655:
1413:
1386:
1356:
525:
183:
1548:
1515:
1144:
1036:
1673:
1211:
1439:
1168:
951:
77:. Non-nuclear submarines running on battery power or AIP, on the other hand, can be virtually silent. While nuclear-powered designs still dominate in submergence times, speed, range and deep-ocean performance, small, high-tech non-nuclear attack submarines can be highly effective in coastal operations and pose a significant threat to less-stealthy and less-maneuverable nuclear submarines.
1180:
1156:
1116:
1049:
1002:
639:
1061:
1092:
969:
1739:
1706:
1647:
1618:
1497:
1465:
921:
1592:
1566:
1338:
1309:
1276:
1258:
1229:
1104:
131:
335:). By late 1951 the Navy realized that while the competing nuclear designs were heavier due to shielding, they were more compact than the three AIP plants: the SSX would be longer than the SSN by nearly 40 feet. The SSN would likely be quieter and less complicated than the AIP technology of this time. By 1952 the
144:
In the development of the submarine, the problem of finding satisfactory forms of propulsion underwater has been persistent. The earliest submarines were man-powered with hand-cranked propellers, which quickly used up the air inside; these vessels had to move for much of the time on the surface with
2881:
United States Navy
Glossary of Naval Ship Terms (GNST). SSI is sometimes used, but SSP has been declared the preferred term by the USN. SSK (ASW Submarine) as a designator for classic diesel-electric submarines was retired by the USN in the 1950s, but continues to be used colloquially by the USN and
507:
Each MESMA system costs around $ 50â60 million. As installed on the ScorpĂšnes, it requires adding an 8.3-metre (27 ft), 305-tonne hull section to the submarine, and results in a submarine able to operate for greater than 21 days underwater, depending on variables such as speed. On the Agosta
841:
Air-independent propulsion is a term normally used in the context of improving the performance of conventionally propelled submarines. However, as an auxiliary power supply, nuclear power falls into the technical definition of AIP. For example, a proposal to use a small 200-kilowatt reactor for
620:, was launched on 5 December 2007 and delivered to the navy in March 2009. The eleventh of the class is the first one that is equipped with lithium-ion batteries without a Stirling engine. This submarine may have a range from AIP of 6500 nautical miles and can remain submerged for 40 days.
342:
The USSR and the UK, the only other countries known to be experimenting with the technology at that time, also abandoned it when the US developed the nuclear reactor small enough for submarine propulsion. Other nations, including
Germany and Sweden, would later recommence AIP development.
442:: a 32D 900 bhp (670 kW) diesel on the centre shaft and two M-50P 700 bhp (520 kW) diesels on the outer shafts. In addition a 100 hp (75 kW) "creep" motor was coupled to the centre shaft. The boat could be run at slow speed using the centreline diesel only.
680:
from a fuel and oxidiser into electricity. Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel (such as hydrogen) and oxygen, which are carried in the vessel in pressurized tanks, to sustain the chemical reaction. Nine of these units are incorporated into
220:
Several experimental boats were produced, though the work did not mature into any viable combat vessels. One drawback was the instability and scarcity of the fuel involved. Another was that while the system produced high underwater speeds, it was extravagant with fuel; the first boat,
145:
hatches open, or use some form of breathing tube, both inherently dangerous and resulting in a number of early accidents. Later, mechanically driven vessels used compressed air or steam, or electricity, which had to be re-charged from shore or from an on-board aerobic engine.
322:
The second U.S. Navy project was of a full sized AIP submarine under SCB 67 in 1950, later SCB 67A. This submarine, designated SSX, would have one of three propulsion plants under development: a
Walther open cycle hydrogen peroxide plant (termed
173:
Air independent propulsion (non-nuclear) can take various forms. All currently active AIP submarines require oxygen for AIP, which is commonly stored as a liquid (LOX). AIP submarine range is primarily limited by the amount of LOX it can carry.
2578:
437:
In the Soviet system, called a "single propulsion system", oxygen was added after the exhaust gases had been filtered through a lime-based chemical absorbent. The submarine could also run its diesel using a snorkel. The Quebec had three
721:
After the success of
Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG in its export activities, several builders developed fuel-cell auxiliary units for submarines, but as of 2008 no other shipyard has a contract for a submarine so equipped.
515:
notes that: "although MESMA can provide higher output power than the other alternatives, its inherent efficiency is the lowest of the four AIP candidates, and its rate of oxygen consumption is correspondingly higher."
88:. The submarine's electrical system is also used for providing "hotel services"âventilation, lighting, heating etc.âalthough this consumes a small amount of power compared to that required for propulsion.
2587:
73:; although some modern submarine reactors are designed to rely on natural circulation, most naval nuclear reactors use pumps to constantly circulate the reactor coolant, generating some amount of
718:, use two 120 kW (160 hp) modules, also from Siemens. The Type 212 can remain submerged for 21 days; one such submarine conducted a 1600 nautical mile journey solely on AIP in 2016.
315:, which was launched in September 1955. It was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957.
