583:, or speaker of the House of Nobles, presided when the estates met in congress and also, by virtue of his office, in the secret committee. This famous body, which consisted of 50 nobles, 25 priests, 25 burgesses, and, very exceptionally, 25 peasants, possessed during the session of the Riksdag not only the supreme executive but also the supreme judicial and legislative functions. It prepared all bills for the Riksdag, created and deposed all ministries, controlled the foreign policy of the nation, and claimed and often exercised the right of superseding the ordinary courts of justice. During the parliamentary recess, however, the executive remained in the hands of the
45:
1167:
570:, consisting, as before, of four distinct estates: nobles, priests, burgesses, and peasants. The conflicting interests of these four independent assemblies, who sat and deliberated apart and with their mutual jealousies, made the work of legislation exceptionally difficult. No measure could now become law until it had obtained the assent of at least three of the four estates.
285:
701:
802:
nickname "Reduction
Riksdag". The Caps succeeded in reducing the national debt, reducing wealth of the nobility in order to replenish the empty exchequer, and establishing an equilibrium between revenue and expenditure. The Caps also introduced additional reforms, the most remarkable of which was the
842:
included a secret clause requiring the contracting powers to uphold the existing
Swedish constitution as the swiftest means of subverting Swedish independence; and an alliance with the credulous Caps, or "the Patriots" as they were known in Russia, guaranteeing their constitution, was a corollary to
923:
The Great
Northern War left Sweden in a state of economic and demographic ruin at the start of the Age of Liberty. This period brought economic and social upheaval as well as industrial development. However, by the time the Age of Liberty ended in 1772, Sweden was by all objective measures a weaker
903:
ministers protested the result, in menacing terms, against any "reprisals" on the part of the triumphant faction, hastened the fall of the government. The Cap senate resigned en masse to escape impeachment, and an exclusively Hat ministry took its place. On 1 June, the "Reaction
Riksdag", as it was
801:
The Caps quickly ordered a budget report to be made, finding fraud on the part of the Hat government resulting in a large increase in the national debt and a depreciation of the note circulation to one-third of its face value. This report led to an all-round retrenchment, earning the parliament the
793:
met in 1760, Hat leaders managed to avoid impeachment after a session lasting twenty months, and the Hat government was bolstered for an additional four years. However, the Caps soon seized power in a meeting of the estates in 1765. The Cap leader, Ture
Rudbeck, was elected marshal of the Diet over
817:
Although no longer a great power, Sweden still took on many of the responsibilities of a great power, and, despite losing value, the prospect of a
Swedish alliance still held weight. Sweden's particular geographical position made it virtually invulnerable for six months out of the twelve, and its
866:
On the eve of the contest there was a general assembly of the Hats at the French embassy, where the Comte de ModĂŞne furnished them with 6,000,000 livres in return for a promise to reform the
Swedish constitution to increase the powers of the monarchy. On the other hand, a Russian minister became
708:
Since 1719, when the influence of the few great territorial families had been merged in a multitude of needy gentlemen, the first estate had become the nursery and afterwards the stronghold of an opposition at once noble and democratic which found its natural leaders in such men as Count
617:
acted with the recognition of Sweden's unequal status in this alliance. The Hats, however, aimed to restore Sweden to its former position as a great power. France supported the efforts of their ally to become a stronger military power and thus provided financial support to the Hats.
944:
policy errors by the various
Riksdag parties in power, as well as to technological and economic shifts which allowed Sweden's rivals and neighbours get ahead on the global stage. However, the agricultural reforms, the early industrial developments and the gradual change from
633:
seemed to favor the Hats' schemes. Despite the protests of the Caps, a project for the invasion of
Russian Finland was rushed through the premature Riksdag of 1740. On 20 July 1741, war was formally declared against Russia; a month later, the Diet was dissolved, and the
879:
due to the city being more accessible to the
Russian fleet. It quickly became evident that the Caps had misstepped, and when the Riksdag met at Norrköping on 19 April, they found themselves in a minority in all four estates. In the contest for speaker of the Riksdag
837:
in the north drove the younger Caps to seek an alliance with Russia. This policy backfired, as France's distance to Sweden had left Sweden outside the territorial ambitions of France. Russia, on the other hand, saw Swedish land as a potential area of expansion. The
908:
called upon the new Privy Councillors to redeem their promise to reform the constitution. When, at the end of the session, they half-heartedly brought the matter forward, but it did not proceed, with the Reaction Riksdag disbanding on 30 January 1770.
