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823:, concluded that an atomic bomb was "not only feasible, it was inevitable". They also pointed out that a large part of a laboratory in Berlin had been devoted to nuclear research. A copy of the MAUD Committee's interim report was sent to the Briggs in the USA because Britain lacked the resources to undertake such a large and urgent program on its own. Britain also wished to move its key research facilities to safety across the Atlantic. The MAUD Committee issued another report giving technical details on the design and costs on 15 July 1941.
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847:. "Oliphant came to a meeting", Allison recalls, "and said 'bomb' in no uncertain terms. He told us we must concentrate every effort on the bomb and said we had no right to work on power plants or anything but the bomb. The bomb would cost 25 million dollars, he said, and Britain did not have the money or the manpower, so it was up to us." Allison was surprised that Briggs had kept the committee in the dark.
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which established a stable zenith independent of the roll of the vessel for the aiming of naval guns. This allowed for the roll of the ship to be observed, so that the firing of the guns could be timed with the roll of the ship. The device was so successful it found its way into the control rooms of
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and in 1934 he chaired the
Society's Committee on Research and Exploration. During this time he instrumented two stratospheric balloon flights, the second of which broke the existing record for altitude in 1936. During retirement he became more active in the Society, and led an expedition to study
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took office as president in 1933 he was pressed to name "a good
Democrat" as director of the National Bureau of Standards. Roosevelt, not wishing to make a patronage appointment, replied, "I haven't the slightest idea whether Briggs is a Republican or a Democrat; all I know is that he is the best
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Briggs' love for baseball triggered another piece of research. During World War II the government had mandated that rubber in baseballs be replaced by cork. Complaints about the new balls led Briggs to test them, and in 1945 he demonstrated that the new baseballs were inferior. This was done by
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flew to the United States in late August 1941 in an unheated bomber to find out why the United States was ignoring the MAUD Committee's findings. Oliphant said: "The minutes and reports had been sent to Lyman Briggs, who was the
Director of the Uranium Committee, and we were puzzled to receive
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Briggs retired from the Bureau in 1945, at the age of 72. He was appointed director emeritus of NBS after working for 49 years in federal government. Bureau employees erected a bronze sundial in his honor through their
Employees Welfare Association. At his request the names of the first three
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Briggs should always be remembered as one of the great figures in
Washington during the first half of the century, when the Federal Government was slowly and stumblingly groping towards a realization of the important role science must play in the full future development of human
978:. It turned out that at room temperature the maximum attainable tension in water was 250 bar and in mercury nearly 500 bar. This finding was published in several papers between (1950–1953), and the 1950 paper remains a classic and is still regularly cited in the literature on
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Briggs took over the Bureau during difficult times. It was the height of the depression and his first task was to reduce costs 50%. He managed to save the jobs of about 2/3 of the career employees by putting many on part-time employment and transferring others to the
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believed that the project was delayed for a least a year by the short-sightedness and sluggishness of the authorities. At the time Briggs was not well and was due to undergo a serious operation. He was unable to take the energetic action that was often needed.
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Britain was at war and felt an atomic bomb should have the highest priority, especially because the
Germans might soon have one; but the US was not at war at that time and many Americans did not want to get involved. One of the members of the MAUD Committee,
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to hire unemployed mathematicians to develop math tables. Due to Briggs outstanding persuasive powers, he managed to get
Congress to increase its appropriation for the Bureau in 1935, and many of the employees that were let go were re-hired.
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Briggs died March 25, 1963, aged 88, after a diverse life of scientific exploration and service. He is remembered for his range of interests. Briggs was almost universally liked, and had a reputation for levelheadedness and serenity.
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virtually no comment. I called on Briggs in
Washington, only to find out that this inarticulate and unimpressive man had put the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee. I was amazed and distressed."
974:. This topic was directly related to his earlier research in the water uptake of plants. In one famous experiment he measured the negative pressure (or tension) that would break a column of water held in a capillary tube by
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a list of services the Bureau could provide in the event of armed conflict in Europe. By 1942 90% of the Bureau's activities were classified work for the war effort. Some of the Bureau's activities were the non-rotating
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463:. He grew up in an outdoor life with duties to attend such as would be found on an active farm in the late 19th century. He went to the Briggs School built by his grandfather and later was a teacher there.
1001:). To measure the spin, he attached a lightweight tape to the ball and counted the twists in the tape. This was a popular topic in newspapers and is probably the most widely known of his research results.
