1016:, specific flow patterns can be created depending on flight speed and engine performance. As air enters the duct, its speed is reduced while its pressure and temperature increase. If the aircraft is at a high subsonic speed this creates two advantages: the air enters the fan at a lower Mach speed; and the higher temperature increases the local speed of sound. While there is a loss in efficiency as the fan is drawing on a smaller area of the free stream and so using less air, this is balanced by the ducted fan retaining efficiency at higher speeds where conventional propeller efficiency would be poor. A ducted fan or propeller also has certain benefits at lower speeds but the duct needs to be shaped in a different manner than one for higher speed flight. More air is taken in and the fan therefore operates at an efficiency equivalent to a larger un-ducted propeller. Noise is also reduced by the ducting and should a blade become detached the duct would help contain the damage. However the duct adds weight, cost, complexity and (to a certain degree) drag.
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264:, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
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of the thrust, while the rear propeller also recovers energy lost in the swirling motion of the air in the propeller slipstream. Contra-rotation also increases the ability of a propeller to absorb power from a given engine, without increasing propeller diameter. However the added cost, complexity, weight and noise of the system rarely make it worthwhile and it is only used on high-performance types where ultimate performance is more important than efficiency.
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826:, automatic propellers were developed to maintain an optimum angle of attack. This was done by balancing the centripetal twisting moment on the blades and a set of counterweights against a spring and the aerodynamic forces on the blade. Automatic props had the advantage of being simple, lightweight, and requiring no external control, but a particular propeller's performance was difficult to match with that of the aircraft's power plant.
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320:, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers.
833:. This is controlled by a hydraulic constant speed unit (CSU). It automatically adjusts the blade pitch in order to maintain a constant engine speed for any given power control setting. Constant-speed propellers allow the pilot to set a rotational speed according to the need for maximum engine power or maximum efficiency, and a propeller governor acts as a closed-loop
432:. Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or 'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made the problem more complex.
689:) in a manner similar to wing sweepback, so as to delay the onset of shockwaves as the blade tips approach the speed of sound. The maximum relative velocity is kept as low as possible by careful control of pitch to allow the blades to have large helix angles. A large number of blades are used to reduce work per blade and so circulation strength.
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881:. On single-engined aircraft, whether a powered glider or turbine-powered aircraft, the effect is to increase the gliding distance. On a multi-engine aircraft, feathering the propeller on an inoperative engine reduces drag, and helps the aircraft maintain speed and altitude with the operative engines. Feathering also prevents
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express the aerodynamic force on the blades. To explain aircraft and engine performance the same force is expressed slightly differently in terms of thrust and torque since the required output of the propeller is thrust. Thrust and torque are the basis of the definition for the efficiency of the propeller as shown below. The
428:, and this plus the absence of lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers. Even so, this was perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled from the front was a
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hub while the smallest angle of incidence or smallest pitch is at the tip. A propeller blade designed with the same angle of incidence throughout its entire length would be inefficient because as airspeed increases in flight, the portion near the hub would have a negative AOA while the blade tip would be stalled.
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A contra-rotating propeller or contra-prop places two counter-rotating propellers on concentric drive shafts so that one sits immediately 'downstream' of the other propeller. This provides the benefits of counter-rotating propellers for a single powerplant. The forward propeller provides the majority
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The purpose of varying pitch angle is to maintain an optimal angle of attack for the propeller blades, giving maximum efficiency throughout the flight regime. This reduces fuel usage. Only by maximising propeller efficiency at high speeds can the highest possible speed be achieved. Effective angle of
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Many types of disturbance set up vibratory forces in blades. These include aerodynamic excitation as the blades pass close to the wing and fuselage. Piston engines introduce torque impulses which may excite vibratory modes of the blades and cause fatigue failures. Torque impulses are not present when
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Encyclopædia
Britannica, 1910 edition, volume 30 (1922 supplement), in the article "Aeronautics" p. 20. "Airscrews have been described as 'tractors' and 'propellers', according as the airscrew shaft is placed in tension or in compression by the thrust, and corresponding aeroplanes are usually called
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flow first appears on the tips of the blades. As the relative air speed at any section of a propeller is a vector sum of the aircraft speed and the tangential speed due to rotation, the flow over the blade tip will reach transonic speed well before the aircraft does. When the airflow over the tip of
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of the blades reduces drag but the amount of thrust produced depends on blade area, so using high-aspect blades can result in an excessive propeller diameter. A further balance is that using a smaller number of blades reduces interference effects between the blades, but to have sufficient blade area
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A fan is a propeller with a large number of blades. A fan therefore produces a lot of thrust for a given diameter but the closeness of the blades means that each strongly affects the flow around the others. If the flow is supersonic, this interference can be beneficial if the flow can be compressed
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The tip of a propeller blade travels faster than the hub. Therefore, it is necessary for the blade to be twisted so as to decrease the angle of attack of the blade gradually and therefore produce uniform lift from the hub to the tip. The greatest angle of incidence, or the highest pitch, is at the
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The propellers on some aircraft can operate with a negative blade pitch angle, and thus reverse the thrust from the propeller. This is known as Beta Pitch. Reverse thrust is used to help slow the aircraft after landing and is particularly advantageous when landing on a wet runway as wheel braking
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in the reduction gearbox, which moves the blades toward feather when the engine is no longer providing power to the propeller. Depending on design, the pilot may have to push a button to override the high-pitch stops and complete the feathering process or the feathering process may be automatic.
