493:(NRL), along with Sachs, Pegram, Fermi, Szilard, and Wigner. Once again, Einstein, although invited, declined to attend. The meeting highlighted differences between the optimistic Szilard and Sachs, and the more cautious Fermi. The committee agreed to proceed with the work at Columbia, which it hoped would demonstrate whether or not a chain reaction was possible. Bowen and Gunn suggested the creation of a scientific subcommittee to advise the Advisory Committee on Uranium. Tuve and Vannevar Bush at the Carnegie Institution, expressed interest in this, and Briggs created it. Chaired by Briggs, its membership consisted of Urey, Pegram, Tuve, Beams, Gunn, and
524:(NDRC) to coordinate defense-related research. The NDRC was formally created on June 27, 1940, with Bush as its chairman. It immediately absorbed the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which was indeed one of its purposes. Bush immediately reorganised the Advisory Committee on Uranium as the NDRC Committee on Uranium, reporting directly to him. Briggs remained chairman, but Hoover and Adamson were dropped from its membership, while Tuve, Pegram, Beams, Gunn, and Urey were added. For security reasons, no foreign-born scientists were appointed to the Uranium Committee. Publication of research into uranium, fission and isotope separation was now banned.
861:. This meeting resolved most of the outstanding issues confronting the project, but Bush and Conant felt that the time had now come for the Army to take over the project, something that had already been approved by the president on June 17, 1942. After some discussion, it was decided that Groves, who would be promoted to the rank of brigadier general, would become the director of the Manhattan Project on September 23, 1942. He would be answerable to the Military Policy Committee (MPC), which would consist of Styer, Bush (with Conant as his alternate) and Rear Admiral
2827:
2803:
751:, on October 9, 1941, and briefed them on the S-1 Section's progress. He personally delivered a third report from Arthur Compton, dated November 1, to Roosevelt on November 19, 1941. On December 6, 1941, Bush held a meeting to organize an accelerated research project managed by Compton, with Urey researching gaseous diffusion for uranium enrichment and Lawrence researching electromagnetic enrichment techniques.
33:
821:
while the Army handled engineering, construction and site selection. Procurement was an OSRD responsibility, but it could turn to the Army for help in case of difficulties. Bush obtained the president's approval for this, and on June 19, 1942, he abolished the S-1 Section and replaced it with the S-1 Executive
Committee. Conant was appointed as its chairman, and Briggs, Compton, Lawrence,
2839:
634:, that Heisenberg himself tries to delay the work as much as possible, fearing catastrophic results of a success. But he cannot help fulfilling the orders given to him, and if the problem can be solved, it will be solved probably in the near future. So he gave the advice to us to hurry up if U.S.A. will not come too late.
740:
Briggs had locked them in a safe. Oliphant then met with
Allison, Coolidge, Conant and Fermi to explain the urgency. In these meetings Oliphant spoke of an atomic bomb with forcefulness and certainty, and explained that Britain did not have the resources to undertake the project alone, so it was up to the United States.
565:
resources required might be beyond those available to
Britain. The MAUD Committee completed the MAUD report on July 15, 1941, and disbanded. The report had two parts; the first concluded that a uranium-235 bomb could be feasible in as little as two years using 25 pounds (11 kg) of uranium-235 with a
354:
The
Advisory Committee on Uranium reported to the President on November 1, 1939. While acknowledging that the science was unproven and that nuclear chain reaction was no more than a theoretical possibility, it foresaw that nuclear energy might be used as propulsion for submarines, and that an atomic
589:
during the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. The process required high rotational speeds, but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart. It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds. In 1941 he began working
820:
By May 1942, Conant felt that the S-1 Section had become too unwieldy. It had not met since the March meeting. When he needed expert advice in May, he had called upon a smaller group, and he recommended that this supervise the OSRD work, mainly the technical and contractual aspects of the project,
552:
in March 1940. The memorandum contradicted the common thinking of the time that many tons of uranium would be needed to make a bomb, requiring delivery by ship. The calculation in the memorandum showed that a bomb might be possible using as little as 1 to 10 kilograms (2.2 to 22.0 lb) of pure
177:
in June 1942, and took over responsibility for the development of nuclear weapons from the S-1 Executive
Committee in September 1942. The OSRD's research and development contracts were terminated as they lapsed, and production contracts were terminated and transferred to the Army. Although the S-1
739:
Oliphant flew to the United States from
England in August 1941 to find out why Briggs and his committee were apparently ignoring the MAUD Report. Oliphant discovered to his dismay that the reports and other documents sent directly to Briggs had not been shared with all members of the committee;
828:
S-1 Executive
Committee meetings were held on June 25, July 9, July 30, August 26, September 13–14, September 26, October 23–24, November 14, December 9, and December 19, 1942, and January 14, February 10–11, March 18, April 29, and September 10–11, 1943. Its first meeting on June 25, 1942 was
758:
led to the United States entry into the war. With the United States at war, funding was now available in amounts undreamt of the year before. When, at the S-1 Section meeting on
December 18, 1941, Lawrence asked for $ 400,000 for electromagnetic separation, the section immediately recommended
564:
was established to investigate further. It concluded that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible, but could be produced in as little as two years. The
Committee unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb as a matter of urgency, although it recognised that the