482:, so courses were taught in agriculture and mechanical arts. He majored in agriculture, but by graduation time in 1893 his interests had moved on to mechanical engineering and physics. He next entered the
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In 1896 Briggs married
Katharine Cook whom he met as an undergraduate at Michigan Agricultural College. Lyman and Katharine Cook Briggs had two children, a boy, Albert (known as "Bertie") and a girl,
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Lyman J. Briggs, Effect of spin and speed on the lateral deflection (curve) of a baseball and the Magnus effect for smooth spheres. Am. J. Phys. 27:589–96. (1959)
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858:, undertook to launch a full-scale effort to develop atomic bombs. As the scale of the project became clearer, it came under direct military control as the
664:. The compass used a spinning electric coil subjected to the magnetic field of the Earth to determine the bearing of an airplane in relation to the Earth's
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and joined the
National Bureau of Standards, where he was chief of the Engineering Physics Division (later the Mechanics and Sound Division). He appointed
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addressing the issue of whether or not a pitched baseball could curve out of the plane of the pitch. With the help of two pitchers from the
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Summary of the results of the stratosphere flight of the Explorer II. Natl. Geogr. Soc. Technol. Pap. Stratosphere Series. 2:5–12. (1936)
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In 2007, Michigan State University honored the Lyman Briggs school, named for Briggs, by allowing it to become the Lyman Briggs College.
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779:. Even though Roosevelt had sanctioned a project, progress was slow and was not directed exclusively towards military applications.
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in 1917 due to mobilization pressures of World War I. There he developed an artificial horizon device for naval vessels with
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In his retirement Briggs returned to research, establishing a laboratory for studying fluids under negative pressure at the
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while they continued their work at the bureau. He emphasized doing work with direct economic impact and got money from the
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451:. He was the eldest of two brothers in a family that descended from Clement Briggs, who arrived in America in 1621 on the
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and measurement and calibration services. Briggs changed the Bureau's culture from one of open access to one of secrecy.
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to Burgess as director of the National Bureau of Standards. However, none of Hoover's nominations were acted on by the
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most naval vessels. A confidential report called the Hayford–Briggs report was given to the Navy, but never published.
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1917:
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Methods for measuring the coefficient of restitution and the spin of a ball. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 34:1–23. (1945)
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of plant life. His research work was concentrated on water retention of soils and he was a founder of the science of
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In 1926 Briggs was appointed assistant director for research and testing by National Bureau of Standards Director
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415:(May 7, 1874 – March 25, 1963) was an American engineer, physicist and administrator. He was a director of the
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1524:
The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses, and Historians
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G. F. Hull and H. L. Dryden. Aerodynamics of airfoils at high speeds. Natl. Adv. Comm. Aeron. Rep. 207. (1925)
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815:. From June 1940, copies of British progress reports were sent to Briggs via a British contact in Washington,
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in an airstream. This work had significant application in developing blade forms for aircraft propellers.
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measuring the spin of a perfectly pitched ball with the aid of a flat measuring tape fastened to the ball
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on the effect of environment on the water uptake by plants, and was an early contributor to ecology.
513:. Albert died in infancy, and Isabel would eventually marry Clarence Myers and go on to generate the
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Oliphant visited other physicists to galvanise the USA into action. As a result, in December 1941
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In Briggs' first professional position he was put in charge of the Physics Laboratory (later the
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said "It is wonder that after so many blunders and mistakes anything was accomplished at all".
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and established the relationship between the amount of spin and the curvature of the ball (
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2007:
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The limiting negative pressure of mercury in Pyrex glass. J. Appl. Phys. 24:488–90. (1953)
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Annotated bibliography for Lyman Briggs from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
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NBS War Research: The National Bureau of Standards in World War II. NIST archives (1949)
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Richard Rhodes, "The Making of the Atomic Bomb", New York, Simon & Schuster, 1986.
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baseball club and his 1917 wind tunnel he studied the effect of spin and speed on the
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to head the Aerodynamics Physics Section, and together they pioneered research in the
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580:. In the same year he also organized a biophysical laboratory that later became the
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On the adsorption of water vapor and of certain salts in aqueous solution by quartz
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On the absorption of water vapor and of certain salts in aqueous solution by quartz
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On the absorption of water vapor and of certain salts in aqueous solution by quartz
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819:. In March 1941 a British committee of Nobel Prize–winning scientists, called the
536:, he ultimately graduated in 1903 with a Ph.D. in agriculture with a dissertation
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P. R. Heyl. The earth inductor compass. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 61:15–32. (1922)
17:
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942:, he wrote a 180-page account on NBS war research that was published in 1949.