717:. These men and their followers were never weary of ridiculing the timid caution of the aged statesman who sacrificed everything to perpetuate an inglorious peace and derisively nicknamed his adherents "Night-caps" (a term subsequently softened into "
418:
became king, and in 1697, when he was only 15 years old, he was proclaimed to be of age and took over the rule from the provisional government. The states in which Sweden's expansion into a great power had primarily been at the expense of
642:
and captured the fortress. Neither side had major offensive achievements in the following six months, during which time the Swedish generals made a "tacit truce" with the Russians through the mediation of the French ambassador at
846:
The domination of the Caps was short-lived. The general distress caused by their drastic reforms had found expression in pamphlets criticizing the Cap government, which were protected under the new press laws. The
789:
would give little trouble to a European coalition), proved inadequate. After five unsuccessful campaigns, the Hats were forced to make peace, with Sweden having lost approximately 40,000 men. When the
833:
Neutrality, a relative commitment to defensive alliances, and commercial treaties with the maritime powers, became the basis of the older Caps' foreign policy. However, the Hats' relationship with
732:
These epithets instantly caught the public fancy and had already become party badges when the estates met in 1738. This Riksdag was to mark another turning-point in Swedish history. In the
435:
in Norway in 1718, Charles XII was killed, after which most hostilities in the West ended. At the beginning of 1719, peace overtures were made to Britain, Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark.
1133:
396:. Although the taxed peasantry was represented in the Parliament, its influence was disproportionately small, and commoners without taxed property had no suffrage at all.
638:
set off to Finland to take command of the army. The first major battle occurred six months after the declaration of war when the Russians routed the Swedes in Finland at
431:
two years later with the aim of partitioning Sweden. After initial successes, Sweden's army was eventually reduced while the list of enemies grew. In a Swedish siege of
918:
863:, leaving Sweden without a regular government between December 15–21, 1768. Eventually, the Cap senate yielded and the estates were called for 19 April 1769.
2138:
859:, urged the senate to quickly summon a Riksdag in order to relive the national distress, but was refused, leading the king to abdicate. This resulted in the
647:. By the time that the "tacit truce" had come to an end the Swedish forces were so demoralized that the mere rumor of a hostile attack prompted a retreat to
1755:
1187:
313:
2320:
867:
kingdom's treasurer and a counsellor for the Caps. In return, the Caps openly threatened to use Russian force to punish their detractors, and designated
785:, which proved disastrous. The French subsidies, which might have sufficed for a shorter, six weeks campaign (it was generally assumed that the king of
678:, were elected successor to the Swedish crown. The Hats took the opportunity to recover the lost lands, as well as a bit of their own prestige. By the
2655:
2625:
1946:
439:
2630:
2557:
1272:
744:. The Hats carried everything before them, and the aged Horn, who had served thirty-three years, was finally compelled to retire from the scene.
2650:
2309:
1880:
2054:
774:, planned by the queen and a few devoted young nobles in 1756, was easily crushed, with Adolf Frederick nearly losing the throne in response.
1995:
1393:
1212:
1410:
658:
The Hats avoided a motion for an inquiry into the conduct of the war by shifting the focus of the Riksdag to the issue of succession. Queen
230:
2635:
2258:
1467:
798:, the Hat candidate, by a large majority; and, out of the hundred seats in the secret committee, the Hats succeeded in getting only ten.