868:
The Army took full control over the OSRD's research and development contracts as they lapsed. Production contracts were terminated and transferred to the Army, mostly on March 31, 1943. While the S-1 Executive
Committee remained as an advisory body, it became inactive, although not formally
841:
as the project's principal contractor. The meeting on July 30, 1942, was devoted to reviewing progress on isotope separation by the centrifugal and gaseous diffusion methods. The August 26, 1942, meeting considered Lawrence's electromagnetic separation project, and expansion of the
569:
equivalent to 1,800 tonnes of TNT (7,500 GJ); the second concluded that the controlled fission be a source of energy for powering machines and a source of radio-isotopes. As a result of the MAUD Committee report, the British started an atomic bomb program under the
335:. Most are short-lived, terminating after a couple of years, with their membership changing when a new president takes office. The committee consisted of Briggs, Adamson and Hoover. Its first meeting was held on October 21, 1939, at the National Bureau of Standards in
629:
a few days ago, brought the following message: a reliable colleague who is working at a technical research laboratory asked him to let us know that a large number of German physicists are working intensively on the problem of the uranium bomb under direction of
787:. OSRD contracts were due to expire at the end of June, and with the country at war, there was intense competition for raw materials. It was agreed that in 1942–43, the Army would fund $ 53 million of the $ 85 million program. On June 18, 1942, Colonel
497:. The scientific subcommittee met for the first time on June 13, 1940, at the National Bureau of Standards. It reviewed the work thus far and recommended increased support for research into both nuclear chain reactions and isotope separation.
178:
Executive Committee remained as an advisory body, it became inactive. The OSRD and NDRC continued to influence the Manhattan Project through the participation of Bush and Conant in the Military Policy Committee that controlled what became the
347:. Einstein was invited but declined to attend. Adamson was skeptical about the prospect of building an atomic bomb, but was willing to authorize $ 6,000 (equivalent to $ 130,000 in 2023 current dollars) for the purchase of uranium and
386:
was also doing similar research at the Carnegie Institution. At Columbia, while Fermi and Szilard investigated the possibility of creating a nuclear chain reaction, Dunning considered the possibility, advanced by Niels Bohr and
767:. Another $ 500,000 was earmarked for raw materials. His proposed schedule was no less breathtaking: to produce a nuclear chain reaction by July 1942, and an atomic bomb by January 1945. In January 1942, he created the
2678:
662:
as its other members. It issued a favorable report on May 17, 1941, recommending an intensified effort, but Bush was troubled by the emphasis on nuclear power instead of nuclear weapons, and had two engineers,
598:
investigate the process, and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct. Another possibility was
806:, following the usual practice of naming engineer districts after the city in which their headquarters was located. The name of the project soon followed suit. It was formally established by the
355:
bomb "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known." The committee recommended that the government purchase 50 short tons (45 t) of
2740:
613:
shared the British results with the Americans, but this only made them aware that they were behind the British, and possibly the Germans too. On April 15, 1941, Briggs received a note from
802:, the head of the Construction Branch in the Office of the Chief of Engineers thought it would attract undue attention. Instead, the new district was given the innocuous name of the
429:
then carried out a series of experiments. They demonstrated that uranium-235 was indeed primarily responsible for fission with slow neutrons, but were unable to determine precise
707:; Gunn was dropped in line with an NDRC policy not to have Army or Navy personnel in the sections. Briggs remained the chairman, with Pegram as the vice chairman.
2693:
1900:
684:
139:
445:
s March 15 and April 15, 1940 issues. Briggs reported to Watson on April 9 that it was doubtful that a chain reaction could be initiated in uranium without
2026:
Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945
691:. The Uranium Committee became the Uranium Section of the OSRD, which was soon renamed the S-1 Section for security reasons. To the S-1 Section, Bush added
2258:
2120:
736:, gave Bush assurances that should OSRD resources prove insufficient, additional funding would be made available from monies controlled by the president.
639:
339:
In addition to the committee members, it was attended by physicists Fred L. Mohler from the National Bureau of Standards and Richard B. Roberts from the
311:. Roosevelt summed up the conversation as: "Alex, what you are after is to see that the Nazis don't blow us up." He told Watson: "This requires action."
585:
Urey began considering isotope separation methods. The centrifuge process was regarded as the most promising. Beams had developed such a process at the
436:
because their samples were not sufficiently enriched. Pegram forwarded the results to Briggs on March 11, 1940; they were subsequently published to the
2859:
2585:
718:
249:
was particularly alarming to refugee scientists from Germany and other fascist countries, many of whom had left Europe in the 1930s. Two of them,
1891:
367:, and Sachs be added to the committee. When he read the report, Sachs felt that it was too academic and failed to make its points forcefully.
2081:
2002:
277:, and urged that the United States secure sources of uranium and conduct research into nuclear weapon technology. The letter was signed by
154:
for security reasons. By May 1942, it was felt that the S-1 Section had become too unwieldy, and in June 1942, was replaced by the smaller
327:, to organize an Advisory Committee on Uranium. Federal advisory committees had been a feature of the federal government since 1794, when
479:
reported that conferees argued "the probability of some scientist blowing up a sizable portion of the earth with a tiny bit of uranium."