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A wax seal method for determining the lower limit of available soil moisture
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The wilting coefficient for different plants and its indirect determination
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While in Washington, he also continued his research at Johns Hopkins under
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University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
560:. He was one of a new breed of multi-disciplinary scientists studying the
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the solar eclipse in Brazil in 1947. Briggs often wrote articles for the
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was a new committee member, a talented experimentalist and a protégé of
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made a breakthrough, indicating that it would be possible to make an
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Measures for Progress, a History of the National Bureau of Standards
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1381:, Biographical Memoirs V.77, National Academy of Sciences (1999),
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572:. In 1906 he devised a soil classification technique called the
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Lyman James Briggs, namesake of Lyman Briggs College of Science
1395:, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, 1974
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said that "We often felt as though we were swimming in syrup".
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He also retained an interest in navigational devices, and with
1574:"The Magellanic Premium of the American Philosophical Society"
309:
1549:"Introduction - The Bat Missile Exhibit, NIST Virtual Museum"
914:
directors of Bureau are cast onto the rim of the instrument:
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Special Advisory Committee for Stratospheric Balloon Flights
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for his distinguished work in connection with World War II.
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based on centrifuging, which is now thought of as the first
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Briggs sought new business for the Bureau. In 1939 he sent
532:. Although he spent time working with the newly discovered
775:
to investigate the fission of uranium, as a result of the
478:, entering by examination at age 15. Michigan State was a
2580:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
1704:
Introduction—The Bat Missile Exhibit, NIST Virtual Museum
1294:
Moisture equivalent determinations and their application
695:. On Burgess's death in 1932, Briggs was nominated by
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340:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1132:Honorary doctorates by the following institutions:
1674:Lyman Briggs College of Science at Michigan State
795:Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom German refugees
427:before America entered the Second World War. The
1724:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
925:In 1948 Briggs received the Medal of Merit from
835:Oliphant then met the whole Uranium Committee.
771:called on Briggs, by then aged 65, to head the
2595:Members of the American Philosophical Society
1781:
1463:"The Story of Isabel Briggs Myers - CAPT.org"
856:Office of Scientific Research and Development
811:from a relatively small mass of concentrated
740:, September 13, 1942. From left to right are
8:
1411:Sciences, National Academy of (1999-11-29).
2590:Presidents of the American Physical Society
1797:Presidents of the American Physical Society
1439:"Briggs, Lyman J. (Lyman James), 1874-1963"
1117:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
1088:National Conference on Weights and Measures
962:and formerly third baseman and manager, at
898:Laboratory, critical materials research on
27:American physicist and engineer (1874–1963)
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1774:
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1728:
902:which Germany had previously supplied, on
676:in 1922. This type of compass was used by
40:
29:
1021:, Briggs' successor at the Bureau said: "
1004:Another of Briggs many interests was the
400:Learn how and when to remove this message
1296:, Proc. Am. Soc. Agron. 2:138–47. (1910)
668:. For this invention, they received the
617:National Bureau of Standards (1917–1945)
1626:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
1403:
2600:19th-century American earth scientists
2585:20th-century American earth scientists
75: – November 5, 1945
1203:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1179:Briggs received the following honors:
7:
338:adding citations to reliable sources
1699:NIST Proves It: The Ball Does Curve
1344:Limiting negative pressure of water
1253:Philosophical Society of Washington
1104:National Defense Research Committee
1046:Philosophical Society of Washington
688:on his 1927 trans-Atlantic flight.
637:In 1920 Briggs officially left the
2560:People from Battle Creek, Michigan
2540:People from Barry County, Michigan
1346:, J. Appl. Phys. 21:721–22. (1950)
662:Heyl–Briggs earth inductor compass
490:, completing a master's degree in
222:Engineer, physicist, administrator
25:
1521:Kelly, Cynthia C. (7 July 2020).