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fixed-pitch propeller used was partially stalled on take-off and up to 160 mph (260 km/h) on its way up to a top speed of 407.5 mph (655.8 km/h). The very wide speed range was achieved because some of the usual requirements for aircraft performance did not apply. There was no
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angle. Very small pitch and helix angles give a good performance against resistance but provide little thrust, while larger angles have the opposite effect. The best helix angle is when the blade is acting as a wing producing much more lift than drag. However, 'lift-and-drag' is only one way to
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form creating a sharp increase in noise. Aircraft with conventional propellers, therefore, do not usually fly faster than Mach 0.6. There have been propeller aircraft which attained up to the Mach 0.8 range, but the low propeller efficiency at this speed makes such applications rare.
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491:. This is derived from his "Bootstrap approach" for analyzing the performance of light general aviation aircraft using fixed pitch or constant speed propellers. The efficiency of the propeller is influenced by the angle of attack (α). This is defined as α = Φ - θ, where θ is the
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is therefore usually arranged to be slightly forward of its mechanical centreline, creating a twisting moment towards coarse pitch and counteracting the centrifugal moment. However in a high-speed dive the aerodynamic force can change significantly and the moments can become
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theory, also known as the "actuator disc theory" or the axial momentum theory. That theory, however adequate, does not give indication on the shape that should be given to the propeller. This would be solved regarding that theory only in the 1920s by complement of the
819:, which may be adjusted on the ground, but is effectively a fixed-pitch prop once airborne. The spring-loaded "two-speed" VP prop is set to fine for takeoff, and then triggered to coarse once in cruise, the propeller remaining coarse for the remainder of the flight.
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Most feathering systems for reciprocating engines sense a drop in oil pressure and move the blades toward the feather position, and require the pilot to pull the propeller control back to disengage the high-pitch stop pins before the engine reaches idle
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to vary propeller pitch angle as required to maintain the selected engine speed. In most aircraft this system is hydraulic, with engine oil serving as the hydraulic fluid. However, electrically controlled propellers were developed during
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Counter-rotating propellers are sometimes used on twin-engine and multi-engine aircraft with wing-mounted engines. These propellers turn in opposite directions from their counterpart on the other wing to balance out the
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presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784
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to transmit the available power within a set diameter means a compromise is needed. Increasing the number of blades also decreases the amount of work each blade is required to perform, limiting the local
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On most variable-pitch propellers, the blades can be rotated parallel to the airflow to stop rotation of the propeller and reduce drag when the engine fails or is deliberately shut down. This is called
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problem, counter-rotating propellers usually turn "inwards" towards the fuselage – clockwise on the left engine and counterclockwise on the right – however, there are exceptions (especially during
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driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift by
1698:. The Wright brothers however were equating the propeller blade to an airfoil instead, which for they previously had already determined the aerodynamic behavioural patterns: John David Anderson,
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of the blade along its length. Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of about 82%, compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-blade McCauley used on a
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592:{\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {\hbox{propulsive power out}}{\hbox{shaft power in}}}={\frac {{\hbox{thrust}}\cdot {\hbox{axial speed}}}{{\hbox{resistance torque}}\cdot {\hbox{rotational speed}}}}.}
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Forces acting on the blades of an aircraft propeller include the following. Some of these forces can be arranged to counteract each other, reducing the overall mechanical stresses imposed.
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are used. The propellers designed are more efficient than turbo-fans and their cruising speed (Mach 0.7–0.85) is suitable for airliners, but the noise generated is tremendous (see the
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with Wright E-4 engines for data on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data. Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.
885:, the turning of engine components by the propeller rotation forced by the slipstream; windmilling can damage the engine, start a fire, or cause structural damage to the aircraft.
378:, and were able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform
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or other power source into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial
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suffers reduced effectiveness. In some cases reverse pitch allows the aircraft to taxi in reverse – this is particularly useful for getting floatplanes out of confined docks.