445:
Because liquid oxygen cannot be stored indefinitely, these boats could not operate far from a base. It was dangerous; at least seven submarines suffered explosions, and one of these,
2251:
165:
These two approaches, the use of a fuel that provides energy to an open-cycle system, and the provision of oxygen to an aerobic engine in a closed cycle, characterize AIP today.
2745:
2155:
2715:
1820:
2218:
756:
as fuel, and oxygen (stored as a liquid in a high pressure cryogenic tank), generating hydrogen as a sub-product. The produced hydrogen and more oxygen is fed to the
496:
and oxygen. Specifically, a conventional steam turbine power plant is powered by steam generated from the combustion of ethanol and stored oxygen at a pressure of 60
451:, sank following an explosion and fire. They were sometimes nicknamed cigarette lighters. The last submarine using this technology was scrapped in the early 1970s.
2923:
434:
submarine, of which thirty were built between 1953 and 1956. These had three diesel enginesâtwo were conventional and one was closed cycle using liquid oxygen.
2606:
1242:
775:
737:) consisting of a reaction chamber and several intermediate Coprox reactors, that transform the BioEtOH into high purity hydrogen. The output feeds a series of
659:
1847:
History of rocketry and astronautics: proceedings of the third through the sixth
History Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics, Volumen 1
654:
2112:
2447:
508:
90B, the AIP system allows the submarine to operate 16 days under water and gives it a range of 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km; 1,600 mi).
339:
were so far along in development it appeared that the SSX submarine would not be needed as a stopgap. The project was cancelled on 26 October 1953.
84:
handling surface propulsion. Most such systems generate electricity, which in turn drives an electric motor for propulsion or recharges the boat's
2811:
1450:
1454:
614:
Kockums also delivered
Stirling engines to Japan. Ten Japanese submarines were equipped with Stirling engines. The first submarine in the class,
2937:
2192:
2288:
291:
805:-class submarines will be retrofitted with AIP during their first upgrade. It produces electricity by reacting with hydrogen generated from
2086:
1369:
764:
2642:
2358:
1717:
1684:
771:
571:
271:
was not popular with its crews, who regarded it as dangerous and volatile; she was officially described as 75% safe. The reputations of
2954:
2623:
2340:
2322:
210:, employing steam heated by burning diesel fuel in the steam/oxygen atmosphere created by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by a
187:
2793:
2905:
2499:
2474:
2022:
1922:
1854:
1537:
2753:
2841:
107:
maximum, and an AIP source around 10% of that. A nuclear submarine's propulsion plant is usually much greater than 20 megawatts.
2931:(M.S. Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering and M.S. Mechanical Engineering thesis). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
2749:
1695:
630:
has the
Stirling AIP system as its main energy source. The submerged endurance will be more than 18 days at 5 knots using AIP.
590:
358:
2723:
1824:
2306:"The Nuclear Battery: A Solid-State, Passively Cooled Reactor for the Generation of Electricity and/or High-Grade Steam Heat"
1947:
1804:
1247:
791:
2051:
2402:
690:
682:
63:
2992:
2541:
Bundesanstalt fĂŒr
Wasserbau, Wehrtechnische Dienststelle fĂŒr Schiffe und Marinewaffen Eckernförde, 23. September 2008.
1532:
986:
384:, when submerged. Since the metal of an engine would burn in pure oxygen, the oxygen is usually diluted with recycled
2603:
2537:
1327:
1194:
798:
615:
489:
1268:
6 modules planned to be integrated during the mid-life refit of each submarine, which is set to commence from 2024.
2987:
2178:
1073:
302:
156:
115:
427:
midget submarine, the Type XVIIK and Type XXVIIK respectively, though neither was completed before the war's end.
225:, required 28 tons of fuel to travel 50 nautical miles (93 kilometres), and the final designs were little better.
2982:
1289:
836:
787:
1728:
1298:
892:
As of 2017, some 10 nations are building AIP submarines with almost 20 nations operating AIP based submarines:
817:
624:
396:
254:
2551:
1963:
414:
experimented with such a system as an alternative to the Walter peroxide system, designing variants of their
1895:
1636:
1631:
1558:
2 module operational, with 1 under trials. 3 more modules planned, with the first to enter service by 2028.
1293:
991:
704:
541:
1507:
None currently operational, with indications of no future plans to install them on submarines, as of 2019.
1662:
1428:
940:
854:
597:
482:
446:
431:
211:
2323:"Pakistan Gains Edge In AIP Technology; Can It Overwhelm Indian Navy Submarines In Underwater Conflicts?"
2775:
1017:
560:
287:
100:
85:
2819:
1769:
524:
52:
2696:
2668:
1584:
1485:
726:
2945:
1478:
853:
Nuclear reactors have been used since the 1950s to power submarines. The first such submarine was
2882:
formally by navies of the
British Commonwealth and corporations such as Jane's Information Group.
