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2007:
1999), 'Abd al-'Aziz bin Baz (d. 1999), Muhammad Salih al-'Uthaymin (d. 2001), and Yahya al-Hajuri, to name but a few, who held senior positions on religious councils responsible for issuing fatwas (legal opinions) and/or were lecturers in
Islamic sciences at traditional Islamic institutions such as the Universities of Medina and Riyadh.
1237:
681:, Spain, and the United Kingdom. He moved a number of times between Syria and a couple of cities in Jordan. He also lived in the UAE. After Bin Baz's intervention with Saudi educational management, al-Albani was invited to Saudi Arabia a second time in order to serve as the head of higher education in
836:
It was controversial specifically within the Salafi community. "However, wearing the Niqab is better". Sheikh Al-Albani said: "Whoever adheres to the obligation, it is good enough; and whoever does the recommendation, it is better." (Jilbab Ul-Mar’at Il-Muslimah, p. 28, which is a
Preface to the
725:
Al-Albani was amongst some leading Salafi scholars who were preaching for decades against what they considered the warped literalism of extremists. They believed that
Muslims should focus on purifying their beliefs and practice and that, in time, "God would bring victory over the forces of falsehood
581:
magazine. That work was the beginning of al-Albani's scholarly career, and for this book he became known in the scholarly circles of
Damascus, and library allocated him a special room to carry out his research, and gave him a duplicate key of the library. After a while, he began teaching two lessons
2006:
In addition, Salafism is a term that has a broader base in
Islamic tradition and is more encompassing than Ahl-Hadith, which has more sectarian implications. Among the most influential exponents of NTS are some contemporary Middle Eastern Muslim scholars such as Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani (d.
894:
Indeed, I have concluded that his methods disagree with those of the jurists and hadith scholars, and that his methods are creating great disarray and evident disruption in the proofs of jurisprudence both generally and specifically. He lacks trust in the Imams of law and hadith, as well as in the
769:
Al-Albani wrote a book in which he redefined the proper gestures and formula that constitute the Muslim prayer ritual "According to the
Prophet's sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallams practice." These were contrary to the prescriptions of all established schools of jurisprudence.
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619:
Starting in 1954, al-Albani began delivering informal weekly lessons. By 1960, his popularity began to worry the government, and he was placed under surveillance. He was imprisoned twice in 1969. He was placed under house arrest more than once in the 1970s by the
647:, the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia. Shortly upon his arrival, al-Albani angered the Hanbali Scholars in Saudi Arabia, who did not like his anti-traditionalist stances in Muslim jurisprudence. They were alarmed by al-Albani's intellectual challenges to the ruling
884:
The
Egyptian hadith scholar Mahmud Sa'id Mamduh, who studied with 'Abd al-Fattah Abu Ghudda and 'Abdallah b. al-Siddiq al-Ghumari. Mamduh has written at least four rebuttals of al-Albani's work on different subjects. In 1987, published a work entitled
733:
school of
Islamic law; he responded affirmatively. Al-Albani's opponents among the mainstream have affirmed this as a point of criticism. A number of al-Albani's students have denied his association with any formal school of jurisprudence.
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usually refers to an
Albanian, though the usage is sometimes extended to a Bosnian, Serbian, Yugoslavian, and sometimes to Albanian communities that settled in the Levant during the Ottoman era onward, especially for those residing in
773:
As he argued that several details of the concrete prayer that have been taught from generation to generation were based on dubious hadith, his book caused considerable controversy. Al-Albani's descriptions for the performance of the
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602:
The most important teacher of al-Albani was his father. Moreover, he studied under
Muhammad Saeed Al Burhani; where he studied a book named 'Maraqi Al Falah' on Hanafi Jurisprudence, and 'Shadoor Al Dhahab', a book on
717:
literature and felt that numerous previously accepted hadiths were unsound. This led him to produce rulings that were at odds with the Islamic majority. Although Salafism has frequently been associated with
1816:
864:
gained him criticism amongst a number of Sunni Muslim scholars. Al-Albani's critics amongst the clerical and intellectual classes consisted of various theological and political opponents. These included:
692:
Al-Albani returned to Syria, where he was briefly jailed again in 1979. He moved to Jordan, living there for the remainder of his time. He died in 1999 at the age of 85. Al-Albani's wife was Umm al-Fadl.