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226:. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD
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by the same names. The first biplanes, those of the
Wrights and the Farmans, were of the propeller type, colloquially 'pushers'; almost all monoplanes were 'tractors.'
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The force felt by the blades acting to pull them away from the hub when turning. It can be arranged to help counteract the thrust bending force, as described above.
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Generally, the propellers on both engines of most conventional twin-engined aircraft spin clockwise (as viewed from the rear of the aircraft). To eliminate the
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A centrifugal twisting force is experienced by any asymmetrical spinning object. In the propeller it acts to twist the blades to a fine pitch. The aerodynamic
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Propellers are most suitable for use at subsonic airspeeds generally below about 480 mph (770 km/h), although supersonic speeds were achieved in the
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held in London in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine driving twin propellers suspended underneath.
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built a craft that weighed 3.5 long tons (3.6 t), with a 110 ft (34 m) wingspan that was powered by two 360 hp (270 kW)
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which turned "outwards" (counterclockwise on the left engine and clockwise on the right) away from the fuselage from the WW II years, and the
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compromise on top-speed efficiency, the take-off distance was not restricted to available runway length and there was no climb requirement.
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Thrust loads on the blades, in reaction to the force pushing the air backwards, act to bend the blades forward. Blades are therefore often
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propel it at a speed exceeding the maximum once considered possible for a propeller-driven aircraft using an exceptionally coarse pitch.
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420:. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his
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1549:. Oklahoma City: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. 2008. pp. 2–7 ie page 7 of Chapter 02: Aircraft Structure. FAA-8083-25A.
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forwards, such that the outward centrifugal force of rotation acts to bend them backwards, thus balancing out the bending effects.
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effects. They are sometimes referred to as "handed" propellers since there are left hand and right hand versions of each prop.
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Early pitch control settings were pilot operated, either with a small number of preset positions or continuously variable.
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propeller. This type of constant-speed propeller was used on many
American fighters, bombers and transport aircraft of
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in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating an airfoil shape. They were heavily
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may be fixed, manually variable to a few set positions, or of the automatically variable "constant-speed" type.
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and saw extensive use on military aircraft, and have recently seen a revival in use on home-built aircraft.
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Professor Von
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Brooks, Peter, W., Zeppelin: Rigid
Airships 1893–1940, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992,
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The
Development Of Jet And Turbine Engines", 4th edition, Bill Gunston 2006, Patrick Stephens Limited,
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fitted a hand-powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.
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experimental propeller-equipped aircraft. Supersonic tip-speeds are used in some aircraft like the
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Designs similar to the
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launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by eight men.
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mechanism to alter the blades' pitch angle as engine speed and aircraft velocity are changed.
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Comparison of tests on air propellers in flight with wind tunnel model tests on similar forms
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wing design. Thin blade sections are used and the blades are swept back in a scimitar shape (
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developed coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872
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attack decreases as airspeed increases, so a coarser pitch is required at high airspeeds.
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was another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright
Brothers for his
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1638:(Second ed.). Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. p. 92.
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A further consideration is the number and the shape of the blades used. Increasing the
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whose inboard and outboard engines turn in opposite directions even on the same wing.
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The requirement for pitch variation is shown by the propeller performance during the
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Airship honours for
Australia – Bland's remarkable invention more than 70 years ago.
164:-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The
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Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from
Antiquity Through the First World War
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The propeller attaches to the power source's driveshaft either directly or through
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The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400 BC,
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1565:"Wrights: How two brothers from Dayton added a new twist to airplane propulsion."
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effects causes propeller blades to bend away from the direction of rotation.
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Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8.
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aircraft. Roper quotes 90% for a propeller for a human-powered aircraft.
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wing and as such are poor in operation when at other than their optimum
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for aircraft at high subsonic speeds. The 'fix' is similar to that of
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flight feathers as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to the
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but powered by a wound-up spring device and demonstrated it to the
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Lowry quotes a propeller efficiency of about 73.5% at cruise for a
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Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's How Things Fly website
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law (Goldstein, Betz, Prandtl and Lanchester): William Graebel,
1291:"Helicopter Pioneers – Evolution of Rotary Wing Aircraft."
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through a series of shock waves rather than one. By placing the
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https://www.tourism.gov.np/files/1/9N-ANC%20FINAL%20Report.pdf
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from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller efficiency,
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created a design for a machine that could be described as an
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A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines
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Physical propeller theory was at the time restricted to the
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Asia in the making of Europe. Volume II, A Century of Wonder
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which crashed during approach due to accidental feathering.
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of a propeller is similar to the angle of attack of a wing.
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Mechanical Engineering: 100 years of Flight, 3 July 2007.
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Accidental feathering is dangerous and can result in an
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Air resistance acting against the blades, combined with
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Ash, Robert L., Colin P. Britcher and Kenneth W. Hyde.