2196:
2081:
1590:
1373:
181:
1513:
1405:
1400:
1318:
1313:
1144:
884:), the leaders of the two parties were again pitted against each other. The results of the previous Diet were exactly reversed, with
224:
218:
115:
96:
2111:
2086:
1182:
1303:
851:
retaliated with an order, which the king refused to sign, declaring that all complaints against the austerity measures of the last
579:, or speaker, who was now elected at the beginning of each Diet, but the archbishop was, ex officio, the talman of the clergy. The
84:
2645:
1472:
1368:
2640:
1363:
767:
367:
306:
175:
165:
2583:
1959:
954:
626:
2515:
2350:
1621:
1550:
249:
2211:
1939:
1669:
733:
622:
2374:
2059:
1740:
1631:
1528:
1378:
1265:
566:. Sweden also converted into the most limited of monarchies. All power was vested in the people as represented by the
275:
169:
2246:
1090:"Assessing Trade in the Mercantilist Era: Evidence From a New Database on Foreign Trade of Sweden–Finland, 1738–1805"
2540:
2535:
2236:
2226:
2096:
1980:
1693:
1388:
331:
299:
264:
259:
212:
206:
24:
2396:
2268:
2133:
2106:
2012:
1865:
1565:
1452:
1383:
1230:(4: Enlightened Loyalties: New Constructions of Loyalty and Identity in Late 18th-Century Scandinavia): 358–375.
839:
737:
671:
659:
551:
187:
2660:
2530:
2330:
2101:
1482:
1442:
1432:
759:
682:
on 7 May 1743 the terms of the empress were accepted and only the small part of Finland which lay beyond the
2481:
2466:
2401:
2221:
2201:
2027:
2017:
1932:
1644:
1457:
885:
848:
795:
584:
467:
1654:
2294:
2241:
2007:
1860:
1813:
1798:
1765:
1735:
1720:
1533:
1518:
1343:
1258:
1222:
Wolff, Charlotta (2007). "Aristocratic Republicanism and the Hate of Sovereignty in 18th-Century Sweden".
941:
876:
860:
852:
803:
790:
567:
447:
355:
254:
655:
was held by Russia. The Swedish fleet was struck by an epidemic, and thus contributed little to the war.
2416:
2335:
2253:
1745:
1730:
1616:
1538:
958:
663:
563:
558:
immediately after his death, was permitted to abdicate in favor of her husband Frederick, the prince of
547:
415:
2421:
2406:
2360:
2263:
2206:
2116:
2069:
1840:
1710:
1575:
1545:
905:
856:
741:
596:
428:
411:
389:
371:
729:
worn by officers and gentlemen, which was a display of the manly self-assertion of this opposition.
2496:
2438:
2386:
2345:
2315:
2184:
2170:
1975:
1750:
1725:
1674:
1555:
1523:
1477:
1420:
782:
763:
667:
515:
471:
420:
2576:
2501:
2453:
2443:
2355:
2282:
2216:
2121:
2091:
1990:
1967:
1870:
1845:
1705:
1664:
1585:
1580:
1501:
1487:
1437:
1348:
1328:
1298:
1239:
975:
970:
726:
714:
575:
459:
405:
393:
379:
59:
1134:"New Swedish Historical National Accounts Since the 16th Century in Constant and Current Prices"
2525:
2476:
2304:
2022:
1899:
1793:
1785:
1770:
1679:
1604:
1447:
1290:
1208:
1111:
980:
929:
819:
483:
451:
327:
33:
2599:
2552:
2520:
2426:
2391:
2037:
1808:
1659:
1626:
1231:
1101:
827:
679:
644:
507:
503:
347:
339:
2491:
2486:
2431:
2340:
2299:
1908:
1875:
1855:
1850:
1830:
1818:
1775:
1715:
1462:
937:
904:
generally called, withdrew to the capital; and the French ambassador and the crown prince
822:
possessions provided easy access to the Holy Roman Empire. Additionally, to the east, its
807:
710:
527:
511:
443:
44:
2163:
770:(reigned 1751–1771) supported a rebellion to restore the privileges of the monarchy. The
2604:
2231:
2049:
1835:
1323:
753:
630:
523:
424:
378:
in 1772. This shift of power from the monarch to parliament was a direct effect of the
363:
121:
928:
over the bar iron trade was gone, and it was lagging behind in the race towards early
2619:
2547:
1913:
1636:
1560:
1353:
1243:
1178:
1173:
933:
868:
625:. The unstable European political situation due to the almost simultaneous deaths of
519:
289:
146:
2325:
1823:
1649:
1358:
1338:
1308:
946:
881:
777:
That same year, the Hats saw a blow to their foreign policy. At the instigation of
771:
722:
718:
639:
610:
602:
580:
359:
90:
1106:
1089:
855:
should be punished with fine and imprisonment. The king, at the suggestion of the
531:
466:, which had come under Danish rule during the war, was retained by Sweden. By the
924:
nation than it was during its "Era of Great Power." Its land was diminished, its
2471:
2042:
2002:
1803:
432:
2032:
1985:
1235:
950:
695:
683:
614:
499:
65:
1191:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–221.