744:
521:
131:
169:. The S-1 Section coordinated research into nuclear weapons in United States, in cooperation with the British Tube Alloys project. The
340:
301:
222:, generated intense interest among physicists. Even before publication, the news was brought to the United States by Danish physicist
2138:
1975:
1943:
1865:
1810:
1365:
294:
687:(OSRD), with Bush as its director personally responsible to the president. The new organisation subsumed the NDRC, now chaired by
833:. It discussed the acquisition of land for the project's production facilities, which the Army recommended be in the vicinity of
675:
from Westinghouse added to produce a second report with an emphasis on estimating how soon practical benefits could be expected.
482:
The Advisory Committee on Uranium met again at the National Bureau of Standards on April 27, 1940. This time they were joined by
2113:
733:
370:
Experiments with the fission of uranium were already proceeding at universities and research institutes in the United States.
258:
103:
262:
107:
549:
1966:
811:
379:
270:
2817:
2745:
1474:
Goldberg, Stanley (September 1992). "Inventing a Climate of Opinion: Vannevar Bush and the Decision to Build the Bomb".
483:
324:
191:
119:
83:
2713:
2045:
Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development
803:
668:
2806:
2106:
728:. To implement this, the S-1 Section was placed outside NDRC, directly under Bush, who could authorize purchases.
2843:
2831:
2688:
2683:
798:
in New York City. He chose the name Development of Substitute Materials (DSM), but this would not stick. Colonel
490:
470:
305:
710:
In line with the president's wishes, matters of policy were restricted to the president, Wallace, Bush, Conant,
2770:
2303:
2162:
768:
541:
297:
230:
on January 26, 1939. The results were quickly corroborated by experimental physicists, most notably Fermi and
359:
and 4 short tons (3.6 t) of graphite for chain reaction experiments. It also recommended that Einstein,
2662:
2217:
2072:
The Nuclear Oracles: A History of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, n1947–1977
1532:"Franklin D. Roosevelt: Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development"
722:
403:
196:
134:(NDRC) was created to coordinate defense-related research, and the Advisory Committee on Uranium became the
2544:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2177:
1801:
Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science That Changed the Course of World War II
869:
dissolved. Bush and Conant continued to influence the Manhattan Project through participation in the MPC.
755:
603:
594:, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, Urey had
586:
672:
2785:
2610:
2353:
2298:
799:
764:
548:
because, as enemy aliens in Britain, they were ineligible to participate in secret war work, issued the
433:
266:
111:
516:
created alarm in the administration over the direction the war was taking. On June 12, 1940, Bush and
75:
by initiating and coordinating the early research efforts in the United States, and liaising with the
2595:
2590:
2449:
2323:
1912:
1380:
1211:
1151:
834:
618:
591:
566:
486:
700:
351:
for Szilárd and Fermi's experiments into producing a nuclear chain reaction at Columbia University.
2454:
2409:
2369:
2192:
784:
659:
395:
235:
2519:
2343:
2313:
2253:
2020:
1852:
1848:
1501:
1493:
1197:
1167:
1137:
862:
858:
807:
725:
647:
475:
450:
446:
426:
286:
174:
170:
45:
838:
2734:
2723:
2630:
2534:
2489:
2484:
2434:
2283:
2278:
2268:
2129:
2087:
2077:
2049:
2030:
2008:
1998:
1981:
1971:
1949:
1939:
1904:
1871:
1861:
1836:
1816:
1806:
1396:
1338:
1185:
1125:
788:
692:
664:
655:
631:
599:
501:
415:
399:
371:
332:
328:
308:
179:
72:
17:
2755:
2554:
2539:
2504:
2479:
2333:
2288:
1485:
1388:
1219:
1159:
780:
748:
711:
696:
614:
513:
364:
336:
218:
205:
150:. The Uranium Committee became the Uranium Section of the OSRD, which was soon renamed the
2760:
2600:
2564:
2494:
2429:
2419:
2394:
2293:
2273:
2248:
1931:
1828:
1202:
1193:
1189:
1142:
1133:
1129:
830:
760:
729:
688:
438:
430:
422:
388:
375:
320:
290:
289:
in September 1939. The letter was eventually hand-delivered to Roosevelt by the economist
278:
231:
209:
147:
123:
53:
49:
2509:
1531:
1384:
1215:
1155:
293:
on October 11, 1939. On that date he met with the President, the President's secretary,
2703:
2698:
2469:
2414:
2404:
2399:
2318:
2243:
2172:
2070:
1961:
1476:
1330:
854:
814:
704:
651:
643:
610:
561:
537:
246:
166:
162:
127:
91:
61:
57:
41:
37:
2853:
2718:
2580:
2549:
2529:
2474:
2464:
2374:
2263:
2238:
2182:
2043:
1794:
1505:
822:
714:
595:
545:
517:
509:
494:
383:
356:
344:
254:
143:
99:
2775:
2657:
2514:
2459:
2439:
2424:
2328:
2152:
2025:
1936:
The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made
1171:
557:
360:
282:
242:
227:
213:
87:
1200:(April 13, 1940). "Further Experiments on Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes".