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Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Powerplant Handbook
1434:"Visions of a flying machine - National - smh.com.au"
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https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205354
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Propellers are similar in aerofoil section to a low-
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677:There have been efforts to develop propellers and
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2592:Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)
1481:Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skies
1276:"Pioneers, Evolution of the Rotary Wing Aircraft"
664:Changes in propeller blade angle from hub to tip.
190:, which can reach 575 mph (925 km/h).
1913:. Federal Aviation Administration. p. 327.
1881:Pushing The Envelope With Test Pilot Herb Fisher
1255:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
1209:. Oxford University Press. 8 May 2003. pp.
829:The most common variable pitch propeller is the
271:had developed a small coaxial modeled after the
451:absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in a
2549:Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
392:was the wood preferred for propellers through
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1238:. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011
1147:. Cambridge aerospace series, 18. Cambridge:
849:, which is self-powering and self-governing.
175:. Propellers can be made from wood, metal or
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1648:Henri R. Palmer Jr. "The birdcage parasol",
1783:. Cambridge University Press. p. 346.
1737:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
437:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
366:to pursue the dream of flight. The twisted
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1863:Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
1546:Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
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1374:"Leonardo da Vinci's Helical Air Screw."
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120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1844:Thermodynamics and Propulsion, main page
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1106:, Odhams, 1942, Chapter 13, "Airscrews".
1051:List of aircraft propeller manufacturers
457:Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory
295:in a model consisting of contrarotating
1359:"Leonardo da Vinci's Helical Air Screw"
1088:
256:It was not until the early 1480s, when
2126:
2115:
2030:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2023:
1991:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1984:
1529:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1522:
1409:Winter & Degner (1933), pp. 26–27.
1248:
1120:(first ed.). Osprey. p. 28.
785:The variable pitch blades used on the
765:Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)
1444:from the original on 30 December 2017
1145:Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics
7:
1236:""The Invention Of The Helicopter.""
861:Feathered propeller on the outboard
723:Centrifugal and aerodynamic twisting
58:adding citations to reliable sources
2711:components, systems and terminology
1760:from the original on 18 August 2012
621:A sailor checks the propeller of a
611:
610:. Therefore, most propellers use a
25:
1947:"Aerodynamic tests on propellers"
1893:Planes and Pilots of World War 2,
1869:. 2016-08-24. pp. 7–4 – 7–5.
1593:, 2010. Accessed: 28 August 2014.
1483:. New York: Atheneum. pp. 124–125
156:, converts rotary motion from an
2422:Thrust specific fuel consumption
2148:Experimental Aircraft Propellers
1920:from the original on 2014-08-26.
1688:Marine Propellers and Propulsion
1553:from the original on 2015-07-01.
1347:2003. Retrieved 12 December 2010
1345:Centennial of Flight Commission,
1162:"A History of Helicopter Flight"
701:for examples of such a design).
34:
2013:from the original on 2018-04-01
1974:from the original on 2018-03-31
1867:Federal Aviation Administration
1512:from the original on 2017-10-18
1365:from the original on 2015-09-24
1343:"Early Helicopter Technology."
1334:from the original on 2014-02-20
1282:from the original on 2006-11-07
754:driven by a gas turbine engine.
45:needs additional citations for
3285:Aircraft propulsion components
3033:Propeller speed reduction unit
2471:Propeller speed reduction unit
1895:2000. Retrieved: 22 July 2011.
897:control systems usually use a
815:The simplest mechanism is the
1:
1933:Airplane Propeller Principles
1422:The Argus, September 13, 1924
1328:"Early Helicopter Technology"
1041:Blade element momentum theory
27:Aircraft propulsion component
2843:Capacitor discharge ignition
1390:Leishman, J. Gordon (2006).
1378:. Retrieved 12 December 2010
1188:"Early Helicopter History."
309:Jean Baptiste Marie Meusnier
69:"Propeller" aeronautics
2382:Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
1676:Engineering Fluid Mechanics
1295:Retrieved: 28 November 2007
1264:Retrieved: 11 November 2008
1192:Retrieved: 12 December 2010
946:Counter-rotating propellers
938:Counter-rotating propellers
909:; as seen for example with
817:ground-adjustable propeller
277:Russian Academy of Sciences
140:military transport aircraft
3306:
2649:Auxiliary power unit (APU)
2278:Rotating detonation engine
1931:Nelson, Wilbur C. (1944),
1731:& E. P. Leslie (1926)
1634:Ayres, Leonard P. (1919).
1149:Cambridge University Press
1000:
988:Contra-rotating propellers
985:
935:
920:
762:
691:Contra-rotating propellers
301:French Academy of Sciences
222:children have played with
197:
2853:Electronic fuel injection
777:competition in 1931. The
623:Landing Craft Air Cushion
2899:Aircraft engine starting
2357:Aircraft engine starting
1293:Helicopter History Site.