1115:
889:
872:
535:
495:
375:
2506:
2143:
2126:
925:
675:
648:
534:
was restored to Sweden. Sweden also received an indemnity of two million
479:
463:
442:
on 20 February 1719 and 1 February 1720, Hanover obtained the Duchies of
385:
888:
defeating Rudbeck by 234 votes, despite Russia spending at least 90,000
2590:
2148:
1955:
1570:
900:
896:
823:
786:
700:
652:
455:
953:
which occurred during this period and pioneered the path for Sweden's
538:
and a solemn undertaking of non-interference in her domestic affairs.
2461:
1760:
1281:
834:
811:
778:
666:
was old. Negotiations were thus opened with the new Russian empress,
606:
555:
491:
475:
1924:
806:
in 1766. In foreign policy, the parliament also allied Sweden with
670:, who agreed to restore the greater part of Finland if her cousin,
2411:
2153:
1250:
1172:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
699:
559:
487:
2158:
1928:
1254:
1071:
1069:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
1088:
Edvinsson, Rodney; Gad, Christoffer Tarek (2018-09-02).
609:
and Sweden. Chancery President, and member of the rival
605:
party was a return to the traditional alliance between
16:
Period of Swedish and Finnish history from 1719 to 1772
895:
A joint note presented to the estates by the Russian,
704:
Arvid Horn, President of the Privy Council Chancellery
2452:
2373:
2281:
2183:
2068:
1966:
1784:
1692:
1603:
1500:
1419:
1289:
494:to Sweden in exchange for an indemnity of 600,000
506:. Peace with Russia was achieved in 1721. By the
562:, who was elected king 1720 under the title of
587:, which was responsible to the Riksdag alone.
470:on 3 July 1720, peace was also signed between
1940:
1266:
307:
8:
919:Economic history of Sweden's Age of Liberty
2379:
2287:
2189:
2074:
1947:
1933:
1925:
1698:
1609:
1506:
1425:
1273:
1259:
1251:
651:. By the end of the year, the majority of
314:
300:
18:
1105:
1075:
1060:
1048:
1036:
1011:
932:. The decline can be attributed both to
997:
721:"), themselves adopting the sobriquet "
274:
32:
21:
892:to secure the election of the latter.
530:. Finland west of Viborg and north of
1132:Schön, Lennart; Krantz, Olle (2015).
7:
1205:The Age of Liberty: Sweden 1719–1772
1143:(140): 5, 11, 14, 16. Archived from
1127:
1125:
1094:Scandinavian Economic History Review
366:that began with the adoption of the
736:between 1733–1738 Sweden supported
662:had lately died childless and King
875:, as the place of meeting for the
502:and give up her protectorate over
498:; in return, Sweden would pay the
462:. Northern Swedish Pomerania with
14:
961:in the mid to late 19th century.
2656:1772 disestablishments in Sweden
2626:Sweden during the Age of Liberty
1165:
772:attempted monarchical revolution
554:, who had been elected queen of
283:
43:
1224:Scandinavian Journal of History
1141:Lund Papers in Economic History
2631:Early modern history of Sweden
2055:History of independent Finland
1207:. Cambridge University Press.
627:Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
1:
2651:1719 establishments in Sweden
1107:10.1080/03585522.2018.1516234
959:large scale industrialization
573:Each estate was ruled by its
250:History of the Jews in Sweden
1159:General and cited references
810:to counter the influence of
734:War of the Polish Succession
2636:Political history of Sweden
2677:
2310:Government-owned companies
1981:Finland under Swedish rule
1319:Rise to become Great Power
957:in the 1790s and eventual
916:
826:frontier was close to the
781:, Sweden entered into the
751:
693:
594:
514:, the Finnish province of
427:, formed a coalition with
403:
265:Economic history of Sweden
260:Military history of Sweden
2570:
2382:
2321:National income agreement
2290:
2192:
2077:
2013:Golden Age of Finnish Art
1893:
1701:
1612:
1509:
1428:
1236:10.1080/03468750701659392
1203:Roberts, Michael (2003).
796:Frederick Axel von Fersen
768:Adolf Frederick of Sweden
660:Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden
450:for herself and Southern
362:, and the decline of the
2197:Administrative divisions
840:1772 Partition of Poland
760:Louisa Ulrika of Prussia
686:was retained by Russia.
390:parliamentary government
368:Instrument of Government
354:) was a period that saw
2646:18th century in Finland
2028:Finland in World War II
2018:Independence of Finland
1514:Administrative division
1188:Encyclopædia Britannica
955:agricultural revolution
468:Treaty of Frederiksborg
410:Following the death of
370:in 1719 and ended with
358:governance, increasing
225:Second half of Cold War
2641:18th century in Sweden
1344:December Crisis (1768)
861:December Crisis (1768)
738:Stanislaus Leszczyński
705:
351:
343:
255:LGBT history in Sweden
830:at Saint Petersburg.
703:
564:Frederick I of Sweden
440:Treaties of Stockholm
2558:World Heritage Sites
1881:World Heritage Sites
1100:(3): 229, 230, 242.
804:liberty of the press
742:August III of Poland
458:for the confederate
433:Fredriksten Fortress
412:Charles XI of Sweden
116:Emerging Great Power
1622:Automotive industry
1369:Famine of 1867–1869
1364:Sweden–Norway union
1063:, pp. 207–208.
1051:, pp. 206–207.
764:Frederick the Great
668:Elizabeth of Russia
621:The Hats initiated
478:. Denmark returned
460:Brandenburg-Prussia
2351:Telecommunications
1991:Great Northern War
1670:Telecommunications
1655:Rehn–Meidner model
1468:Metropolitan areas
1349:Revolution of 1772
1329:Great Northern War
976:History of Germany
971:History of Finland
727:three-cornered hat
715:Carl Gustaf Tessin
706:
601:The policy of the
406:Great Northern War
400:Great Northern War
380:Great Northern War
2613:
2612:
2566:
2565:
2369:
2368:
2277:
2276:
2259:Political parties
2212:Foreign relations
2179:
2178:
1922:
1921:
1889:
1888:
1741:Human trafficking
1688:
1687:
1632:Income inequality
1599:
1598:
1591:Political parties
1529:Foreign relations
1496:
1495:
1379:Industrialization
1214:978-0-521-52707-1
981:History of Russia
930:industrialisation
597:Hats' Russian War
484:Further Pomerania
452:Swedish Pomerania
324:
323:
290:Sweden portal
182:Industrialization
147:Age of Absolutism
62:(12000 BC–800 AD)
2668:
2593:
2586:
2579:
2541:Independence Day
2531:National symbols
2380:
2288:
2190:
2082:Cities and towns
2075:
2060:Military history
2038:Continuation War
1949:
1942:
1935:
1926:
1902:
1699:
1640:
1610:
1507:
1426:
1275:
1268:
1261:
1252:
1247:
1218:
1192:
1171:
1169:
1168:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1119:
1109:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1015:
1009:
843:this agreement.
783:Seven Years' War
766:'s sister, King
672:Adolph Frederick
645:Saint Petersburg
508:Treaty of Nystad
504:Holstein-Gottorp
414:, his young son
316:
309:
302:
288:
287:
286:
47:
37:
19:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2661:Democratization
2616:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2596:
2589:
2582:
2575:
2562:
2536:Public holidays
2448:
2365:
2273:
2237:Law enforcement
2175:
2064:
1996:The Great Wrath
1962:
1953:
1923:
1918:
1905:
1898:
1885:
1866:Public holidays
1780:
1756:Life expectancy
1684:
1638:
1595:
1566:Law enforcement
1492:
1415:
1285:
1279:
1221:
1215:
1202:
1199:
1197:Further reading
1181:, ed. (1911). "
1177:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1155:
1150:on 16 May 2019.