2362:
1401:
1374:
1203:
1136:
1084:
1028:
806:
715:
711:
696:
643:
492:. It is essentially a modified version of their nuclear propulsion system with heat generated by
462:
459:
395:
In the late 1930s the Soviet Union experimented with closed-cycle engines, and a number of small
203:
111:
74:
2252:"DRDO and Naval Group France sign pact to fit indigenous AIP system on Kalvari class submarines"
779:
148:
The earliest attempt at a fuel that would burn anaerobically was in 1867, when
Spanish engineer
2311:. Pinawa, Manitoba: Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
2901:
2495:
2470:
2284:
2278:
2226:
2018:
1943:
1918:
1850:
1800:
832:
742:
497:
149:
92:
70:
59:
44:
2515:
2384:
1888:
1602:
Four modules planned to be integrated, with the first module planned to be installed on the
552:
415:
351:
350:
by the British and the Soviet Union, although hastily abandoned by the former following the
306:
119:
1865:
884:
are the only countries to have built and operated nuclear-powered submarines successfully.
559:
to drive 75 kW electrical generators for either propulsion or charging batteries. The
118:"SSP" to designate boats powered by AIP, while retaining "SSK" for classic diesel-electric
2610:
2429:
847:
810:
677:
400:
336:
199:
96:
17:
376:
which can be operated conventionally on the surface, but which can also be provided with
103:
than a conventionally propelled submarine. A typical conventional power plant provides 3
95:
by inserting an additional hull section. AIP does not typically provide the endurance or
182:
2492:
East Asian Naval Weapons Acquisitions in the 1990s: Causes, Consequences, and Responses
1914:
877:
501:
152:
successfully developed a chemically powered anaerobic or air independent steam engine.
2849:
2976:
2130:
881:
746:
556:
381:
373:
261:
247:
229:
207:
81:
467:(launched 1967) was fitted with an experimental 3,000 hp (2,200 kW) unit.
27:
Propulsion system for submarines which operates without access to atmospheric oxygen
2925:
A Design Tool for the Evaluation of Atmosphere Independent Propulsion in Submarines
1528:
730:
548:
409:
283:
239:
195:
162:, which used a gasoline engine fed with compressed air and exhausted under water.
1849:. NASA conference publication. American Astronautical Society by Univelt, p. 85.
1610:(S-81) and Narciso Monturiol (S-82) during its respective maintenance overhauls.
1221:
4 modules planned, of which two are slated to enter operational service by 2023.
567:(5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h), with an approximate range of 1700 nautical miles.
1553:
1520:
1149:
1041:
935:
700:
647:
564:
455:
439:
385:
2058:
638:
2039:
Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines
1797:
Cold War submarines: the design and construction of U.S. and Soviet submarines
753:
673:
669:
243:
136:
2467:
Naval Strategy in Northeast Asia: Geo-strategic Goals, Policies and Prospects
2230:
2219:"Key indigenous technology for submarines crosses important milestone: DRDO"
1678:
1216:
757:
738:
235:
48:
2938:"Air-Independent Propulsion: AIP Technology Creates a New Undersea Threat"
703:. The other boats of this class and HDW's AIP equipped export submarines,
2280:
Through a Canadian Periscope: The Story of the Canadian Submarine Service
2113:"Japanese Submarines Exchange Stirling Engines for Lithium-ion Batteries"
1579:
1444:
1173:
956:
214:
104:
2955:"Sweden Has A Sub That's So Deadly The US Navy Hired It To Play Bad Guy"
481:) system is offered by French shipyard DCNS. MESMA is available for the
80:
AIP is usually implemented as an auxiliary source, with the traditional
1130:
Norway plans to procure four submarines based on the Type 212 by 2025.
1097:
982:
974:
783:
734:
537:
493:
419:
377:
364:
were due to accidents involving hydrogen peroxide propelled torpedoes.
347:
279:
were little better; the boats were nicknamed Excruciater and Exploder.
130:
2716:"No Plans To Equip Russian Lada-Class Submarines With AIP-Constructor"
2448:"Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's - IHS"
2305:
1744:
1711:
1652:
1623:
1502:
1470:
1185:
1161:
1121:
1054:
1007:
926:
873:
865:
763:
China has been researching fuel cell engines for AIP submarines. The
504:
to be expelled overboard at any depth without an exhaust compressor.
310:
55:
1606:(S-83) during its construction, while AIP retrofits are planned for
403:
system, but none were completed before the German invasion in 1941.
2613:, Undersecretariat for Defence Industries of the Republic of Turkey
1967:
1795:
Polmar, Norman (2004). "10: Second Generation Nuclear Submarines".
99:
to replace atmospheric dependent propulsion, but allows for longer
1889:"Canada's Under-ice Options: Submarine Air-Independent Propulsion"
1597:
1571:
1418:
1391:
1361:
1343:
1314:
1281:
1263:
1234:
1109:
1066:
869:
861:
767:
reportedly developed 100 kW and 1 MW fuel cell engines.
686:
663:
653:
637:
523:
389:
181:
129:
2341:"Meet Israel's Super Dolphin-Class Submarine (Armed with Nukes?)"
850:"âcould improve the under-ice capability of Canadian submarines.