1118:A Dictionary of Aviation
1116:Wragg, David W. (1973).
1104:Aeronautical Engineering
1014:fan within a shaped duct
911:Yeti Airlines Flight 691
831:constant-speed propeller
2944:Mean effective pressure
2238:Pulse detonation engine
877:, a term borrowed from
779:Fairey Aviation Company
439:(NACA) was directed by
435:Propeller research for
251:Leonardo's aerial screw
2984:Time between overhauls
2427:Thrust to weight ratio
2397:Overall pressure ratio
2392:Jet engine performance
2316:Centrifugal compressor
2233:Gluhareff Pressure Jet
1816:Prof. Z. S. Spakovszky
1479:Beril, Becker (1967).
947:
899:negative torque sensor
869:
845:Another design is the
809:
665:
643:the blade reaches its
626:
593:
484:
332:
283:instruments. In 1783,
267:In July 1754, Russian
253:
215:
141:
3259:Ice protection system
2999:Volumetric efficiency
2964:Overhead valve engine
2664:Ice protection system
2432:Variable cycle engine
2402:Propulsive efficiency
1143:Leishman, J. Gordon.
945:
860:
800:
663:
620:
594:
479:568F propeller on an
474:
414:Alberto Santos Dumont
327:Prototype created by
326:
314:Jean-Pierre Blanchard
249:
208:A decorated Japanese
207:
200:Early flying machines
138:C-130J Super Hercules
135:
3244:Auxiliary power unit
3124:Flight data recorder
2564:Flight data recorder
2326:Constant speed drive
2306:Afterburner (reheat)
1779:Kundu, Ajoy (2010).
1756:. 12 December 1999.
1636:The War with Germany
1580:Propeller Efficiency
1036:Blade element theory
531:propulsive power out
518:
459:, E. P. Leslie used
340:the Great Exhibition
136:The propellers of a
54:improve this article
3213:Pressure carburetor
2949:Naturally aspirated
2919:Engine displacement
1827:11.7.4.3 Efficiency
1502:Library of Congress
801:Cut-away view of a
483:short-haul airliner
285:Christian de Launoy
177:composite materials
3228:Updraft carburetor
3102:Engine instruments
3028:Propeller governor
2924:Four-stroke engine
2466:Propeller governor
1888:2014-02-01 at the
1849:2010-02-17 at the
1832:2015-02-26 at the
1821:2012-06-28 at the
1585:2014-12-21 at the
1578:Rogers, David F. "
1077:Radial-lift rotors
1061:Charles M. Olmsted
948:
870:
810:
728:centre of pressure
687:scimitar propeller
666:
627:
589:
581:
571:
562:
552:
538:
533:
511:is determined by
485:
384:Beechcraft Bonanza
333:
254:
224:bamboo flying toys
216:
150:aircraft propeller
142:
18:Aircraft propeller
3272:
3271:
3109:Annunciator panel
3097:
3096:
3007:
3006:
2989:Two-stroke engine
2959:Overhead camshaft
2939:Manifold pressure
2909:Compression ratio
2672:
2671:
2544:Annunciator panel
2530:
2529:
2445:
2444:
2336:Propelling nozzle
2125:Missing or empty
1696:978-0-08-097123-0
1220:978-0-19-516035-2
1190:Aerospaceweb.org.
1157:978-0-521-85860-1
907:aerodynamic stall
803:Hamilton Standard
584:
580:
570:
569:resistance torque
561:
551:
539:
537:
532:
477:Hamilton Standard
467:Theory and design
441:William F. Durand
372:marine propellers
329:Mikhail Lomonosov
318:Sir George Cayley
307:was described by
269:Mikhail Lomonosov
258:Leonardo da Vinci
173:reduction gearing
152:, also called an
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3297:
3254:Hydraulic system
3074:Counter-rotating
3018:
2770:Hydraulic tappet
2723:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2676:
2659:Hydraulic system
2654:Bleed air system
2644:Air-start system
2507:Counter-rotating
2456:
2437:Windmill restart
2407:Specific impulse
2377:Compressor stall
2311:Axial compressor
2214:
2182:
2175:
2168:
2159:
2135:
2134:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2091:. Archived from
2086:
2076:
2070:
2059:
2053:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1943:
1937:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1912:
1902:
1896:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1859:
1853:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1746:
1740:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1686:, John Carlton,
1659:
1653:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1615:on 13 March 2016
1611:. Archived from
1600:
1594:
1576:
1570:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1498:
1490:
1484:
1477:
1471:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1430:
1424:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1401:
1388:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1356:Pilotfriend.com
1354:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1325:Rumerman, Judy.