1147:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1123:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1018:
1010:
999:
994:
989:
967:
921:
915:
828:Russian capital
756:
750:
711:Carl Gyllenborg
698:
692:
623:war with Russia
599:
593:
552:Ulrika Eleonora
546:Early in 1720,
544:
510:, Sweden ceded
408:
402:
332:Finnish history
320:
284:
282:
270:
269:
245:
237:
236:
207:Interwar period
202:
194:
193:
176:United Kingdoms
161:
153:
152:
136:
128:
127:
111:
103:
102:
80:
72:
71:
55:
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2674:
2672:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2618:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2595:
2594:
2587:
2580:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2444:Welfare system
2441:
2436:
2435:
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1374:Modernization
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680:Treaty of Ă…bo
677:
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669:
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624:
619:
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613:party, Count
612:
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591:Hats and Caps
590:
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586:
585:Privy Council
582:
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569:
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561:
557:
553:
549:
548:Charles XII's
541:
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520:Viborg Castle
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365:
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357:
356:parliamentary
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352:vapauden aika
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329:
317:
312:
310:
305:
303:
298:
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231:Post-Cold War
229:
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135:Enlightenment
132:
131:
123:
120:
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107:
106:
98:
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79:Consolidation
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61:
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50:
46:
42:
41:
38:
31:
26:
20:
2591:Bibliography
2508:The Kalevala
2507:
2482:Coat of arms
2467:Architecture
2402:Demographics
2326:Nordic model
2300:Central bank
2222:Human rights
2202:Constitution
1861:National Day
1814:Coat of arms
1799:Architecture
1766:Prostitution
1736:Homelessness
1721:Demographics
1650:Nordic model
1534:Human rights
1519:Constitution
1389:World War II
1359:Coup of 1809
1339:Coup of 1756
1333:
1309:Kalmar Union
1227:
1223:
1204:
1186:
1145:the original
1140:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1056:
1044:
947:mercantilism
922:
894:
882:Lantmarskalk
865:
857:crown prince
845:
832:
816:
800:
776:
757:
731:
707:
657:
640:Lappeenranta
636:lantmarskalk
635:
629:and Empress
620:
600:
581:lantmarskalk
574:
572:
545:
437:
409:
384:
360:civil rights
344:frihetstiden
335:
325:
213:World War II
166:Constitution
140:
91:Kalmar Union
2295:Agriculture
2139:Urban areas
2043:Lapland War
2008:Grand Duchy
2003:Finnish War
1746:Immigration
1617:Agriculture
1571:Legislature
1539:LGBT rights
1384:World War I
725:" from the
522:to Russia,
500:Sound tolls
416:Charles XII
227:(1967–1991)
221:(1945–1967)
215:(1939–1945)
209:(1918–1939)
190:(1914–1918)
188:World War I
184:(1866–1914)
178:(1814–1905)
172:(1809–1866)
149:(1772–1809)
143:(1718–1772)