1445:
In this way he became a self-taught expert on Islam, learning from the books rather than the ulema. One of his biographers even states that al-Albani was distinguished in religious circles by how few
729:
Al-Albani's own views on jurisprudence and dogma have been a matter of debate and discussion. During a 1989 visit to Saudi Arabia, Al-Albani was asked if he adhered to the lesser-known
558:
Despite his father's discouragement against hadith studies, al-Albani became interested in the Hadith, therefore he learned the Hadith at about twenty years of age, influenced by the
582:
per week about doctrine, Fiqh and Hadith. His lessons were attended by students and university professors. He also began organizing advocacy trips to various cities of Syria and
701:
Al-Albani was a proponent of Salafism, and is considered one of the movement's primary figureheads in the 20th century. Al-Albani criticized the four mainstream schools of
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Pages 6-7: Al-Albani's Revolutionary Approach to Hadith - 2-page article on Al-Albani's hadith methodology in a backdrop to nepotism among Salafi scholars in Saudi Arabia
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1627:
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722:, al-Albani distinguished between the two movements, and he criticized the latter while supporting the former. He had a complex relationship to each movement.
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569:. Though he was taught by Muhammad Bahjat al-Baytar, 'Izz al din al tanoukhi,Shaykh Sa'id al-Burhani,Ibn al Baghi etc. he transcribed and commented on
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2733:
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Mustafa, Abdul-Rahman, and Mustafa Abdul Rahman. On Taqlid: Ibn Al Qayyim's Critique of Authority in Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2013. p.10
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his call for Palestinians to leave the occupied territories since, according to him, they were unable to practice their faith there as they should.
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594:, and then he returned to Damascus to complete his studies, and to his work in the library, where he left his place for one of his brothers.
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school of law but were unable to challenge him openly due to his popularity. Al-Albani wrote a book supporting his view that the
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842:
345:
111:
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909:
607:, and some other contemporary books on rhetoric. He also used to attend the lessons of Muhammad Bahjat Al Atar, scholar of
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Imam Al-Albani, Sheikh al-Islam and Imam of Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama’ah, in the eyes of notable scholars and virtuous writers
636:
587:
1641:
790:
Al-Albani held a number of controversial views that ran counter to the wider Islamic consensus, and more specifically to
2688:
510:("the Albanian") only after he dropped out of school and began to write. Afterward, he studied the renowned Hanafi book
299:
2107:
Al-Imam al-Albani Shaykh al-Islam wa Imam Ahl al-Sunnah wal Jama'ah Fee 'Ayoon A'alaam al-'Ulamaa' wa Fahool al-Adabaa'
1008:
Emad Hamdeh has described al-Albani as a "prolific scholar". He was the author of 217 books on various topics; such as
858:
Al-Albani has been regarded as one of the leading Islamic scholars of the 20th-century. Al-Albani's revaluation of the
2713:
1560:
956:
The Jordanian theologian, Hasan b. 'Ali al-Saqqaf, composed a book entitled ("Dictionary of al-Albani's Slanderings").
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870:
456:, Nuh detached his son from school in Albania. At the age of nine in 1923, al-Albani and his family moved to
1709:
1584:
Jordanian Salafism: A Strategy for the "Islamization of Society"and an Ambiguous Relationship with the State
418:
310:
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48:
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considered al-Albani to be "wrapped in evil" and "not suitable to be a sheikh" for his alleged claim that
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689:. This did not last due to controversy among the Saudi establishment regarding al-Albani's views.
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2529:
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after the leader was executed. He claimed that Qutb had deviated in creed and held the belief of
577:. He followed this writing a series of lectures and books, as well as publishing articles in the
559:
500:
362:
315:
138:
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The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon
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The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon
2137:
The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon
1882:
The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon
1632:[A Sitting with Umm al-Fadl, Wife of Shaikh al-Albaani (May Allaah have mercy on him)]
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1968:
1935:
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1960:
1911:"Niqab Sunnah or Wajib – Face Cover Mandatory or Prescribed – Can I Take My Niqab off – PDF"
1886:
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874:
742:
453:
1964:
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482:
441:
542:, also helped by native Syrian scholars. In the meantime, he earned a modest living as a
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Al-Albani did not advocate violence, preferring obedience to established governments. A