1323:
1314:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1288:
1287:
1271:
1265:
1260:
1254:
1246:
1244:
1243:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1208:
1199:
1193:
1184:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1164:. Archived from
1141:
1132:
1131:
1113:
1107:
1102:Beaumont, R.A.;
1100:
1067:Propeller theory
1046:Helicopter rotor
1031:Axial fan design
932:Counter-rotation
865:turboprop of an
775:Schneider Trophy
598:
596:
595:
590:
585:
583:
582:
579:rotational speed
578:
572:
568:
564:
563:
559:
553:
549:
545:
540:
535:
530:
528:
184:McDonnell XF-88B
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3249:Coffman starter
3232:
3175:
3166:
3157:Carburetor heat
3149:Engine controls
3143:
3093:
3069:Contra-rotating
3042:
3003:
2934:Ignition timing
2882:
2863:Ignition system
2830:
2824:
2727:
2712:
2703:
2673:
2668:
2632:
2615:
2606:
2602:Thrust reversal
2579:Engine controls
2573:
2536:
2526:
2502:Contra-rotating
2475:
2441:
2345:
2296:Accessory drive
2288:
2282:
2224:Air turborocket
2206:
2198:
2186:
2144:
2139:
2138:
2124:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2095:
2087:. Wichita, KS:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2060:
2056:
2043:
2039:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2007:"Archived copy"
2005:
2004:
2000:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1968:"Archived copy"
1966:
1965:
1961:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1890:Wayback Machine
1878:
1874:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1851:Wayback Machine
1834:Wayback Machine
1823:Wayback Machine
1814:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1781:Aircraft Design
1778:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1761:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1713:
1660:
1656:
1652:Oct. 1960 p. 51
1650:Flying Magazine
1647:
1643:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1587:Wayback Machine
1577:
1573:
1562:
1558:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1521:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1496:
1494:"Archived copy"
1492:
1491:
1487:
1478:
1474:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1445:
1440:. 11 May 2006.
1432:
1431:
1427:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1389:
1382:
1376:Pilotfriend.com
1368:
1366:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1337:
1335:
1326:
1324:
1317:
1303:
1299:
1285:
1283:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1262:Vectorsite.net.
1247:
1241:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1185:
1181:
1171:
1169:
1160:
1142:
1135:
1128:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1101:
1090:
1085:
1056:Momentum theory
1022:
1009:
1001:Main articles:
999:
990:
984:
982:Contra-rotation
964:critical engine
940:
934:
925:
923:Thrust reversal
919:
855:
795:
767:
761:
707:
675:
658:
608:angle of attack
565:
546:
516:
515:
469:
447:developed, and
380:angle of attack
364:Wright brothers
362:, inspired the
344:Alphonse Pénaud
202:
196:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3303:
3301:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3203:Inlet manifold
3200:
3195:
3193:Fuel injection
3190:
3185:
3179:
3177:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3089:Variable-pitch
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3064:Constant-speed
3061:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3022:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2780:Obturator ring
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2740:Connecting rod
2737:
2731:
2729:
2720:
2718:Piston engines
2714:
2713:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2619:
2617:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2522:Variable-pitch
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2497:Constant-speed
2494:
2489:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2462:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2226:
2220:
2218:
2211:
2209:jet propulsion
2200:
2199:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2143:
2142:External links
2140:
2137:
2136:
2101:
2098:on 2011-03-22.
2071:
2054:
2037:
1998:
1959:
1938:
1923:
1897:
1872:
1854:
1808:
1796:
1790:978-0521885164
1789:
1771:
1741:
1729:William Durand
1721:
1711:
1654:
1641:
1626:
1603:Roper, Chris.
1595:
1571:
1556:
1536:
1485:
1472:
1455:
1438:www.smh.com.au
1425:
1411:
1402:
1380:
1349:
1315:
1305:Donald F. Lach
1297:
1266:
1233:Goebel, Greg.
