of thermodynamics in the work of
Guillaume Amontons".
1851:
1785:
1659:
1597:
1465:
1353:
1327:
1323:
1208:
1125:
1069:
1021:
911:
905:
873:
1017:, who observed that −270 °C (−454.00 °F; 3.15 K) might be regarded as absolute cold.
637:
the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat
3011:
2008:
721:
662:, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the
303:
2187:
2643:
2564:
2423:
2366:
1954:
1883:
1809:
1683:
1649:
1587:
1575:
1461:
985:
885:
750:
729:
451:
408:
376:
308:
213:
2398:
Zu, H.; Dai, W.; de Waele, A.T.A.M. (2022). "Development of
Dilution refrigerators – A review".
2299:
1578:(14 March 2017), "A general derivation and quantification of the third law of thermodynamics",
2916:
2897:
2887:
2868:
2851:
2841:
2477:
2467:
2415:
2217:
2141:
2123:
2100:
1976:
1875:
1867:
1801:
1735:
1701:
1675:
1623:
1527:
1369:
1298:
1235:
1172:
1025:
969:
856:, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the
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561:
482:
475:
471:
271:
247:
217:
162:
1521:
2990:
2556:
2546:
2407:
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1944:
1859:
1793:
1667:
1613:
1605:
1416:
1286:
1192:
1057:
631:
are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate
2719:
2608:"Scientific Perspectives for ESA's Future Programme in Life and Physical sciences in Space"
91:
1839:
1770:
1373:
1141:
1112:
1045:
989:
919:
725:
702:
684:
658:, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical
392:
283:
225:
2242:
165:-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the
2542:
2384:
2263:
2077:
1855:
1789:
1747:
1663:
1601:
2978:
2910:
2834:
2502:(Press release). Low Temperature Laboratory, Teknillinen Korkeakoulu. 8 December 2000.
2085:
1618:
1451:
1446:
1401:
865:
467:
299:
240:
236:
204:
It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest
190:
1056:
that, at constant pressure, ideal gases expanded or contracted their volume linearly (
216:(liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the
3006:
3000:
2828:
2568:
2427:
2411:
2370:
2209:
2038:
1958:
1887:
1508:= 273.15 K, close to the ice point. This difference is called the Celsius temperature
1492:"SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) – 9th edition (updated in 2022)"
1239:
1231:
827:
773:
710:
400:
251:
198:
166:
2387:. Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe. 10 November 2020.
2043:
1813:
478:
show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.
1863:
1441:
1361:
1255:
1129:
957:
956:
One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was
949:
663:
560:
is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including
221:
1721:
1687:
1326:
in
Germany reported to have achieved temperatures formally below absolute zero ("
2183:
1294:
1176:
1168:
1148:
1049:
1029:
945:
893:
754:
593:
435:
298:
states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original
33:
2689:
1740:"Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose–Einstein Condensates"
1187:
713:
of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a
1949:
1936:
1391:
1219:
1133:
831:
803:(peak emittance) wavelength of 6.4 megameters is roughly the radius of Earth.
800:
659:
632:
608:
589:
307:
makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any
291:
182:
2419:
2171:
2127:
1871:
1700:
Clark, Ronald W. "Einstein: The Life and Times" (Avon Books, 1971) pp. 408–9
2221:
1797:
1247:
651:
158:
2775:
2361:
2344:
1879:
1805:
1679:
1627:
1360:(ISS) in 2018. The instrument has created extremely cold conditions in the
1319:
gave details of technologies and benefits of femtokelvin research in space.
130:
2920:
2901:
2855:
411:
that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and
2499:
1654:
1117:
769:
689:
647:
447:
412:
396:
201:
temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
150:
19:
This article is about the minimum temperature limit. For other uses, see
1609:
1211:(total energy divided by particle count) which has increased over time.
1456:
1275:
1267:
931:
823:
655:
380:
279:
178:
154:
2939:
2560:
1258:
temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the
670:
for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century.