843:
733:
is based on a bioethanol-processor (provided by Hynergreen from
2087:"India Looks to Modify Scorpene Subs With MESMA AIP Propulsion"
2156:"Armada Española - Ministerio de Defensa - Gobierno de España"
69:
Modern non-nuclear submarines are potentially stealthier than
2776:"KSS-III (Jangbogo-III) Class Attack Submarines, South Korea"
1449:
8 modules planned, with the first four to be integrated by
1016:-II submarines. Three more planned to enter service on the
301:, and went on to begin two AIP submarine projects. Project
253:. The British built two improved models in the late 1950s,
1911:
Dönitz's last gamble: the inshore U-boat campaign, 1944â45
2898:
U.S. Submarines Since 1945: An Illustrated Design History
1942:. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing. pp. 326â327.
2430:"Chang Bogo Class Patrol Submarine - Military-Today.com"
1457:. First module estimated to become operational by 2023.
2812:"The Gotland class submarine - submerged several weeks"
2624:"TKMS Launches Two Type 218SG Submarines For Singapore"
658:
A diagram of the fuel-cell AIP module developed by the
2900:. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute.
2794:"First Spanish S-80 Plus submarine starts sea trials"
2193:"Indian-built Scorpene to carry critical DRDO system"
563:
of the 1,500-tonne boats is around 14 days at 5
2842:"Kockums receives Singapore order to two submarines"
2361:. israeldefense.com. 31 October 2011. Archived from
1940:
The Illustrated Directory of Submarines of the World
1012:
3 modules currently in operational service with the
596:, and two others are in service in Singapore as the
577:
submarines with a Stirling AIP plugin section. Two (
2577:Dr. Albert E. Hammerschmidt(Siemens AG, Erlangen),
430:After the war the USSR developed the small 650-ton
2385:"First Look At Israeli Navy Dakar Class Submarine"
1966:. Historic Naval Ships Association. Archived from
1072:1 confirmed retrofit with AIP, up to 9 additional
297:The United States also received a Type XVII boat,
206:as their source of oxygen under water. These used
2944:, no. 13, United States Navy, archived from
1799:(1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books.
1190:13 active / 2 under construction / 8 more planned
392:replaces exhaust gas when the engine is started.
140:, Monturiol's pioneering submarine, in Barcelona.
2516:"Classe Todaro page at Marina Militare website"
1821:"Tomorrow's Submarines: the Non-Nuclear Option"
155:In 1908 the Imperial Russian Navy launched the
91:AIP can be retrofitted into existing submarine
2538:Die Brennstoffzelle auf U 212 A (PDF, German).
2643:"Scorpene submarine programme makes progress"
2403:"The Odyssey: Greece's U-214 Submarine Order"
1243:Defence Research and Development Organisation
776:Defence Research and Development Organisation
584:
578:
570:Kockums refurbished and upgraded the Swedish
8:
2552:"German TKMS will build Norway's submarines"
476:
421:
407:
2359:"Sixth Submarine: "The Contract Continues""
1882:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
242:, was salvaged and recommissioned into the
2697:"Profile: Pakistan's New Hangor Submarine"
1938:Miller, David (2002). "Explorer â class".
894:
319:was later converted to a diesel-electric.
286:also experimented with the technology and
204:high-test (concentrated) hydrogen peroxide
2750:Defense Agency for Technology and Quality
2691:
2689:
2081:
2079:
2000:
1988:
745:(which also supplied fuel cells for the
2874:
2304:Kozier, K. S.; Rosinger, H. E. (1988).
1761:
357:tragedy. Both this and the loss of the
202:experimented with submarines that used
186:X-1 midget submarine on display at the
1866:A steam powered submarine: the IctĂneo
1396:15 completed and 5 under construction
500:. This pressure-firing allows exhaust
290:which utilized hydrogen peroxide in a
47:technology that allows a non-nuclear
7:
2746:"ì„ëłŽêł -III Batch-I ì”ìŽìì° ì돎íš, ì¶ë ì€ëč ë!"
1193:3 Turkish orders are being built at
765:Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
478:Module d'Energie Sous-Marin Autonome
2752:. 22 September 2023. Archived from
2714:Archus, Dorian (17 December 2019).
2277:Julie H. Ferguson (10 March 2014).
823:are also equipped with fuel cells.
772:Naval Materials Research Laboratory
2953:Rogoway, Tyler (23 October 2014).
2580:Fuel Cell Propulsion of Submarines
2490:Meconis, Charles; Wallace (2000).
961:3 modules in operational service.
589:) are in service in Sweden as the
551:that are fitted with an auxiliary
228:After the war one Type XVII boat,
188:Submarine Force Library and Museum
62:). AIP can augment or replace the
25:
2641:Peri, Dinakar (2 February 2018).
2037:Norman Polmar, Kenneth J. Moore.
1868:Low-tech Magazine, 24 August 2008
676:unit, a device that converts the
372:This technology uses a submarine
64:diesel-electric propulsion system
2936:Whitman, Edward C. (Fall 2001),
2922:Thornton, LCDR Grant B. (1994).
2669:"World survey of AIP submarines"
2604:New Type Submarine (AIP) Project
1737:
1704:
1671:
1645:
1616:
1590:
1564:
1546:
1513:
1495:
1463:
1437:
1411:
1384:
1354:
1336:
1307:
1274:
1256:
1227:
1209:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1059:
1047:
1034:
1000:
967:
949:
919:
650:, equipped with a fuel-cell AIP.