1226:
1219:
1194:
1179:
1133:
1126:
1108:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1021:
1018:
998:
995:
986:Main article:
983:
980:
972:P-38 Lightning
970:) such as the
936:Main article:
933:
930:
921:Main article:
918:
915:
854:
851:
794:
791:
763:Main article:
760:
759:Variable pitch
757:
756:
755:
751:
748:
741:
740:Torque bending
738:
735:
732:
724:
721:
714:
713:Thrust bending
706:
703:
674:
671:
657:
654:
645:critical speed
612:variable pitch
600:
599:
588:
575:
556:
543:
536:shaft power in
526:
523:
507:A propeller's
468:
465:
422:14 bis biplane
303:. A dirigible
281:meteorological
262:"aerial screw"
195:
192:
128:
127:
110:September 2011
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3302:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:Other systems
3235:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3174:and induction
3173:
3169:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3129:Glass cockpit
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2974:Shock cooling
2972:
2970:
2969:Rotary engine
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2848:Dual ignition
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2760:Cylinder head
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2709:piston engine
2707:
2700:
2695:
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2680:
2677:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
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2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:Other systems
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2614:and induction
2613:
2609:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
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2588:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2569:Glass cockpit
2567:
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2367:Brayton cycle
2365:
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2342:
2341:Turbine blade
2339:
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2119:
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2105:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2067:0 7509 4477 3
2064:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2050:0 7106-0748-2
2047:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2027:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1988:
1973:
1969:
1963:
1960:
1948:
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1939:
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1927:
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1797:
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1759:
1755:
1754:www.avweb.com
1751:
1745:
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1725:
1722:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1708:0-521-66955-3
1705:
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1685:
1684:1-560-32711-1
1681:
1677:
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1645:
1642:
1637:
1630:
1627:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1589:", Figure 3.
1588:
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1468:1-56098-228-4
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1399:0-521-85860-7
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1198:
1195:
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1187:
1183:
1180:
1168:on 2014-07-13
1167:
1163:
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1129:
1127:9780850451634
1123:
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1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1026:Advance ratio
1024:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1008:
1004:
997:Aircraft fans
996:
994:
989:
981:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
960:
958:
954:
944:
939:
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929:
924:
917:Reverse pitch
916:
914:
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903:
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868:
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836:
832:
827:
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820:
818:
813:
808:
804:
799:
792:
790:
788:
787:Tupolev Tu-95
783:
780:
776:
771:
766:
758:
752:
749:
746:
742:
739:
736:
733:
729:
725:
722:
719:
715:
712:
711:
710:
704:
702:
700:
699:Tupolev Tu-95
696:
695:Antonov An-70
692:
688:
684:
680:
672:
670:
662:
655:
653:
650:
646:
641:
637:
632:
624:
619:
615:
613:
609:
605:
586:
573:
554:
541:
524:
521:
514:
513:
512:
510:
505:
503:
502:advance ratio
498:
494:
490:
482:
478:
473:
466:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
431:
427:
426:undercambered
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:steam engines
353:
349:
348:Dupuy de Lome
345:
341:
337:
336:William Bland
330:
325:
321:
319:
315:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
252:
248:
244:
241:
239:
235:
234:
229:
225:
221:
214:
213:bamboo-copter
211:
206:
201:
193:
191:
189:
188:Tupolev Tu-95
185:
180:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
139:
134:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3264:Recoil start
3223:Turbocharger
3218:Supercharger
3084:Single-blade
3012:
2994:Valve timing
2815:Sleeve valve
2800:Poppet valve
2775:Main bearing
2623:Flame holder
2597:Thrust lever
2587:Autothrottle
2450:
2417:Thrust lapse
2372:Bypass ratio
2204:Gas turbines
2196:gas turbines
2127:|title=
2104:
2093:the original
2080:
2074:
2057:
2040:
2015:. Retrieved
2001:
1976:. Retrieved
1962:
1950:. Retrieved
1941:
1932:
1926:
1906:
1900:
1892:
1880:
1875:
1862:
1857:
1839:MIT turbines
1837:
1811:
1799:
1780:
1774:
1762:. Retrieved
1753:
1744:
1724:
1714:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1657:
1649:
1644:
1635:
1629:
1617:. Retrieved
1613:the original
1608:
1598:
1590:
1574:
1567:
1559:
1545:
1539:
1514:. Retrieved
1500:
1488:
1480:
1475:
1458:
1446:. Retrieved
1437:
1428:
1419:
1414:
1405:
1375:
1367:. Retrieved
1352:
1344:
1336:. Retrieved
1310:
1300:
1292:
1284:. Retrieved
1269:
1261:
1240:. Retrieved
1229:
1204:
1197:
1189:
1182:
1170:. Retrieved
1166:the original
1144:
1117:
1111:
1103:
1010:
991:
968:World War II
961:
949:
926:
904:
898:
887:
882:
874:
871:
867:Airbus A400M
844:
840:World War II
828:
821:
814:
811:
807:World War II
784:
772:
768:
717:
708:
676:
667:
631:aspect ratio
628:
601:
506:
486:
461:Vought VE-7s
434:
388:
360:their father
334:
266:
255:
242:
231:
217:
209:
181:
170:
153:
149:
143:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3208:Intercooler
3134:Hobbs meter
3059:Blade pitch
3054:Autofeather
3047:Terminology
2954:Monosoupape
2914:Dead centre
2887:Terminology
2795:Piston ring
2765:Gudgeon pin
2537:instruments
2492:Blade pitch
2487:Autofeather
2189:Jet engines
1273:Fay, John.