1671:
1410:
1309:
1156:
819:
733:
416:
194:
170:
135:
791:(MIT) achieved a temperature of 450 ± 80 picokelvin (pK) (
2551:
2526:
2021:)) and the old thermometer (which was based on air). From p. 52:
1155:
took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases, hydrogen and
1592:
1468:, hypothetical upper limits to the thermodynamic temperature scale
1356:(CAL), an experimental instrument was developed for launch to the
1334:
1263:
1186:
1102:
973:
972:), others within water, others air, and some more recently within
944:
706:
683:
129:
2884:
Thermodynamics: An
Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists
1421:
765:
761:
2716:
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, Cambridge
2160:(1802), "Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs",
2145:
Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester
458:. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their
1346:
27:
423:. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at
282:. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form
1250:, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.
1132:
in
Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of
1081:'s theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by
2672:"Atoms Reach Record Temperature, Colder than Absolute Zero"
2527:"The Boomerang Nebula: The Coldest Region of the Universe?"
2042:
1906:"Below Absolute Zero -What Does Negative Temperature Mean?"
169:; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as 0
2928:
BIPM Mise en pratique - Kelvin - Appendix 2 - SI Brochure
2277:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1913: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes"
1771:"Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin"
914:
can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their
2886:(Fifth ed.). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing.
1978:
The
Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases
728:
in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the
2865:
Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics
1270:. However, this was the temperature of one particular
635:
Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that
427: = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.
2962:
2466:. Espoo, Finland: Helsinki University of Technology.
1278:
property called nuclear spin—not the overall average
502:
324:
2867:(Second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2235:"ABSOLUTE ZERO – PBS NOVA DOCUMENTARY (full length)"
1315:
In May 2006, the Institute of Quantum Optics at the
988:
in 1703, in connection with his improvements in the
1364:environment of the ISS leading to the formation of
1322:In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the
58:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2833:
2827:
2742:"Coolest science ever headed to the space station"
2463:Nuclear Magnetism and Superconductivity in Rhodium
2266:. Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved on 22 July 2012.
2192:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1072:had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat,
533:
442:and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to
355:
2101:"Essay VI: The various degrees of heat in bodies"
462: = 0 limiting values and approach with
2690:"CUORE: The Coldest Heart in the Known Universe"
2583:"Mysterious Sedna | Science Mission Directorate"
2216:, New York: The Macmillan Company, p. 175,
1372:phenomena and test some of the most fundamental
745:Seventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous
326:
1167:at the time and his achievement earned him the
391:A perfect crystal is one in which the internal
220:description, matter at absolute zero is in its
2107:. London, England, UK: A. Millar. p. 291.
1994:New Experiments and Observations touching Cold
962:New Experiments and Observations touching Cold
646:One model that estimates the properties of an
138:(−273.15 °C) is defined as absolute zero.
1840:"Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics"
1718:"New State of Matter Seen Near Absolute Zero"
1089:, remained in use in the early 20th century.
892:representing the temperature observed at the
534:{\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta H-T\Delta S\,}
8:
2053:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
818:, temperature is conventionally measured in
720:This state of matter was first predicted by
2798:"Cold Atom Laboratory Creates Atomic Dance"
2525:Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997).
2298:Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (25 September 2003).
799:) in a BEC of sodium atoms. The associated
596:reactions can proceed spontaneously if the
588: < 0, which would indicate an
2443:"Cosmos Online – Verging on absolute zero"
2349:HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies
2550:
2360:
2033:
2031:
1948:
1653:
1617:
1591:
1551:. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from
1486:
1484:
1482:
1345:In June 2015, experimental physicists at
1191:The rapid expansion of gases leaving the
592:reaction. However, this is not required;
530:
501:
329:
323:
181:scale, and equals −459.67 degrees on the
118:Learn how and when to remove this message
1899:
1897:
1044:From 1787 to 1802, it was determined by
356:{\displaystyle \lim _{T\to 0}\Delta S=0}
243:of the ground state cannot be removed.
2969:
2441:Catchpole, Heather (4 September 2008).
1526:. Tata McGraw-Hill. Table 2.4 page 43.
1478:
1427:International Temperature Scale of 1990
964:, articulated the dispute known as the
952:pioneered the idea of an absolute zero.