1287:The moisture equivalents of soils
894:developments, establishment of a
2555:Michigan State University alumni
1289:USDA Bur. Soils Bull. 45. (1907)
314:
2545:Johns Hopkins University alumni
1414:Biographical Memoirs: Volume 77
1033:Awards, honors and distinctions
736:S-1 Executive Committee at the
494:in 1895. From there he entered
457:, the first ship to follow the
325:needs additional citations for
1248:Washington Academy of Sciences
1197:American Philosophical Society
1187:American Philosophical Society
1125:, Director Emeritus, 1945–1963
1052:Washington Academy of Sciences
717:American Standards Association
674:American Philosophical Society
1:
1303:, Bot. Gaz. 51:210–19. (1911)
773:Advisory Committee on Uranium
728:Uranium Committee (1939–1941)
721:Works Progress Administration
711:qualified man for the job."
706:before he left office. After
540:. He was also elected to the
468:Michigan Agricultural College
443:Briggs was born on a farm in
205:Michigan Agricultural College
1748:National Bureau of Standards
1551:. 2010-05-27. Archived from
1486:Briggs, Lyman James (1901).
1417:. National Academies Press.
1214:Medal of Merit by President
1209:National Academy of Sciences
1158:George Washington University
1146:South Dakota School of Mines
1123:National Bureau of Standards
1070:National Bureau of Standards
1058:Federal Specifications Board
1011:National Geographic Magazine
972:National Bureau of Standards
649:of airfoils moving near the
558:US Department of Agriculture
548:US Department of Agriculture
522:US Department of Agriculture
417:National Bureau of Standards
258:National Bureau of Standards
253:US Department of Agriculture
55:National Bureau of Standards
2055:Charles Christian Lauritsen
1375:Johanna M.H. Levelt Sengers
1310:, Bot. Gaz. 53:20–37 (1912)
1226:National Geographic Society
1111:National Geographic Society
1076:National Geographic Society
1006:National Geographic Society
854:, director of the powerful
625:Briggs (left) received the
520:In 1896 he also joined the
515:Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
2616:
1924:William Francis Gray Swann
1689:The Earth Inductor Compass
1109:Research Committee of the
922:, and Lyman James Briggs.
596:Briggs was detailed by an
2491:Sylvester James Gates Jr.
1835:Edward Leamington Nichols
1754:
1744:
1736:
1731:
1714:Biography (by a grandson)
1243:American Physical Society
1094:American Physical Society
1078:, Life Trustee, 1933–1964
639:Department of Agriculture
472:Michigan State University
433:Michigan State University
304:
300:
296:
230:
226:
131:
60:
48:
39:
2565:American soil scientists
2550:Manhattan Project people
2228:Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
2061:John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
1889:Thomas Corwin Mendenhall
1684:The Lyman Briggs Sundial
1496:Johns Hopkins University
960:Washington Baseball Club
582:Bureau of Plant Industry
502:, and began work on his
496:Johns Hopkins University
213:Johns Hopkins University
53:3rd Director of the
2246:Arthur Leonard Schawlow
2002:Arthur Jeffrey Dempster
1990:Percy Williams Bridgman
1865:Robert Andrews Millikan
1373:Peter Briggs Myers and
1235:Served as president of:
1211:, Elected Member (1942)
1205:, Elected Member (1939)
1199:, Elected Member (1935)
777:Einstein–Szilárd letter
435:is named in his honor.
67:June 13, 1933
2145:John Archibald Wheeler
2032:Francis Wheeler Loomis
1966:John Torrence Tate Sr.