327:), a liquid oxygen steam plant (
672:has developed a 30â50 kilowatt
406:During World War II the German
346:It was retained for propelling
288:one experimental boat was built
2175:China's Military Modernization
1823:. DefenseWatch. Archived from
1:
860:commissioned in 1954. Today,
786:has developed a 270 kilowatt
399:vessels were built using the
51:to operate without access to
2017:. Brown Books. p. 100.
1887:Meredith, Iain (2017â2018).
1370:711 Research Institute-CSHGC
913:Numbers with AIP, and notes
683:Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft
555:that burns diesel fuel with
2173:Fisher, Richard D. (2008).
1909:Paterson, Lawrence (2008).
1533:HD Hyundai Heavy Industries
725:The AIP implemented on the
471:Closed-cycle steam turbines
368:Closed-cycle diesel engines
331:), and an AIP gas turbine (
3009:
2179:Greenwood Publishing Group
1716:2 active (retrofit of the
1683:2 active (retrofit of the
1419:People's Republic of China
1392:People's Republic of China
1362:People's Republic of China
1127:10 active / 8 more planned
888:Non-nuclear AIP submarines
842:auxiliary powerâstyled by
830:
813:acting as an electrolyte.
305:developed an experimental
116:hull classification symbol
33:Air-independent propulsion
18:Air independent propulsion
2896:Friedman, Norman (1994).
2469:. Routledge. p. 30.
1845:Cargill Hall, R. (1986).
1630:
1627:
1614:
1527:
1524:
1511:
1477:
1474:
1461:
1368:
1365:
1352:
1288:
1285:
1272:
981:
978:
965:
934:
931:
917:
837:Nuclear marine propulsion
797:, which are based on the
788:phosphoric acid fuel cell
752:The reformer is fed with
513:Undersea Warfare Magazine
490:ScorpĂšne-class submarines
58:(by surfacing or using a
2780:www.naval-technology.com
2494:. Praeger. p. 229.
2283:. Dundurn. p. 363.
2131:"U212 / U214 Submarines"
2013:Preston, Antony (1998).
536:The Swedish shipbuilder
66:of non-nuclear vessels.
1896:Canadian Forces College
1453:and the latter four by
1423:Experimental submarine
809:and stored oxygen with
359:Russian submarine
2434:www.military-today.com
2407:Defense Industry Daily
2091:Defense Industry Daily
1776:. Alexandria, Virginia
1197:. 3 more are planned.
1023:, starting from 2031.
778:in collaboration with
666:
651:
585:
579:
533:
520:Stirling cycle engines
477:
422:
408:
212:potassium permanganate
191:
141:
2327:www.eurasiantimes.com
2160:armada.defensa.gob.es
1195:GölcĂŒk Naval Shipyard
657:
641:
527:
185:
133:
41:air-independent power
2726:on 23 September 2020
2609:22 July 2011 at the
2465:Kim, Duk-Ki (2000).
2345:nationalinterest.org
2181:. pp. 111, 150.
816:The Portuguese Navy
790:(PAFC) to power the
695:, lead ship for the
561:underwater endurance
380:, usually stored as
190:in the United States
101:underwater endurance
2756:on 8 September 2023
2703:. 11 November 2019.
2630:. 13 December 2022.
2119:. 31 December 2019.
2064:on 15 November 2008
1991:, pp. 217â222.
1479:Rubin Design Bureau
1079:possibly retrofit.
907:Submarines with AIP
780:Larsen & Toubro
2993:Spanish inventions
2948:on 8 December 2007
2452:articles.janes.com
2391:. 21 January 2022.
2365:on 21 October 2013
2347:. 27 January 2019.
2256:The Indian Express
1774:GlobalSecurity.org
807:sodium borohydride
667:
652:
644:Type 212 submarine
540:constructed three
534:
475:The French MESMA (
460:Type 205 submarine
192:
178:Open-cycle systems
142:
112:United States Navy
71:nuclear submarines
2988:Marine propulsion
2628:www.navalnews.com
2558:. 3 February 2017
2329:. 23 August 2021.
2290:978-1-4597-1056-6
2258:. 24 January 2023
2199:. 3 November 2014
2117:SWZ|Maritime
2015:Submarine Warfare
2003:, pp. 47â48.
1970:on 18 August 2013
1753:
1752:
1554:Republic of Korea
1539:Dosan Ahn Changho
1521:Republic of Korea
1021:-class submarines
833:Nuclear submarine
821:-class submarines
795:-class submarines
743:Collins Aerospace
545:-class submarines
234:, which had been
150:Narciso Monturiol
120:attack submarines
45:marine propulsion
16:(Redirected from
3000:
2983:Submarine design
2969:
2967:
2965:
2949:
2942:Undersea Warfare
2932:
2930:
2911:
2883:
2879:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2848:. Archived from
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2822:on 25 April 2011
2818:. Archived from
2808:
2802:
2801:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2722:. Archived from
2711:
2705:
2704:
2693:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2620:
2614:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2586:, archived from
2585:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2548:
2542:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2409:. 8 October 2014
2399:
2393:
2392:
2389:www.hisutton.com
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2225:. 9 March 2021.