876:of energy (at the particle level) over
688:Velocity-distribution data of a gas of
379:T = 0 as coincident with the
2712:"MIT team creates ultracold molecules"
1937:"Quantum gas goes below absolute zero"
1746:. Physics Today online. Archived from
1308:proposed research in space to achieve
1165:coldest temperatures achieved on Earth
1099:Timeline of low-temperature technology
705:of a dilute gas of weakly interacting
674:Relation with Bose–Einstein condensate
650:gas at absolute zero in metals is the
481:Since the relation between changes in
2912:Introduction to Statistical Mechanics
2651:University of California, Los Angeles
2506:from the original on 18 February 2008
2345:"The building blocks of the universe"
2302:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
2147:, vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 550–74, 595–602.
1832:
1830:
1333:In September 2014, scientists in the
789:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
2660:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1823:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1282:for all possible degrees in freedom.
286:with no structural imperfections as
56:adding citations to reliable sources
2840:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2214:A Compendium of Spherical Astronomy
1547:Zielinski, Sarah (1 January 2008).
1339:Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso
918:(expressed in kelvins) can be of a
623: = 0. This ensures that Δ
177:), which is −273.15 degrees on the
2909:George Stanley Rushbrooke (1949).
2343:John, Anslyn J. (25 August 2021).
2324:. The Straight Dope. 3 August 2004
2322:"What's the temperature of space?"
2086:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1972.tb00163.x
1203:radiation. Standard models of the
619:converge and are equal to zero at
584: < 0 may imply that Δ
524:
512:
503:
341:
14:
2644:"Atomic Quantum Sensors in Space"
2300:"Coldest Place in the Universe 1"
2118:Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1779).
1432:Orders of magnitude (temperature)
1260:Helsinki University of Technology
1228:nuclear adiabatic demagnetization
759:University of Colorado at Boulder
639:, i.e., an actual process is the
556:approach each other (so long as Δ
262:Thermodynamics near absolute zero
2984:
2972:
2412:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2021.103390
2105:Essays Medical and Philosophical
1394:
1205:future expansion of the universe
32:
1147:Scottish chemist and physicist
864:(for particles of half-integer
826:-scaled increments) and in the
43:needs additional citations for
2768:"Cold Atom Laboratory Mission"
2500:"Low Temperature World Record"
2172:English translation (extract).
1910:The Physics and Relativity FAQ
1864:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401
1122:Johannes Diderik van der Waals
1107:Commemorative plaque in Leiden
858:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
842:of two absolute temperatures,
333:
21:Absolute Zero (disambiguation)
16:Lowest theoretical temperature
1:
2950:originally aired January 2008
980:Limit to the "degree of cold"
643:. (Callen, pp. 186–187)
187:United States customary units
175:International System of Units
2774:. NASA. 2017. Archived from
787:In 2003, researchers at the
732:of light quanta (now called
607:Moreover, the slopes of the
149:scale; a state at which the
2915:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1358:International Space Station
1201:cosmic microwave background
810:Absolute temperature scales
296:third law of thermodynamics
145:is the lowest limit of the
3035:
2863:Herbert B. Callen (1985).
2826:Herbert B. Callen (1960).
2007:Amontons (18 April 1703).
1262:'s Low Temperature Lab in
1244:Bose–Einstein condensation
1096:
903:
860:. It can also be found in
677:
580:are small, the condition Δ
564:) result in a decrease in
256:Bose–Einstein condensation
18:
2772:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
2531:The Astrophysical Journal
2460:Knuuttila, Tauno (2000).
1950:10.1038/nature.2013.12146
1437:Thermodynamic temperature
1381:Bose–Einstein condensates
1366:Bose–Einstein condensates
1280:thermodynamic temperature
1093:The race to absolute zero
916:thermodynamic temperature
772:atoms cooled to 170
399:along three (not usually
147:thermodynamic temperature
2955:"What is absolute zero?"
2882:E.A. Guggenheim (1967).
2099:Martine, George (1740).