2605:
2559:
2524:
2499:
2444:
2348:
2338:
2222:
1334:
847:
843:
779:
The March 9, 1942, meeting of the S-1 Section was attended by Brigadier General
574:
533:
505:
466:
454:
411:
407:
392:
250:
95:
76:
32:
1799:
544:
in England, who ironically had been assigned to investigate nuclear weapons by
2708:
2652:
2389:
2379:
2308:
462:
223:
2053:
1875:
1840:
1400:
1014:
453:
technology. Nier, Booth, Dunning and von Grosse's results were discussed by
273:, warned that it was likely the Germans were working on an atomic bomb using
2750:
2616:
2384:
2187:
2091:
2012:
1985:
1953:
1908:
1820:
857:. Nichols and Major Thomas T. Crenshaw, Jr., attended, along with physicist
795:
458:
201:
165:, and its results were shared with the Advisory Committee on Uranium by the
1995:
History of Operations Research in the United States Army, Volume I: 1942–62
1223:
1163:
281:
on August 2, 1939, but its delivery was delayed because of the outbreak of
2034:
2790:
2623:
2157:
625:
It may interest you that a colleague of mine who arrived from Berlin via
571:
348:
226:, who opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with
2780:
2647:
274:
1497:
1392:
683:
On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8807, creating the
2166:
626:
2098:
794:
Marshall established his district headquarters on the 18th floor of
1671:
1669:
1489:
1259:
1257:
638:
Bush therefore commissioned a review of the uranium project by the
553:
uranium-235, which would be quite practical for aircraft to carry.
161:
The feasibility of nuclear weapons was demonstrated by the British
957:
955:
31:
2728:
2197:
1108:
1106:
1104:
2102:
1140:(March 1940). "Nuclear Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes".
984:
982:
1274:
1272:
791:
was ordered to organize the Army component of the project.
194:
in December 1938, reported in the January 6, 1939 issue of
1749:
1747:
1745:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1703:
1701:
1688:
1686:
1684:
763:
research at Columbia and Princeton, and $ 278,000 at the
1860:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
1289:
1287:
1091:
1089:
449:, and therefore urged that research be undertaken into
771:, centralizing the work at the University of Chicago.
2815:
2029:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
473:
in Washington, D.C., in the last week of April 1940.
319:
As a result of the letter Roosevelt asked scientist
2671:
2640:
2573:
2362:
2231:
2145:
398:that was primarily responsible for fission. He had
2069:
1798:
829:attended by Bush, Styer and Colonels Marshall and
520:went to the president with a proposal to create a
1016:Federal Advisory Committees: An Overview (R40520)
759:granting it. Compton was allocated $ 340,000 for
138:of the NDRC. In June 1941, Roosevelt created the
421:These were ready in February 1940, and Dunning,
27:Group that helped initiate the Manhattan Project
1675:
1660:
1636:
1612:
1588:
1576:
1552:
1518:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1413:
1305:
1263:
1112:
1068:
1056:
1044:
1000:
988:
973:
961:
873:Expenditure by NDRC and OSRD on atomic energy
623:
504:in May 1940 generated concern over the fate of
269:. It advised Roosevelt of the existence of the
146:(OSRD), at it incorporated the NDRC, now under
391:but discounted by Fermi, that it was the rare
2114:
1901:United States Army Center of Military History
685:Office of Scientific Research and Development
512:, the world's largest source; the subsequent
140:Office of Scientific Research and Development
8:
2076:. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
40:on September 13, 1942. From left to right:
2121:
2107:
2099:
783:, the chief of staff of the newly created
1938:. New York: William Morrow and Company.
871:
2822:
1893:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
1765:
1724:
1293:
951:
853:The September 1942 meeting was held at
406:prepare samples of uranium enriched in
86:in December 1938, the possibility that
1648:
1624:
1600:
1564:
1425:
1317:
1278:
1248:
1236:
1080:
1032:
642:. The review committee was chaired by
606:suggested at a lunch on May 21, 1940.
2048:. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
1777:
1753:
1736:
1707:
1692:
1366:"A memorandum that changed the world"
1339:Frisch-Peierls Memorandum, March 1940
1095:
785:United States Army Services of Supply
331:had appointed one to investigate the
7:
1833:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945
1013:Ginsberg, Wendy R. (16 April 2009).
208:, and its correct identification as
556:Oliphant took the memorandum on to
522:National Defense Research Committee
132:National Defense Research Committee
114:, in August 1939. In response, the
36:The S-1 Executive Committee at the
2586:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1970:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1805:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
341:Carnegie Institution of Washington
216:in the February 11, 1939 issue of
25:
1534:. The American Presidency Project
1022:. Congressional Research Service.
825:, and Urey as its other members.
300:, and two ordnance experts, Army
2860:History of the Manhattan Project
2837:
2825:
2802:
2801:
743:Bush met with Roosevelt and his
126:to determine the feasibility of
1997:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army.
263:President of the United States
108:President of the United States
1:
1967:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
1851:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962).