1147:
1009:
968:
2697:
2576:
2543:"Qurʾān and Sunna or the Madhhabs?: A Salafi Polemic Against Islamic Legal Tradition"
2533:
1989:
1660:"Qurʾān and Sunna or the Madhhabs?: A Salafi Polemic Against Islamic Legal Tradition"
1422:
1418:
625:
220:
183:
121:
705:
and rejected the traditional Sunni view that Muslims should automatically turn to a
2499:"Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-ʿUtaybi Revisited"
1779:
1737:
Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
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878:
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230:
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In 1963, al-Albani left Saudi Arabia and returned to his studies and work in the
586:. Then, he obtained a leave from Muhammad Rabegh Al Tabakh, to profess Hadith in
738:
702:
682:
437:
402:
238:
2021:
2558:
2517:
2052:
1990:"Constructing the religious Self and the Other: neo-traditional Salafi manhaj"
1675:
1232:
964:
921:
905:
665:
Al-Albani visited various countries for preaching and lectures – amongst them
547:
449:
414:
394:
215:
44:
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2489:
2442:
Producing Islamic Knowledge: Transmission and dissemination in Western Europe
1683:
1528:
Producing Islamic Knowledge: Transmission and Dissemination in Western Europe
1178:
713:(jurisprudence). Instead, he spent much of his life critically re-evaluating
575:
Al-Mughnee 'an-hamlil-Asfar fil-Asfar fee takhrej maa fil-lhyaa min al-Akhbar
2604:
2578:
Islam in the Balkans: religion and society between Europe and the Arab world
2446:
2394:
A prolific scholar, he authored 217 books on various topics such as ḥadīth,
2348:
2071:
1532:
935:
917:
912:, took issue with al-Albani's well-known call for all Palestinians to leave
719:
543:
375:
371:
212:
Shaykh al-Hajj Nuh Bin Najati Bin al-Ishqudri al-Hanafi al-Albani al-Arnauti
950:
809:
621:
468:
753:, of not being a religious scholar and holding "positions contrary to the
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1080:
989:
779:
775:
457:
445:
379:
225:
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2481:
845:
791:
706:
648:
640:
478:
431:
284:
255:
91:
949:
dubbed al-Albani "the chief innovator of our time" and accused him of
818:
his view that it was permissible to pray in a mosque with one's shoes.
662:
in Syria. He left his watch shop in the hands of one of his brothers.
1775:
1279:
1027:
1019:
982:
978:
960:
942:
926:
Anti-Madhabism: the dangers of an innovation that threaten the Sharia
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800:
754:
730:
714:
674:
655:, or full face-veil, was not a binding obligation upon Muslim women.
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608:
583:
492:
426:
177:
143:
131:
70:
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Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution
1955:
Haykel, Bernard (2009). "Salafī Groups". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
639:
in 1961, al-Albani received an invitation to teach hadith either by
611:. His other teachers were 'Izz al Din al Tanoukhi and Ibn al Baghi.
887:
Alerting the Muslim to al-Albani's Transgression upon Sahih Muslim.
390:, where his family had moved and where he was educated as a child.
2679:
The Albaani Site – Translations from His Works – Updated Regularly
1204:
996:
896:
834:
his view that it was not necessary for women to cover their faces.
804:
686:
670:
666:
652:
397:
by trade, Al-Albani was active as a writer, publishing chiefly on
387:
383:
158:
81:
66:
2375:
Salafism and Traditionalism: Scholarly Authority in Modern Islam
1014:
829:
his view that it is prohibited for women to wear gold bracelets.
710:
174:
2027:
The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century
873:(d. 1997) published a tract against al-Albani's revaluation of
2678:
1224:
Later an abridgment of this book was published by al-Albani –
895:
rich hadith and law tradition handed down to us, in which the
628:. The Syrian government prisoned al-Albani of "promoting the
930:
Salafiyya: a blessed historical period, not a school of fiqh.
825:
This view was also controversial within the Salafi movement.
374:), was an Albanian Islamic scholar known for being a famous
2650:
Salafism in Jordan: Political Islam in a Quietist Community
1304:
1302:
2439:
Bruinessen, Martin van; Allievi, Stefano (June 17, 2013).
1525:
Bruinessen, Martin van; Allievi, Stefano (June 17, 2013).
977:
criticized al-Albani for his "categorical condemnation of
803:– the niche found in mosques indicating the direction of
782:
prayers deviated considerably from established practice.
405:, Spain and the United Kingdom on the Salafist movement.
1705:
The Making of a Salafi Muslim Woman: Paths to Conversion
1349:
1347:
1319:
1317:
2497:
Hegghammer, Thomas; Lacroix, Stéphane (February 2007).
2466:"The Formative Years of an Iconoclastic Salafi Scholar"
489:, a non-profit civil school where he was known as the
1855:"What ISIS Talks About When It Talks About Palestine"
1489:
Lacroix, Stephane; Holoch, George (August 15, 2011).
2301:
Encyclopedia of Islam in the United States, Volume 1
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1334:
1332:
1277:
859:
632:
da'wa, which distorted Islam and confused Muslims."
537:
511:
505:
498:
490:
472:
429:
360:
359:(1914 – 2 October 1999) known by his
2625:
Salafism in Nigeria: Islam, Preaching, and Politics
938:
Nur al-Din 'Itr rebutted some of al-Albani's views.
477:, and other topics by his father and several local
341:
195:
167:
149:
137:
127:
117:
107:
97:
87:
77:
55:
33:
28:
21:
2575:
2417:Radical Islam and the Revival of Medieval Theology
2020:
1734:
1924:Kahn, Jonathan; Lloyd, Vincent (March 22, 2016).