1973:Stanford, John Frederick
870:Bose–Einstein statistics
699:Bose–Einstein condensate
680:Bose–Einstein condensate
210:enthalpy of vaporization
2050:Encyclopædia Britannica
1844:Physical Review Letters
1798:10.1126/science.1088827
1087:astronomical refraction
1054:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
1015:Johann Heinrich Lambert
654:. The electrons, being
568:as they proceed toward
270: = 0 for any
2362:10.4102/hts.v77i3.6831
1992:Boyle, Robert (1665).
1935:Merali, Zeeya (2013).
1744:Search & Discovery
1720:. NIST. Archived from
1317:University of Hannover
1285:In February 2003, the
1224:dilution refrigerators
1196:
1153:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
1108:
953:
862:Fermi–Dirac statistics
739:Zeitschrift für Physik
694:
604:term is large enough.
535:
389:
357:
294:'s strong form of the
233:laws of thermodynamics
224:, the point of lowest
139:
2958:Lansing State Journal
1580:Nature Communications
1520:Arora, C. P. (2001).
1413:(unit of temperature)
1337:collaboration at the
1306:European Space Agency
1190:
1183:Very low temperatures
1106:
1083:Henri Victor Regnault
948:
900:Negative temperatures
874:exponential functions
687:
668:equipartition theorem
536:
493:) and the entropy is
419:, there is a kind of
369:
358:
133:
2692:. INFN Press Release
2449:on 22 November 2008.
1466:Hagedorn temperature
1354:Cold Atom Laboratory
1328:negative temperature
1324:University of Munich
1209:electron temperature
1179:for the first time.
1151:and Dutch physicist
1126:Louis Paul Cailletet
1070:James Prescott Joule
1063:
1022:Pierre-Simon Laplace
906:Negative temperature
768:lab, using a gas of
500:
454:are proportional to
322:
212:(gas to liquid) and
52:improve this article
2804:. 26 September 2014
2543:1997ApJ...487L.155S
2078:1972Cent...16...20T
2015:(in French): 50–56.
1856:2021PhRvL.127j0401D
1790:2003Sci...301.1513L
1784:(5639): 1513–1515.
1664:2001Natur.412..295D
1610:10.1038/ncomms14538
1602:2017NatCo...814538M
1576:Oppenheim, Jonathan
1494:. BIPM. p. 133
1216:evaporative cooling
1161:Hampson–Linde cycle
1039:
1034:Chemical Philosophy
722:Satyendra Nath Bose
641:most exothermic one
476:Maxwell's relations
421:chemical degeneracy
311:approaches zero as
2748:. 5 September 2017
2140:J. Dalton (1802),
1750:on 24 October 2007
1736:Levi, Barbara Goss
1462:Planck temperature
1370:quantum mechanical
1299:astronomical units
1293:In November 2003,
1254:In November 2000,
1197:
1138:Zygmunt Wróblewski
1109:
1064:Lord Kelvin's work
986:Guillaume Amontons
970:classical elements
954:
886:Boltzmann constant
730:quantum statistics
695:
562:chemical reactions
531:
452:chemical potential
353:
340:
309:isothermal process
218:quantum-mechanical
214:enthalpy of fusion
140:
2893:978-0-444-86951-7
2874:978-0-471-86256-7
2847:978-0-471-13035-2
2722:on 18 August 2015
2678:. 3 January 2013.
2624:on 6 October 2014
2473:978-951-22-5208-4
2162:Annales de Chimie
2158:Gay-Lussac, J. L.
1916:on 15 August 2011
1648:(6844): 295–299.
1533:978-0-07-462014-4
1304:In May 2005, the
1272:degree of freedom
1236:superconductivity
1173:superconductivity
1026:Antoine Lavoisier
884:representing the
715:macroscopic scale
489:), the enthalpy (
483:Gibbs free energy
472:thermal expansion
325:
272:adiabatic process
248:superconductivity
163:zero-point energy
128:
127:
120:
102:
3024:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2976:
2968:
2924:
2905:
2878:
2859:
2839:
2831:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2778:on 29 March 2013
2764:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2718:. Archived from
2708:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2648:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2623:
2617:. Archived from
2612:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2587:science.nasa.gov
2579:
2573:
2572:
2554:
2537:(2): L155–L159.