124:(1648–1718)
118:(1611–1648)
110:Great Power
99:(1521–1611)
93:(1397–1521)
87:(1050–1397)
85:Middle Ages
54:Prehistoric
34:History of
2620:Categories
2502:Literature
2417:Healthcare
2254:Parliament
2217:Government
2033:Winter War
1986:Cudgel War
1976:Prehistory
1846:Literature
1841:Irreligion
1731:Healthcare
1711:Censorship
1639:(currency)
1586:Neutrality
1546:Government
1411:Since 1991
1299:Prehistory
987:References
951:free trade
886:von Fersen
869:Norrköping
820:Pomeranian
713:and Count
696:Arvid Horn
690:Arvid Horn
684:Kymi River
615:Arvid Horn
595:See also:
388:under the
372:Gustav III
68:(800–1050)
66:Viking Age
60:Prehistory
2526:Mythology
2422:Languages
2407:Education
2361:Transport
2264:President
2227:Judiciary
2207:Elections
2164:Jyväskylä
2117:Provinces
2070:Geography
2023:Civil War
1751:Languages
1726:Education
1675:Transport
1556:Judiciary
1524:Elections
1478:Provinces
1421:Geography
1406:1967–1991
1401:1945–1967
1314:1523–1611
1244:144282078
1116:0358-5522
992:Citations
942:executive
890:Riksdaler
873:Stockholm
664:Frederick
536:Riksdaler
532:Käkisalmi
496:Riksdaler
394:universal
376:self-coup
2600:Category
2497:Folklore
2439:Religion
2387:Abortion
2346:Taxation
2336:Startups
2316:Industry
2242:Military
2185:Politics
2171:Wildlife
2144:Helsinki
1960:articles
1909:Category
1871:Religion
1706:Abortion
1665:Taxation
1581:Monarchy
1576:Military
1502:Politics
1488:Wildlife
1438:Counties
1394:timeline
1304:800–1521
965:See also
938:monetary
926:monopoly
897:Prussian
740:against
676:Holstein
649:Helsinki
550:sister,
392:was not
386:Suffrage
276:Timeline
25:a series
23:Part of
2577:Outline
2487:Cuisine
2454:Culture
2432:Swedish
2427:Finnish
2375:Society
2356:Tourism
2283:Economy
2149:Tampere
2122:Regions
2097:Islands
2092:Geology
1968:History
1956:Finland
1900:Outline
1831:Fashion
1819:Cuisine
1786:Culture
1771:Welfare
1694:Society
1680:Tourism
1605:Economy
1453:Islands
1448:Forests
1291:History
1176::
913:Economy
877:Riksdag
853:Riksdag
824:Finnish
791:Riksdag
787:Prussia
653:Finland
568:Riksdag
528:Estonia
516:Kexholm
512:Livonia
472:Denmark
456:Stettin
438:By the
421:Denmark
348:Finnish
340:Swedish
328:Swedish
244:Topical
2605:Portal
2477:Cinema
2462:Anthem
2314:
2305:Energy
2134:Rivers
1958:
1914:Portal
1809:Cinema
1794:Anthem
1761:People
1637:Krona
1627:Energy
1483:Rivers
1433:Cities
1282:Sweden
1242:
1211:
1183:Sweden
1170:
1114:
934:fiscal
906:Gustav
901:Danish
849:senate
835:France
812:France
808:Russia
779:France
607:France
576:talman
556:Sweden
526:, and
524:Ingria
518:, and
492:Wismar
490:, and
476:Sweden
448:Verden
444:Bremen
429:Saxony
425:Russia
334:, the
201:Modern
36:Sweden
27:on the
2584:Index
2553:Sport
2548:Sauna
2521:Music
2516:Media
2412:Finns
2392:Crime
2154:Turku
2127:Ă…land
2102:Lakes
1876:Sport
1856:Music
1851:Media
1776:Women
1716:Crime
1463:Lands
1458:Lakes
1240:S2CID
1148:(PDF)
1137:(PDF)
560:Hesse
488:Peene
480:RĂĽgen
464:RĂĽgen
454:with
170:Union
2492:Flag
2247:NATO
2159:Oulu
1836:Flag
1824:Wine
1209:ISBN
1112:ISSN
940:and
899:and
723:Hats
719:Caps
611:Caps
603:Hats
474:and
446:and
423:and
330:and
168:and
2472:Art
2232:Law
1804:Art
1561:Law
1232:doi
1185:".
1102:doi
949:to
674:of
374:'s
326:In
2622::
1238:.
1228:32
1226:.
1139:.
1124:^
1110:.
1098:66
1096:.
1092:.
1068:^
1019:^
1000:^
936:,
814:.
762:,
482:,
382:.
350::
346:;
342::
1948:e
1941:t
1934:v
1274:e
1267:t
1260:v
1246:.
1234::
1217:.
1118:.
1104::
880:(
338:(
315:e
308:t
301:v
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