1177:Web extract
976:Airbus A400
883:windmilling
824:World War I
734:Centrifugal
731:unbalanced.
656:Blade twist
649:shock waves
636:Mach number
560:axial speed
497:blade pitch
493:helix angle
475:A 6-bladed
453:wind tunnel
394:World War I
352:Hiram Maxim
293:Chinese top
273:Chinese top
166:blade pitch
146:aeronautics
3290:Propellers
3279:Categories
3198:Gascolator
3188:Carburetor
3139:Tachometer
3021:Components
3013:Propellers
2929:Horsepower
2894:Air-cooled
2873:Spark plug
2838:Alternator
2831:components
2829:Electrical
2810:Rocker arm
2750:Crankshaft
2728:components
2726:Mechanical
2480:Principles
2459:Components
2451:Propellers
2350:Principles
2301:Air intake
2289:components
2287:Mechanical
2263:Turboshaft
2017:2018-04-01
1978:2018-03-30
1690:, p. 169,
1678:, p. 144,
1516:2017-12-29
1369:2015-02-07
1338:2014-02-02
1307:. (1977).
1286:2007-03-21
1242:2008-11-11
1172:2014-07-15
1083:References
1007:Ducted fan
875:feathering
853:Feathering
835:controller
793:Mechanisms
673:High speed
625:hovercraft
509:efficiency
489:Cessna 172
287:, and his
198:See also:
80:newspapers
2858:Generator
2512:Proprotor
2362:Bleed air
2321:Combustor
2258:Turboprop
1605:"Flights"
1072:Turboprop
895:Turboprop
750:Vibratory
683:transonic
640:transonic
574:⋅
555:⋅
522:η
210:taketombo
3162:Throttle
3079:Scimitar
2785:Oil pump
2755:Cylinder
2745:Crankpin
2735:Camshaft
2706:Aircraft
2628:Jet fuel
2517:Scimitar
2387:Flameout
2331:Impeller
2253:Turbojet
2248:Turbofan
2229:Pulsejet
2193:aircraft
2118:cite web
2089:McCauley
2026:cite web
2011:Archived
1987:cite web
1972:Archived
1915:Archived
1886:Archived
1847:Archived
1842:, 2002.
1830:Archived
1819:Archived
1764:28 April
1758:Archived
1619:28 April
1583:Archived
1551:Archived
1525:cite web
1507:Archived
1448:28 April
1442:Archived
1363:Archived
1332:Archived
1313:. p. 403
1280:Archived
1251:cite web
1151:, 2006.
1020:See also
957:p-factor
745:inertial
679:propfans
418:airships
390:Mahogany
289:mechanic
154:airscrew
3038:Spinner
2878:Starter
2868:Magneto
2805:Pushrod
2616:systems
2243:Propfan
2052:, p.228
1806:Fig 1-8
1663:Rankine
1003:Propfan
705:Physics
430:tractor
368:airfoil
305:airship
238:Ge Hong
233:Baopuzi
220:Chinese
194:History
162:airfoil
94:scholar
3176:system
2979:Stroke
2820:Tappet
2790:Piston
2535:Engine
2412:Thrust
2273:Rocket
2268:Ramjet
2069:, p.66
2065:
2048:
1952:1 July
1787:
1706:
1694:
1682:
1667:Froude
1470:p. 19.
1466:
1397:
1217:
1155:
1124:
953:torque
879:rowing
847:V-Prop
822:After
550:thrust
481:ATR 72
445:thrust
406:cherry
398:walnut
331:, 1754
297:turkey
228:Daoist
158:engine
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
3183:Avgas
3119:EICAS
2217:Types
2096:(PDF)
2085:(PDF)
1918:(PDF)
1911:(PDF)
1739:# 220
1510:(PDF)
1497:(PDF)
1213:–23.
863:TP400
718:raked
449:power
230:book
148:, an
101:JSTOR
87:books
3172:Fuel
3114:EFIS
2904:Bore
2612:Fuel
2207:and
2191:and
2131:help
2063:ISBN
2046:ISBN
2032:link
1993:link
1954:2022
1936:p.67
1785:ISBN
1766:2018
1704:ISBN
1692:ISBN
1680:ISBN
1672:Betz
1621:2018
1531:link
1464:ISBN
1450:2018
1395:ISBN
1257:link
1215:ISBN
1153:ISBN
1122:ISBN
1005:and
955:and
697:and
604:drag
408:and
376:wing
73:news
1825:. "
1591:NAR
891:RPM
410:ash
402:oak
236:by
144:In
56:by
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2120:}}
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1981:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