1853:Benjamin Osgood Peirce
1811:Henry Augustus Rowland
1222:Franklin R. Burr Award
1152:University of Michigan
1140:Michigan State College
967:
920:George Kimball Burgess
916:Samuel Wesley Stratton
875:
764:
693:George Kimball Burgess
634:
602:Department of Commerce
530:Henry Augustus Rowland
484:University of Michigan
476:East Lansing, Michigan
449:Battle Creek, Michigan
291:Henry Augustus Rowland
209:University of Michigan
2348:Jerome Isaac Friedman
2026:J. Robert Oppenheimer
1847:William Francis Magie
1823:Arthur Gordon Webster
1709:Information from NIST
1278:Lyman J. Briggs with:
1164:Georgetown University
1119:, Vice-chairman, 1942
1100:Uranium Committee S-1
1084:, Chairman, 1935–1936
1072:, Director, 1933–1945
1066:, Chairman, 1933–1939
958:, Comptroller of the
953:
937:Secretary of Commerce
880:Secretary of Commerce
873:
845:University of Chicago
735:
708:Franklin D. Roosevelt
680:in his flight to the
624:
584:. Briggs worked with
578:Pedotransfer function
94:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2312:Donald N. Langenberg
2300:Nicolaas Bloembergen
2169:Edward Mills Purcell
2079:Raymond Thayer Birge
1877:Joseph Sweetman Ames
1622:"Lyman James Briggs"
1602:search.amphilsoc.org
1598:"APS Member History"
1148:, Engineering (1935)
1064:Federal Fire Council
429:Lyman Briggs College
423:and chairman of the
349:"Lyman James Briggs"
334:improve this article
2485:Philip H. Bucksbaum
2377:William F. Brinkman
2264:Mildred Dresselhaus
2187:Joseph Edward Mayer
2163:Luis Walter Alvarez
2127:John Harry Williams
1954:Harrison M. Randall
1912:Karl Taylor Compton
1817:Albert A. Michelson
1732:Government offices
1170:Columbia University
988:Washington Senators
767:In 1939, President
606:Bureau of Standards
574:moisture equivalent
500:Baltimore, Maryland
488:Ann Arbor, Michigan
2535:American educators
2449:Malcolm R. Beasley
2413:Arthur Bienenstock
2288:James A. Krumhansl
2234:Lewis M. Branscomb
2121:William V. Houston
2091:Henry DeWolf Smyth
2020:Lee Alvin DuBridge
1960:Lyman James Briggs
1948:Floyd K. Richtmyer
1647:"Lyman Briggs, Jr"
1379:Lyman James Briggs
1266:, Washington, D.C.
1260:, Washington, D.C.
1191:Magellanic Premium
968:
935:At the request of
876:
769:Franklin Roosevelt
765:
746:Ernest O. Lawrence
635:
627:Magellanic Premium
586:Homer Leroy Shantz
480:Land Grant college
413:Lyman James Briggs
34:Lyman James Briggs
2512:
2511:
2443:Michael S. Turner
2282:Val Logsdon Fitch
2252:Maurice Goldhaber
2216:William A. Fowler
2151:Charles H. Townes
2038:Isidor Isaac Rabi
1871:Henry A. Bumstead
1764:
1763:
1755:Succeeded by
1740:George K. Burgess
1651:www.nasonline.org
1578:www.amphilsoc.org
1534:978-0-7624-7126-3
1527:. Running Press.
1424:978-0-309-06644-0
1342:Lyman J. Briggs,
1142:in Science (1932)
1096:, President, 1938
1054:, President, 1917
1048:, President, 1916
896:Radio Propagation
860:Manhattan Project
837:Samuel K. Allison
700:Herbert C. Hoover
686:Charles Lindbergh
517:with her mother.
445:Assyria, Michigan
425:Uranium Committee
419:(NBS) during the
410:
409:
402:
384:
308:
307:
232:Scientific career
154:Assyria, Michigan
114:George K. Burgess
16:(Redirected from
2607:
2419:Cherry A. Murray
2336:D. Allan Bromley
2306:Ernest M. Henley
2294:Eugen Merzbacher
2270:Robert R. Wilson
2109:Victor Weisskopf
2103:George Uhlenbeck
1978:George B. Pegram
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1555:on 2010-05-27
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351: –
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345:Find sources:
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323:This article
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19:
2467:Laura Greene
2431:Barry Barish
2407:Leo Kadanoff
2276:Sidney Drell
2157:John Bardeen
2067:Enrico Fermi
1959:
1752:1933 – 1945
1745:
1654:. Retrieved
1650:
1641:
1630:. Retrieved
1628:. 2023-02-09
1625:
1616:
1605:. Retrieved
1601:
1592:
1581:. Retrieved
1577:
1568:
1557:. Retrieved
1553:the original
1543:
1523:
1516:
1506:– via