903:June 28, 1941 – December 1941
892:June 27, 1940 – June 28, 1941
469:at the spring meeting of the
380:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory
315:Advisory Committee on Uranium
271:German nuclear weapon project
116:Advisory Committee on Uranium
18:Advisory Committee on Uranium
2746:Oppenheimer security hearing
1993:Shrader, Charles R. (2006).
640:National Academy of Sciences
581:Further British developments
325:National Bureau of Standards
192:discovery of nuclear fission
120:National Bureau of Standards
84:discovery of nuclear fission
71:laid the groundwork for the
2068:Sylves, Richard T. (1987).
1676:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1661:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1637:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1613:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1589:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1577:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1553:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1519:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1462:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1450:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1438:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1414:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1373:American Journal of Physics
1306:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1264:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1113:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1069:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1057:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1045:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1001:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
989:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
974:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
962:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
938:
927:
916:
905:
894:
804:Manhattan Engineer District
754:The next day, the Japanese
669:Bell Telephone Laboratories
2876:
1364:Bernstein, Jeremy (2011).
936:June 1942 – September 1943
837:, with the Boston firm of
719:Chief of Staff of the Army
502:German invasion of Belgium
343:, and Szilárd, Wigner and
304:Keith F. Adamson and Navy
285:in Europe with the German
122:under the chairmanship of
2799:
2689:Bismuth phosphate process
2684:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2136:
550:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
540:, two researchers at the
491:Naval Research Laboratory
471:American Physical Society
1854:The New World, 1939–1946
769:Metallurgical Laboratory
542:University of Birmingham
142:under the leadership of
2766:S-1 Executive Committee
2714:Einstein–Szilard letter
2042:Stewart, Irvin (1948).
1890:Jones, Vincent (1985).
933:S-1 Executive Committee
775:S-1 Executive Committee
404:University of Minnesota
259:Einstein–Szilárd letter
197:Die Naturwissenschaften
156:S-1 Executive Committee
104:Einstein–Szilárd letter
69:S-1 Executive Committee
2208:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
1224:10.1103/PhysRev.57.748
1164:10.1103/PhysRev.57.546
922:Planning Board of OSRD
756:attack on Pearl Harbor
732:, the director of the
636:
604:George B. Kistiakowsky
587:University of Virginia
489:, the director of the
323:, the director of the
64:
2786:X-10 Graphite Reactor
2741:Nobel Prize laureates
2611:509th Composite Group
1835:. London: MacMillan.
800:Leslie R. Groves, Jr.
765:University of Chicago
267:Franklin D. Roosevelt
241:The possibility that
112:Franklin D. Roosevelt
35:
2694:British contribution
2596:Operation Peppermint
2591:Operation Crossroads
2450:Maria Goeppert Mayer
1899:. Washington, D.C.:
835:Knoxville, Tennessee
817:on August 16, 1942.
734:Bureau of the Budget
619:Princeton University
592:uranium hexafluoride
487:Harold G. Bowen, Sr.
130:. In June 1940, the
79:Project in Britain.
2455:George Kistiakowsky
2410:Charles Critchfield
2021:Smyth, Henry DeWolf
1932:Nichols, Kenneth D.
1849:Hewlett, Richard G.
1768:, pp. 64, 115.
1651:, pp. 389–393.
1627:, pp. 386–389.
1603:, pp. 372–374.
1567:, pp. 121–122.
1385:2011AmJPh..79..440B
1281:, pp. 337–338.
1216:1940PhRv...57..748N
1156:1940PhRv...57..546N
1083:, pp. 160–165.
874:
839:Stone & Webster
673:L. Warrington Chubb
660:William D. Coolidge
609:The September 1940
236:Columbia University
118:was created at the
82:In the wake of the
2844:Nuclear technology
2832:History of Science
2520:Henry DeWolf Smyth
2299:Robert Oppenheimer
2254:Priscilla Duffield
1918:on October 7, 2014
872:
863:William R. Purnell
859:Robert Oppenheimer
808:Chief of Engineers
726:George C. Marshall
648:Ernest O. Lawrence
646:, with physicists
476:The New York Times
451:isotope separation
447:uranium enrichment
427:Aristid von Grosse
410:, uranium-235 and
396:isotope of uranium
302:Lieutenant Colonel
287:invasion of Poland
175:Manhattan District
171:United States Army
65:
46:Ernest O. Lawrence
2813:
2812:
2735:Los Alamos Primer
2724:Interim Committee
2679:African Americans
2631:The Great Artiste
2490:Isidor Isaac Rabi
2485:Norman Ramsey Jr.
2284:Franklin Matthias
2223:Heavy water sites
2130:Manhattan Project
2083:978-0-8138-0062-2
2004:978-0-16-072961-4
1780:, pp. 89–90.
1756:, pp. 70–71.
1739:, pp. 46–51.
1710:, pp. 53–54.
1695:, pp. 41–44.
1678:, pp. 72–75.
1663:, pp. 52–54.
1639:, pp. 50–51.
1615:, pp. 45–46.
1579:, pp. 44–45.
1521:, pp. 38–39.
1452:, pp. 30–31.
1440:, pp. 22–23.
1428:, pp. 76–80.
1416:, pp. 39–40.
1393:10.1119/1.3533426
1343:atomicarchive.com
1320:, pp. 39–41.