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2135:Naval Technology
2127:
2121:
2120:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2083:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2063:
2057:. Archived from
2056:
2048:
2042:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1913:. Barnsley, UK:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1884:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1766:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1732:-class submarine
1710:
1708:
1707:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1313:
1311:
1310:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1096:
1094:
1093:
1065:
1063:
1062:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1037:
1029:Type 209-1400mod
1006:
1004:
1003:
973:
971:
970:
955:
953:
952:
925:
923:
922:
895:
801:design. All six
628:-class submarine
623:The new Swedish
588:
582:
480:
425:
416:Type XVII U-boat
413:
337:nuclear reactors
307:midget submarine
198:the German firm
75:detectable noise
21:
3008:
3007:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2973:
2972:
2963:
2961:
2952:
2935:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2916:Further reading
2908:
2895:
2892:
2887:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2855:
2853:
2840:
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2810:
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2805:
2792:
2791:
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2773:
2769:
2759:
2757:
2744:
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2739:
2729:
2727:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2695:
2694:
2687:
2677:
2675:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2651:
2649:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2611:Wayback Machine
2602:
2598:
2593:on 16 July 2011
2590:
2583:
2576:
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2571:
2561:
2559:
2550:
2549:
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2321:
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2259:
2250:
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2235:
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2217:
2216:
2212:
2202:
2200:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2139:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2094:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2001:Friedman (1994)
1999:
1995:
1989:Friedman (1994)
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1915:Pen & Sword
1908:
1907:
1903:
1891:
1886:
1885:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1828:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1779:
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1768:
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1763:
1758:
1738:
1736:
1705:
1703:
1672:
1670:
1646:
1644:
1617:
1615:
1591:
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1565:
1563:
1547:
1545:
1531:
1514:
1512:
1496:
1494:
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1462:
1438:
1436:
1412:
1410:
1385:
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1355:
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1337:
1335:
1308:
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1275:
1273:
1257:
1255:
1228:
1226:
1210:
1208:
1191:
1179:
1177:
1176:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1155:
1153:
1152:
1143:
1141:
1128:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1091:
1089:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1001:
999:
968:
966:
950:
948:
929:
920:
918:
890:
848:nuclear battery
839:
831:Main articles:
829:
811:phosphoric acid
678:chemical energy
636:
553:Stirling engine
522:
473:
370:
180:
171:
128:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3006:
3004:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2950:
2933:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2906:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2852:on 6 June 2011
2833:
2803:
2800:. 31 May 2022.
2785:
2767:
2737:
2706:
2685:
2659:
2633:
2615:
2596:
2569:
2556:navaltoday.com
2543:
2528:
2507:
2500:
2482:
2475:
2457:
2439:
2420:
2394:
2376:
2350:
2332:
2314:
2296:
2289:
2269:
2243:
2210:
2184:
2165:
2147:
2122:
2104:
2093:. 1 March 2006
2075:
2043:
2030:
2023:
2005:
1993:
1981:
1955:
1948:
1930:
1923:
1901:
1870:
1858:
1838:
1827:on 7 July 2012
1812:
1805:
1787:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1747:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1701:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1642:
1634:
1629:
1626:
1612:
1611:
1600:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1574:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1543:
1535:
1526:
1523:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1492:
1483:
1476:
1473:
1459:
1458:
1447:
1434:
1425:
1424:
1421:
1408:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1381:
1375:Type 039A/041
1372:
1367:
1364:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1333:
1324:
1323:
1317:
1304:
1296:
1287:
1284:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1188:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1070:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1010:
997:
989:
980:
977:
963:
962:
959:
946:
938:
933:
930:
915:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
899:
889:
886:
878:United Kingdom
828:
825:
635:
632:
521:
518:
511:An article in
502:carbon dioxide
472:
469:
369:
366:
238:at the end of
208:steam turbines
179:
176:
170:
167:
127:
124:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3005:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2960:
2959:Foxtrot Alpha
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2907:1-55750-260-9
2903:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2878:
2875:
2868:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2834:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2807:
2804:
2799:
2798:www.janes.com
2795:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
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2698:
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2690:
2686:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2660:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2597:
2589:
2582:
2581:
2573:
2570:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2535:Holger Naaf:
2532:
2529:
2517:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2501:0-275-96251-2
2497:
2493:
2486:
2483:
2478:
2476:0-7146-4966-X
2472:
2468:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2377:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2315:
2307:
2300:
2297:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2273:
2270:
2257:
2253:
2247:
2244:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2166:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2136:
2132:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2105:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2060:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2024:1-897884-41-9
2020:
2016:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1982:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1924:9781844157143
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:0-87703-260-2
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1755:
1748:
1746:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1719:VÀstergötland
1715:
1713:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1686:VÀstergötland
1682:
1680:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1654:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1635:
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1625:
1613:
1609:
1605:
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1599:
1588:
1586:
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1575:
1573:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1555:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1484:
1482:NIISET Krylov
1480:
1472:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1393:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1363:
1351:
1347:
1345:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1316:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1175:
1163:
1151:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1123:
1111:
1099:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1056:
1043:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1009:
998:
996:
994:
990:
988:
984:
976:
964:
960:
958:
947:
945:
943:
939:
937:
928:
916:
912:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
896:
893:
887:
885:
883:
882:United States
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
858:
851:
849:
845:
838:
834:
827:Nuclear power
826:
824:
822:
820:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
794:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
761:
759:
755:
750:
748:
747:Space Shuttle
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
723:
719:
717:
713:
709:
707:
702:
698:
694:
693:
688:
684:
679:
675:
671:
665:
661:
656:
649:
645:
640:
633:
631:
629:
627:
621:
619:
618:
612:
610:
606:
602:
600:
595:
593:
587:
581:
576:
574:
573:VÀstergötland
568:
566:
562:
558:
557:liquid oxygen
554:
550:
546:
544:
539:
531:
526:
519:
517:
514:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
485:
479:
470:
468:
466:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
449:
443:
441:
435:
433:
428:
426:
424:
417:
412:
411:
404:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
382:liquid oxygen
379:
375:
374:diesel engine
367:
365:
363:
362:
356:
355:
349:
344:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
320:
318:
314:
313:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
292:Walter engine
289:
285:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
265:
259:
258:
252:
251:
245:
241:
237:
233:
232:
226:
224:
218:
216:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
189:
184:
177:
175:
168:
166:
163:
161:
160:
153:
151:
146:
139:
138:
134:A replica of
132:
125:
123:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
89:
87:
83:
82:diesel engine
78:
76:
72:
67:
65:
61:
57:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
2962:. Retrieved
2958:
2946:the original
2941:
2924:
2897:
2877:
2854:. Retrieved
2850:the original
2845:
2836:
2824:. Retrieved
2820:the original
2815:
2806:
2797:
2788:
2779:
2770:
2758:. Retrieved
2754:the original
2740:
2728:. Retrieved
2724:the original
2719:
2709:
2700:
2676:. Retrieved
2673:HISutton.com
2672:
2662:
2650:. Retrieved
2646:
2636:
2627:
2618:
2599:
2588:the original
2579:
2572:
2560:. Retrieved
2555:
2546:
2536:
2531:
2519:. Retrieved
2510:
2491:
2485:
2466:
2460:
2451:
2442:
2433:
2423:
2411:. Retrieved
2406:
2397:
2388:
2379:
2367:. Retrieved
2363:the original
2353:
2344:
2335:
2326:
2317:
2299:
2279:
2272:
2260:. Retrieved
2255:
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2234:. Retrieved
2222:
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2201:. Retrieved
2196:
2187:
2174:
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2159:
2150:
2138:. Retrieved
2134:
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2107:
2095:. Retrieved
2090:
2066:. Retrieved
2059:the original
2052:"DCNS Group"
2046:
2038:
2033:
2014:
2008:
1996:
1984:
1972:. Retrieved
1968:the original
1958:
1939:
1933:
1910:
1904:
1861:
1846:
1841:
1829:. Retrieved
1825:the original
1815:
1796:
1790:
1780:20 September
1778:. Retrieved
1773:
1764:
1729:
1718:
1697:Södermanland
1696:
1685:
1663:
1637:
1628:Stirling AIP
1607:
1604:Cosme GarcĂa
1603:
1538:
1529:Hanwha Ocean
1487:
1486:Project 677
1429:
1403:
1376:
1366:Stirling AIP
1328:
1320:
1319:1 retrofit:
1299:
1286:Stirling AIP
1248:
1192:
1129:
1074:
1045:
1018:
1013:
992:
987:ThyssenKrupp
941:
891:
856:
852:
840:
818:
815:
802:
792:
769:
762:
751:
731:Spanish Navy
724:
720:
712:Type 209 mod
705:
691:
668:
625:
622:
616:
613:
608:
604:
598:
592:Södermanland
591:
586:Ăstergötland
580:Södermanland
572:
569:
549:Swedish Navy
542:
535:
532:in San Diego
529:
512:
510:
506:
483:
474:
463:
453:
447:
444:
440:drive shafts
436:
432:Quebec-class
429:
420:Type XXVIIB
410:Kriegsmarine
405:
394:
371:
360:
353:
345:
341:
332:
328:
324:
321:
316:
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284:Soviet Union
281:
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240:World War II
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196:World War II
193:
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158:
154:
147:
143:
135:
109:
90:
79:
68:
40:
36:
32:
31:
29:
2856:19 November
2760:8 September
2678:22 November
2413:19 December
2369:25 December
1974:24 February
1608:Isaac Peral
1150:South Korea
1042:South Korea
936:Naval Group
701:German Navy
685:AG's 1,830
648:German Navy
498:atmospheres
456:German Navy
386:exhaust gas
53:atmospheric
2977:Categories
2964:17 January
2720:Naval Post
2652:2 February
2262:24 January
2203:22 October
1949:0760313458
1806:1574885308
1756:References
1749:2 planned
1585:S-80 class
1576:Fuel cell
1348:12 active
1204:Type 218SG
1124:(planned)
1075:Chang Bogo
774:of Indian
758:fuel cells
754:bioethanol
739:fuel cells
727:S-80 class
689:submarine
634:Fuel cells
458:'s former
418:and their
244:Royal Navy
157:submarine
137:Ictineo II
2647:The Hindu
2231:0971-751X
2223:The Hindu
2197:The Hindu
1679:Singapore
1657:3 active
1525:Fuel cell
1475:Fuel cell
1402:Type 032
1239:Fuel cell
1217:Singapore
979:Fuel cell
910:Operators
697:Type 212A
674:fuel cell
609:Swordsman
352:HMS
348:torpedoes
333:Wolverine
273:Excalibur
269:Meteorite
264:Excalibur
262:HMS
255:HMS
250:Meteorite
248:HMS
114:uses the
105:megawatts
86:batteries
49:submarine
43:, is any
2701:quwa.org
2667:Sutton.