1489:
1481:
1470:. Retrieved
1467:www.capt.org
1466:
1457:
1446:. Retrieved
1442:
1433:
1413:
1406:
1392:
1378:
1343:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1286:
1273:Publications
1264:Federal Club
1234:
1233:
1228:(1954, 1962)
1178:
1177:
1154:, Law (1936)
1131:
1130:
1037:
1036:
1028:
1022:
1015:
1003:
995:
984:
969:
956:Ossie Bluege
934:
930:Harry Truman
927:US President
924:
912:
877:
866:World War II
849:
834:
825:
794:
785:Boris Pregel
766:
713:
697:US President
690:
678:Admiral Byrd
658:Paul R. Heyl
655:
647:aerodynamics
636:
631:Paul R. Heyl
610:John Hayford
595:
570:soil physics
551:
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519:
508:
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411:
396:
387:
377:
370:
363:
356:
344:
332:Please help
327:verification
324:
272:
246:Institutions
231:
166:(1963-03-25)
121:Succeeded by
62:
2530:1963 deaths
2525:1874 births
2479:David Gross
2455:Sam Aronson
2389:Helen Quinn
2222:George Pake
2139:Felix Bloch
2097:Jesse Beams
1972:John Zeleny
1362:ASM-N-2 Bat
1258:Cosmos Club
954:Briggs and
809:atomic bomb
797:Otto Frisch
789:Leó Szilárd
704:US Congress
592:World War I
542:Cosmos Club
151:May 7, 1874
109:Preceded by
2519:Categories
2461:Homer Neal
1918:Henry Gale
1841:Henry Crew
1829:Carl Barus
1656:2023-06-07
1632:2023-06-07
1607:2023-06-07
1583:2023-06-07
1559:2023-04-01
1504:1049951927
1472:2023-04-01
1448:2023-04-01
1368:References
1038:Positions:
992:trajectory
946:Later life
682:North Pole
390:April 2023
360:newspapers
219:Occupation
200:Alma mater
147:1874-05-07
79:1945-11-05
71:1933-06-13
2209:1976–2000
2085:E. Wigner
2048:1951–1975
1905:1926–1950
1804:1899–1925
999:curveball
556:) of the
460:Mayflower
87:President
63:In office
2073:H. Bethe
1508:ProQuest
1356:See also
188:Children
1102:of the
1024:society
843:at the
684:and by
672:of the
633:in 1922
600:to the
566:ecology
562:biology
492:physics
454:Fortune
447:, near
374:scholar
77: (
69: (
2505:(2023)
2499:(2022)
2493:(2021)
2487:(2020)
2481:(2019)
2475:(2018)
2469:(2017)
2463:(2016)
2457:(2015)
2451:(2014)
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2439:(2012)
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2373:(2001)
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2338:(1997)
2332:(1996)
2326:(1995)
2320:(1994)
2314:(1993)
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2296:(1990)
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2224:(1977)
2218:(1976)
2201:(1975)
2195:(1974)
2189:(1973)
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2177:(1971)
2171:(1970)
2165:(1969)
2159:(1968)
2153:(1967)
2147:(1966)
2141:(1965)
2135:(1964)
2129:(1963)
2123:(1962)
2117:(1961)
2111:(1960)
2105:(1959)
2099:(1958)
2093:(1957)
2087:(1956)
2081:(1955)
2075:(1954)
2069:(1953)
2063:(1952)
2057:(1951)
2040:(1950)
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2028:(1948)
2022:(1947)
2016:(1946)
2010:(1945)
2004:(1944)
1998:(1943)
1992:(1942)
1986:(1941)
1980:(1941)
1974:(1940)
1968:(1939)
1962:(1938)
1956:(1937)
1950:(1936)
1944:(1935)
1938:(1934)
1932:(1933)
1926:(1931)
1920:(1929)
1914:(1927)
1897:(1925)
1891:(1923)
1885:(1921)
1879:(1919)
1873:(1918)
1867:(1916)
1861:(1914)
1855:(1913)
1849:(1911)
1843:(1909)
1837:(1907)
1831:(1905)
1825:(1903)
1819:(1901)
1813:(1899)
1531:
1502:
1421:
1385:
1218:(1948)
1193:(1922)
904:quartz
511:Isabel
376:
369:
362:
355:
347:
279:(1901)
277:
268:Thesis
238:Fields
193:Isabel
178:Spouse
173:, U.S.
156:, U.S.
2364:2001–
813:U-235
474:) in
470:(now
381:JSTOR
367:books
1529:ISBN
1500:OCLC
1419:ISBN
1383:ISBN
906:and
799:and
760:and
564:and
353:news
161:Died
141:Born
1026:."
996:see
604:'s
524:in
504:PhD
498:in
486:in
431:at
336:by
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756:,
752:,
748:,
744:,
506:.
1789:e
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1475:.
1451:.
1427:.
403:)
397:(
392:)
388:(
378:·
371:·
364:·
357:·
330:.
149:)
145:(
81:)
73:)
20:)
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