1308:, pp. 25–26.
1266:, pp. 23–24.
1071:, pp. 20–21.
1047:, pp. 17–20.
1003:, pp. 19–20.
976:, pp. 15–17.
964:, pp. 10–13.
943:
942:
925:January–June 1942
914:January–June 1942
789:James C. Marshall
693:Samuel K. Allison
665:Oliver E. Buckley
656:John H. Van Vleck
617:, a physicist at
600:gaseous diffusion
416:mass spectrometer
400:Alfred O. C. Nier
372:Alfred Lee Loomis
333:Whiskey Rebellion
329:George Washington
309:Gilbert C. Hoover
298:Edwin "Pa" Watson
295:Brigadier General
180:Manhattan Project
136:Uranium Committee
73:Manhattan Project
16:(Redirected from
2867:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2805:
2804:
2756:Quebec Agreement
2540:John von Neumann
2480:George B. Pegram
2289:Dorothy McKibbin
2123:
2116:
2109:
2100:
2095:
2075:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2038:
2016:
1989:
1957:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1917:
1911:. Archived from
1898:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1859:
1844:
1829:Gowing, Margaret
1824:
1804:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1711:
1705:
1696:
1690:
1679:
1673:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1370:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1282:
1276:
1267:
1261:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1099:
1093:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1035:, pp. 7–11.
1030:
1024:
1023:
1021:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
986:
977:
971:
965:
959:
939:$ 13,041,037.57
875:
781:Wilhelm D. Styer
712:Secretary of War
697:Edward U. Condon
615:Rudolf Ladenburg
514:Battle of France
444:
365:George B. Pegram
337:Washington, D.C.
206:Fritz Strassmann
21:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2838:
2836:
2826:
2824:
2816:
2814:
2809:
2795:
2761:RaLa Experiment
2667:
2636:
2601:Project Alberta
2569:
2565:Chien-Shiung Wu
2495:James Rainwater
2430:Richard Feynman
2420:John R. Dunning
2395:Norris Bradbury
2358:
2344:Stafford Warren
2314:William Purnell
2294:Kenneth Nichols
2274:Ernest Lawrence
2249:James B. Conant
2227:
2141:
2132:
2127:
2084:
2067:
2058:
2056:
2041:
2019:
2005:
1992:
1978:
1962:Rhodes, Richard
1960:
1946:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1896:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1868:
1857:
1847:
1827:
1813:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1764:
1760:
1752:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1714:
1706:
1699:
1691:
1682:
1674:
1667:
1659:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1368:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1348:
1346:
1331:Peierls, Rudolf
1329:
1328:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1285:
1277:
1270:
1262:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1203:Physical Review
1186:Nier, Alfred O.
1184:
1183:
1179:
1143:Physical Review
1126:Nier, Alfred O.
1124:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1102:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1031:
1027:
1019:
1012:
1011:
1007:
999:
995:
987:
980:
972:
968:
960:
953:
948:
928:$ 2,224,392.77
917:$ 1,952,168.00
831:Kenneth Nichols
777:
761:nuclear reactor
730:Harold D. Smith
689:James B. Conant
681:
583:
530:
461:, Fermi, Nier,
442:
439:Physical Review
431:neutron capture
423:Eugene T. Booth
389:John A. Wheeler
376:Ernest Lawrence
374:was supporting
321:Lyman J. Briggs
317:
291:Alexander Sachs
279:Albert Einstein
247:nuclear weapons
232:John R. Dunning
210:nuclear fission
188:
148:James B. Conant
128:nuclear weapons
124:Lyman J. Briggs
92:nuclear weapons
54:Lyman J. Briggs
50:James B. Conant
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2873:
2871:
2863:
2862:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2834:
2811:
2810:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2704:Chicago Pile-1
2701:
2699:Calutron Girls
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2675:
2673:
2672:Related topics
2669:
2668:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2627:
2620:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2535:Stanisław Ulam
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2470:Edwin McMillan
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2415:Harry Daghlian
2412:
2407:
2405:John Cockcroft
2402:
2400:James Chadwick
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2324:Charles Thomas
2321:
2319:Frank Spedding
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2279:James Marshall
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2259:Thomas Farrell
2256:
2251:
2246:
2244:Arthur Compton
2241:
2235:
2233:
2232:Administrators
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2118:
2111:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2082:
2065:
2039:
2017:
2003:
1990:
1976:
1958:
1944:
1928:
1887:
1866:
1845:
1825:
1811:
1795:Conant, Jennet
1789:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1770:
1758:
1741:
1729:
1727:, p. 123.
1712:
1697:
1680:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1569:
1557:
1545:
1523:
1511:
1490:10.1086/356203
1484:(3): 429–452.
1466:
1454:
1442:
1430:
1418:
1406:
1379:(5): 440–446.
1356:
1337:(March 1940).
1322:
1310:
1298:
1283:
1268:
1253:
1251:, p. 297.
1241:
1239:, p. 157.
1229:
1198:von Grosse, A.
1194:Dunning, J. R.
1177:
1138:von Grosse, A.
1134:Dunning, J. R.
1117:
1100:
1098:, p. 172.