2522:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2480:on 28 April 2001
2476:. Archived from
2457:
2451:
2450:
2445:. Archived from
2438:
2432:
2431:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2364:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2279:. Nobel Media AB
2273:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2241:. Archived from
2231:
2225:
2224:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2184:Thomson, William
2180:
2174:
2169:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2046:
2035:
2026:
2016:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1952:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1912:. Archived from
1901:
1892:
1891:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1775:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1714:
1708:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1672:10.1038/35085500
1657:
1655:cond-mat/0105019
1637:
1631:
1630:
1621:
1595:
1586:(14538): 14538,
1574:Masanes, Lluís;
1571:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1488:
1404:
1399:
1398:
1287:Boomerang Nebula
1246:. To study such
1193:Boomerang Nebula
1005:
1004:
1000:
997:
798:
796:
783:
781:
749:was produced by
540:
538:
537:
532:
373:Nernst postulate
362:
360:
359:
354:
339:
284:perfect crystals
123:
116:
112:
109:
103:
101:
60:
36:
28:
3034:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3021:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2985:
2983:
2971:
2963:
2940:"Absolute zero"
2936:
2908:
2894:
2881:
2875:
2862:
2848:
2825:
2822:
2820:Further reading
2817:
2807:
2805:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2779:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2749:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2725:
2723:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2695:
2693:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2676:livescience.com
2670:
2669:
2665:
2657:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2509:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2483:
2481:
2474:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2305:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2262:
2258:
2248:
2246:
2245:on 6 April 2017
2233:
2232:
2228:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2139:
2135:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2037:
2036:
2029:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1917:
1903:
1902:
1895:
1836:
1835:
1828:
1820:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1763:
1753:
1751:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1724:on 1 June 2010.
1716:
1715:
1711:
1699:
1695:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1558:
1556:
1555:on 1 April 2013
1549:"Absolute Zero"
1546:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1497:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1400:
1393:
1390:
1374:laws of physics
1185:
1142:Karol Olszewski
1113:Michael Faraday
1101:
1095:
1066:
1048:(unpublished),
1046:Jacques Charles
1042:
1002:
998:
995:
993:
990:air thermometer
982:
966:primum frigidum
943:
908:
902:
855:
848:
812:
794:
792:
779:
777:
726:Albert Einstein
703:state of matter
682:
676:
498:
497:
375:identifies the
320:
319:
264:
226:internal energy
124:
113:
107:
104:
67:"Absolute zero"
61:
59:
49:
37:
24:
17:
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11:
5:
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2960:
2952:
2935:
2934:External links
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2846:
2836:Thermodynamics
2821:
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2789:
2759:
2746:Science | AAAS
2733:
2703:
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2635:
2599:
2574:
2552:10.1086/310897
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2335:
2313:
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2256:
2226:
2210:Newcomb, Simon
2201:
2175:
2149:
2133:
2110:
2091:
2056:
2041:, ed. (1911).
2039:Chisholm, Hugh
2027:
1999:
1984:
1964:
1927:
1904:Chase, Scott.
1893:
1850:(10): 100401.
1826:
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1523:Thermodynamics
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1452:Kinetic energy
1449:
1447:Ultracold atom
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1402:Physics portal
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1128:in France and
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1038:
1008:George Martine
981:
978:
942:
939:
904:Main article:
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678:Main article:
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1230:. The use of
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814:Absolute, or
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63:Find sources:
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41:This article
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2957:
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2883:
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2835:
2829:"Chapter 10"
2806:. Retrieved
2801:
2792:
2780:. Retrieved
2776:the original
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2752:24 September
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2328:24 September
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2048:
2044:"Cold"
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2018:
2012:
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1914:the original
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1496:. Retrieved
1442:Triple point
1362:microgravity
1256:nuclear spin
1213:
1198:
1146:
1130:Raoul Pictet
1110:
1067:
1043:
1033:
1019:
1012:
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958:Robert Boyle
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950:Robert Boyle
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850:
843:
839:
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664:Fermi energy
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222:ground state
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157:of a cooled
142:
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105:
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88:
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50:Please help
45:verification
42:
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3017:Temperature
2782:22 December
2592:25 November
2510:11 February
2484:11 February
2249:23 November
1498:7 September
1310:femtokelvin
1295:90377 Sedna
1220:cryocoolers
1177:superfluids
1169:Nobel Prize
1149:James Dewar
1074:Lord Kelvin
1050:John Dalton
1030:John Dalton
960:. His 1665
894:macroscopic
755:Carl Wieman
701:(BEC) is a
693:condensate.