2607:Archived
2521:27 April
2236:11 March
2041:. p. 44.
1964:"SS X-1"
1730:Blekinge
1580:Navantia
1455:Pakistan
1445:Pakistan
1321:Asashio.
1300:Harushio
1290:Kawasaki
1174:Portugal
1137:Type 214
1085:Type 212
957:Pakistan
904:Builders
901:AIP type
880:and the
857:Nautilus
819:Tridente
799:ScorpĂšne
716:Type 214
626:Blekinge
547:for the
277:Explorer
257:Explorer
236:scuttled
215:catalyst
159:Pochtovy
2890:Sources
2846:Kockums
2826:6 April
2816:Kockums
2730:21 July
2140:26 July
2097:26 July
2068:26 July
1638:Gotland
1632:Kockums
1294:Kockums
1249:Kalvari
1098:Germany
1014:Dolphin
993:Dolphin
983:Siemens
975:Germany
898:Country
803:Kalvari
793:Kalvari
784:Thermax
735:Abengoa
729:of the
706:Dolphin
699:of the
670:Siemens
646:of the
543:Gotland
538:Kockums
530:Gotland
494:ethanol
423:Seehund
397:M-class
378:oxidant
194:During
126:History
60:snorkel
2904:
2498:
2473:
2287:
2229:
2021:
1946:
1921:
1853:
1831:2 July
1803:
1745:Sweden
1742:
1712:Sweden
1709:
1676:
1664:Archer
1653:Sweden
1650:
1624:Sweden
1621:
1595:
1569:
1551:
1518:
1503:Russia
1500:
1490:(Lada)
1471:Russia
1468:
1442:
1430:Hangor
1416:
1406:-class
1389:
1379:-class
1359:
1341:
1312:
1279:
1261:
1232:
1214:
1186:Turkey
1183:
1171:
1162:Greece
1159:
1147:
1122:Norway
1119:
1107:
1095:
1064:
1055:Greece
1052:
1039:
1008:Israel
1005:
972:
954:
942:Agosta
927:France
924:
876:, the
874:Russia
866:France
846:as a "
605:Archer
599:Archer
575:-class
528:HSwMS
484:Agosta
303:SCB 66
299:U-1406
231:U-1407
200:Walter
56:oxygen
39:), or
2929:(PDF)
2869:Notes
2591:(PDF)
2584:(PDF)
2562:5 May
2428:ARG.
2309:(PDF)
2062:(PDF)
2055:(PDF)
1892:(PDF)
1770:"S8G"
1721:class
1699:class
1688:class
1666:class
1640:class
1598:Spain
1572:Spain
1541:class
1451:China
1432:class
1344:Japan
1331:class
1329:SĆryĆ«
1315:Japan
1302:class
1282:Japan
1264:India
1251:class
1235:India
1110:Italy
1077:class
1067:Egypt
1019:Dakar
995:class
932:MESMA
870:India
862:China
741:from
708:class
664:India
617:SĆryĆ«
601:class
594:class
448:M-256
390:Argon
361:Kursk
354:Sidon
329:Ellis
325:Alton
169:Types
97:power
93:hulls
2966:2017
2902:ISBN
2858:2005
2828:2008
2762:2023
2732:2022
2680:2016
2654:2018
2564:2017
2523:2010
2496:ISBN
2471:ISBN
2415:2014
2371:2014
2285:ISBN
2264:2023
2238:2021
2227:ISSN
2205:2015
2142:2015
2099:2015
2070:2015
2019:ISBN
1976:2014
1944:ISBN
1919:ISBN
1851:ISBN
1833:2012
1801:ISBN
1782:2021
1488:ĐĐ°ĐŽĐ°
1404:Qing
1377:Yuan
855:USS
844:AECL
835:and
782:and
770:The
714:and
692:U-31
660:DRDO
607:and
583:and
488:and
454:The
401:REDO
282:The
275:and
260:and
223:V-80
110:The
944:90B
749:).
662:of
611:).
486:90B
464:U-1
317:X-1
312:X-1
246:as
37:AIP
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