1085:
1073:
1061:
1049:
1037:
1025:
1005:
993:
978:
966:
950:
949:
947:
944:
941:
940:
937:
934:
930:
929:
926:
923:
919:
918:
915:
912:
908:
907:
904:
901:
900:NDRC (of OSRD)
897:
896:
893:
890:
886:
885:
882:
879:
855:Bohemian Grove
815:Eugene Reybold
776:
773:
745:vice president
705:Henry D. Smyth
701:Lloyd P. Smith
680:
677:
652:John C. Slater
644:Arthur Compton
611:Tizard Mission
582:
579:
562:MAUD Committee
538:Rudolf Peierls
529:
528:MAUD committee
526:
434:cross sections
316:
313:
245:might develop
187:
184:
167:Tizard Mission
163:MAUD Committee
90:might develop
62:Arthur Compton
58:E. V. Murphree
42:Harold C. Urey
38:Bohemian Grove
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2872:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2823:
2819:
2808:
2798:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Franck Report
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Alsos Mission
2579:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2555:Robert Wilson
2553:
2551:
2550:Eugene Wigner
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:Edward Teller
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Glenn Seaborg
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2475:Mark Oliphant
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2465:Willard Libby
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2375:Robert Bacher
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2354:Roscoe Wilson
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2269:John Lansdale
2267:
2265:
2264:Leslie Groves
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2239:Vannevar Bush
2237:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2074:
2073:
2066:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1977:0-671-44133-7
1973:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1945:0-688-06910-X
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1894:
1888:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1867:0-520-07186-7
1863:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1812:0-684-87287-0
1808:
1803:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1591:, p. 51.
1590:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1558:
1555:, p. 41.
1554:
1549:
1546:
1533:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1470:
1467:
1464:, p. 35.
1463:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1296:, p. 14.
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1115:, p. 22.
1114:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1062:
1059:, p. 20.
1058:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1026:
1018:
1017:
1009:
1006:
1002:
997:
994:
991:, p. 17.
990:
985:
983:
979:
975:
970:
967:
963:
958:
956:
952:
945:
935:
932:
931:
924:
921:
920:
913:
910:
909:
906:$ 452,650.00
902:
899:
898:
895:$ 468,000.00
891:
889:NDRC (of CND)
888:
887:
883:
880:
877:
876:
870:
866:
864:
860:
856:
851:
849:
845:
840:
836:
832:
826:
824:
823:Eger Murphree
818:
816:
813:
812:Major General
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
774:
772:
770:
766:
762:
757:
752:
750:
749:Henry Wallace
746:
741:
737:
735:
731:
727:
724:
720:
716:
715:Henry Stimson
713:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
678:
676:
674:
670:
666:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
635:
633:
628:
622:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:
596:Karl P. Cohen
593:
588:
580:
578:
576:
573:
568:
563:
559:
554:
551:
547:
546:Mark Oliphant
543:
539:
535:
527:
525:
523:
519:
518:Harry Hopkins
515:
511:
510:Belgian Congo
507:
503:
498:
496:
495:Gregory Breit
492:
488:
485:
480:
478:
477:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
441:
440:
435:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
394:
390:
385:
384:Vannevar Bush
381:
377:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
357:uranium oxide
352:
350:
346:
345:Edward Teller
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
314:
312:
310:
307:
303:
299:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
255:Eugene Wigner
252:
248:
244:
239:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
220:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
198:
193:
185:
183:
181:
176:
172:
168:
164:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:Vannevar Bush
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
102:to draft the
101:
100:Eugene Wigner
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2791:Y-12 Project
2776:Smyth Report
2771:S-50 Project
2765:
2733:
2729:K-25 Project
2658:Pumpkin bomb
2629:
2622:
2615:
2545:John Wheeler
2515:Louis Slotin
2510:Emilio Segrè
2460:George Koval
2440:James Franck
2425:Enrico Fermi
2370:Luis Alvarez
2329:Paul Tibbets
2304:Deak Parsons
2071:
2057:. Retrieved
2044:
2024:
1994:
1965:
1935:
1922:November 19,
1920:. Retrieved
1913:the original
1892:
1879:. Retrieved
1853:
1832:
1800:
1773:
1766:Nichols 1987
1761:
1732:
1725:Stewart 1948
1656:
1644:
1632:
1620:
1608:
1596:
1584:
1572:
1560:
1548:
1538:November 18,
1536:. Retrieved
1526:
1514:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1457:
1445:
1433:
1421:
1409:
1376:
1372:
1359:
1347:. Retrieved
1342:
1335:Frisch, Otto
1325:
1313:
1301:
1294:Shrader 2006
1244:
1232:
1207:
1201:
1190:Booth, E. T.
1180:
1147:
1141:
1130:Booth, E. T.