609:derivatives
594:endothermic
570:equilibrium
436:Debye model
3012:Cryogenics
3001:Categories
2696:21 October
2561:2014/22450
2400:Cryogenics
2264:Cryogenics
2122:. Berlin.
2120:Pyrometrie
1754:26 January
1559:26 January
1474:References
1134:liquid air
1097:See also:
832:Fahrenheit
801:black-body
774:nanokelvin
747:condensate
660:velocities
590:exothermic
434:Using the
409:substances
401:orthogonal
292:Max Planck
183:Fahrenheit
78:newspapers
2991:Chemistry
2802:NASA News
2569:121465475
2428:244005391
2420:0011-2275
2371:238730757
2128:165756016
2066:Centaurus
1959:124101032
1888:237396804
1872:0031-9007
1593:1412.3828
1352:In 2017,
1290:recorded.
1248:phenomena
1010:in 1740.
838:, so the
797:10 K
782:10 K
652:Fermi gas
633:empirical
544:thus, as
525:Δ
519:−
513:Δ
504:Δ
385:intersect
342:Δ
334:→
159:ideal gas
2948:episode
2655:Archived
2628:28 March
2504:Archived
2283:24 April
2222:64423127
2212:(1906),
2198:: 66–71.
2186:(1848).
1975:(1892).
1880:34533345
1818:Archived
1814:30259606
1806:12970559
1738:(2001).
1680:11460153
1628:28290452
1388:See also
1118:hydrogen
920:negative
770:rubidium
690:rubidium
656:fermions
648:electron
448:enthalpy
413:graphite
397:symmetry
377:isotherm
274:, where
206:enthalpy
151:enthalpy
2979:Physics
2965:Portals
2726:10 June
2615:esf.org
2539:Bibcode
2239:YouTube
2074:Bibcode
1852:Bibcode
1786:Bibcode
1778:Science
1660:Bibcode
1619:5355879
1598:Bibcode
1457:Entropy
1342:volume.
1276:quantum
1268:Finland
1032:in his
1001:⁄
941:History
932:entropy
912:systems
896:level.
880:, with
824:Celsius
757:at the
734:photons
576:and/or
393:lattice
381:adiabat
280:entropy
278:is the
199:Rankine
193:). The
185:scale (
179:Celsius
155:entropy
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1941:Nature
1920:2 July
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1688:969048
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1642:Nature
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1530:
1411:Kelvin
1242:, and
1226:, and
1157:helium
1079:Carnot
1068:After
1052:, and
868:) and
840:ratios
836:degree
820:kelvin
776:(nK) (
707:bosons
572:. If Δ
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417:carbon
300:Nernst
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195:Kelvin
171:kelvin
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2367:S2CID
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2166:XLIII
1955:S2CID
1884:S2CID
1821:(PDF)
1810:S2CID
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1684:S2CID
1650:arXiv
1588:arXiv
1335:CUORE
1264:Espoo
974:nitre
627:and Δ
615:and Δ
552:and Δ
315:→ 0:
290:→ 0.
134:Zero
99:JSTOR
85:books
3007:Cold
2945:NOVA
2917:OCLC
2898:OCLC
2888:ISBN
2869:ISBN
2852:OCLC
2842:ISBN
2810:2015
2784:2016
2754:2017
2728:2015
2698:2014
2630:2014
2594:2022
2512:2008
2486:2008
2468:ISBN
2416:ISSN
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2308:2012
2285:2012
2251:2016
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2124:OCLC
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1876:PMID
1868:ISSN
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