1120:
1076:
1064:
1052:
1040:
1028:
1015:
1008:
996:
969:
884:Expenditure
878:Organization
867:
852:
827:
819:
796:270 Broadway
793:
778:
753:
742:
738:
709:
682:
658:and chemist
637:
624:
608:
584:
558:Henry Tizard
555:
531:
499:
484:Rear Admiral
481:
474:
437:
420:
369:
361:Karl Compton
353:
318:
283:World War II
257:drafted the
243:Nazi Germany
240:
228:Enrico Fermi
217:
214:Lise Meitner
195:
189:
173:created the
160:
155:
151:
135:
115:
88:Nazi Germany
81:
68:
66:
29:
2606:Silverplate
2560:Leona Woods
2525:Leo Szilard
2500:Bruno Rossi
2445:Klaus Fuchs
2349:Ed Westcott
2339:Harold Urey
1649:Rhodes 1986
1625:Rhodes 1986
1601:Rhodes 1986
1565:Gowing 1964
1426:Gowing 1964
1318:Gowing 1964
1279:Rhodes 1986
1249:Rhodes 1986
1237:Conant 2002
1081:Conant 2002
1033:Sylves 1987
911:S-1 Section
848:heavy water
846:to produce
679:S-1 Section
621:, stating:
575:Tube Alloys
534:Otto Frisch
532:Meanwhile,
506:uranium ore
467:Harold Urey
455:Jesse Beams
412:uranium-238
408:uranium-234
393:uranium-235
251:Leo Szilard
152:S-1 Section
96:Leo Szilard
77:Tube Alloys
2709:Demon core
2653:Little Boy
2574:Operations
2390:Niels Bohr
2380:Hans Bethe
2363:Scientists
2309:Boris Pash
2188:Los Alamos
1788:References
1778:Jones 1985
1754:Jones 1985
1737:Jones 1985
1708:Jones 1985
1693:Jones 1985
1210:(8): 748.
1150:(6): 546.
1096:Smyth 1945
632:Heisenberg
560:, and the
463:Merle Tuve
224:Niels Bohr
2751:Plutonium
2617:Enola Gay
2435:Val Fitch
2385:Aage Bohr
2334:Bud Uanna
2203:Oak Ridge
2054:500138898
1876:637004643
1841:670156897
1506:143454986
1401:0002-9505
1349:2 January
695:, Breit,
667:from the
508:from the
459:Ross Gunn
402:from the
306:Commander
202:Otto Hahn
94:prompted
2854:Category
2807:Category
2663:Thin Man
2624:Bockscar
2218:Wendover
2198:New York
2193:Montreal
2183:Inyokern
2158:Berkeley
2139:Timeline
2092:15630365
2059:April 1,
2023:(1945).
2013:73821793
1986:13793436
1964:(1986).
1954:15223648
1934:(1987).
1909:10913875
1881:26 March
1831:(1964).
1821:48966735
1797:(2002).
1345:(Report)
717:and the
602:, which
572:codename
414:using a
349:graphite
2818:Portals
2781:Uranium
2648:Fat Man
2641:Weapons
2213:Trinity
2178:Hanford
2163:Chicago
1381:Bibcode
1212:Bibcode
1172:4106096
1152:Bibcode
844:program
723:General
378:at the
275:uranium
261:to the
186:Origins
106:to the
2173:Dayton
2167:Site A
2090:
2080:
2052:
2035:770285
2033:
2011:
2001:
1984:
1974:
1952:
1942:
1907:
1874:
1864:
1839:
1819:
1809:
1504:
1498:233904
1496:
1399:
1170:
654:, and
627:Lisbon
219:Nature
204:, and
2146:Sites
1916:(PDF)
1897:(PDF)
1858:(PDF)
1502:S2CID
1494:JSTOR
1369:(PDF)
1168:S2CID
1020:(PDF)
946:Notes
590:with
567:yield
443:'
2153:Ames
2088:OCLC
2078:ISBN
2061:2012
2050:OCLC
2031:OCLC
2009:OCLC
1999:ISBN
1982:OCLC
1972:ISBN
1950:OCLC
1940:ISBN
1924:2016
1905:OCLC
1883:2013
1872:OCLC
1862:ISBN
1837:OCLC
1817:OCLC
1807:ISBN
1540:2016
1477:Isis
1397:ISSN
1351:2015
881:Date
703:and
671:and
536:and
500:The
465:and
425:and
253:and
190:The
98:and
67:The
60:and
1486:doi
1389:doi
1220:doi
1160:doi
234:at
212:by
200:by
2856::
2086:.
2007:.
1980:.
1948:.
1903:.
1870:.
1815:.
1744:^
1715:^
1700:^
1683:^
1668:^
1500:.
1492:.
1482:83
1480:.
1395:.
1387:.
1377:79
1375:.
1371:.
1341:.
1333:;
1286:^
1271:^
1256:^
1218:.
1208:57
1206:.
1196:;
1192:;
1188:;
1166:.
1158:.
1148:57
1146:.
1136:;
1132:;
1128:;
1103:^
1088:^
981:^
954:^
865:.
850:.
810:,
747:,
721:,
699:,
650:,
577:.
457:,
418:.
382:.
363:,
265:,
238:.
182:.
158:.
110:,
56:,
52:,
48:,
44:,
2820::
2169:)
2165:(
2122:e
2115:t
2108:v
2094:.
2063:.
2037:.
2015:.
1988:.
1956:.
1926:.
1885:.
1843:.
1823:.
1542:.
1508:.
1488::
1403:.
1391::
1383::
1353:.
1226:.
1222::
1214::
1174:.
1162::
1154::
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