1614:
1581:Abu Rumman, Mohammad; Abu Hanieh, Hassan (2011).
2582:. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
999:is defined as forgiveness, education and prayer.
1414:Global Salafism: Islam's new religious movement
959:Some American critics of al-Albani include the
924:. He wrote two rebuttals of al-Albani entitled
892:
2228:
2226:
1629:لقاء مع أم الفضل زوجة الشيخ الألباني رحمه الله
1472:official website. Accessed November 26, 2014.
8:
2506:International Journal of Middle East Studies
2104:Ayd al-Hilali Abu Usamah, Selim Ibn (2012).
1957:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
1818:Al-Albani's Revolutionary Approach to Hadith
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
2163:
2161:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1576:
1574:
1996:. Vol. 21, no. 1. pp. 75–93
1791:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1554:
1552:
1308:
869:In the early 1970s, Syrian hadith scholar
413:Muhammad Nasir al-Din was born in 1914 in
18:
2597:Brachman, Jarret M. (September 3, 2008).
2341:Brachman, Jarret M. (September 3, 2008).
2114:]. Dar Al-Imaam Ahmad. Archived from
2022:"Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century"
1874:
1872:
1828:'s ISIM Review, p. 6, archived from
643:, the university's vice president, or by
2129:
2127:
2125:
1323:
1024:
2719:Albanian Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam
1520:
1518:
1516:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1298:
1269:
1161:Al-Aqidah at-Tahawiyyah Sharh wa Ta'liq
279:
207:
1784:
1466:Sheikh Mohammad Nasir Ad-Din Al-Albani
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
843:Muslim ruler must be from the tribe of
2759:20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
2684:Official Website of Sheikh Al-Albani
1697:
1695:
1693:
1561:"The Politics of "Quietist" Salafism"
7:
2600:Global Jihadism: Theory and Practice
2344:Global Jihadism: Theory and Practice
1994:Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations
1965:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
571:Abd al-Rahim ibn al-Husain al-'Iraqi
23:Sheikh Muhammad Nasiruddin Al-Albani
16:Albanian Islamic scholar (1914–1999)
2328:
1959:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1853:Batrawi, Samar (October 28, 2015).
1338:
386:, he established his reputation in
2754:Albanian Islamic religious leaders
2233:Pierret, Thomas (March 25, 2013).
1857:. Foreign Affairs. Foreign Affairs
1073:At-Tawassulu: Anwa'uhu wa Ahkamuhu
536:He studied numerous books such as
14:
2199:Cook, David (September 1, 2015).
401:. He also lectured widely in the
2814:Biographical evaluation scholars
2734:Albanian Arabic-language writers
2574:Norris, Harry Thirlwall (1993).
2168:Brown, Jonathan (June 5, 2007).
2134:Brown, Jonathan (June 5, 2007).
1879:Brown, Jonathan (June 5, 2007).
1815:Stephane Lacroix (Spring 2008),
1702:Inge, Anabel (January 1, 2016).
1559:Olidort, Jacob (February 2015).
1411:Meijer, Roel (October 1, 2009).
1249:
1235:
1470:King Faisal International Prize
1083:: Its Types & Its Rulings)
1026:Al-Albani's works in Fields of
546:before joining his father as a
467:In Damascus, he was taught the
346:King Faisal International Prize
2207:University of California Press
1988:Adis Duderija (January 2010).
1927:Race and Secularism in America
1733:A. C. Brown, Jonathan (2014).
910:Muhammad Said Ramadan al-Bouti
794:jurisprudence. These include:
1:
2724:20th-century Albanian writers
2653:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
2541:Hamdeh, Emad (June 9, 2017).
1658:Hamdeh, Emad (June 9, 2017).
1615:Hegghammer & Lacroix 2007
1180:(link to English translation)
1085:(link to english translation)
745:. Further, al-Albani accused
637:Islamic University of Madinah
588:Islamic University of Madinah
307:Shaykh Mashhoor Hasan Salmaan
2622:Thurston, Alexander (2016).
1449:(certificates) he possessed.
737:Al-Albani openly criticized
524:
235:Badi' ud-Din Shah al-Rashidi
2794:Albanian emigrants to Syria
2729:20th-century Syrian writers
1278:
860:
538:
512:
506:
499:
491:
473:
430:
361:
2830:
2655:Cambridge University Press
2630:Cambridge University Press
2464:Hamdeh, Emad (July 2016).
2422:Cambridge University Press
2380:Cambridge University Press
2241:Cambridge University Press
325:Salih Ibn S'aad As Suhaymi
261:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
2647:Wagemakers, Joas (2016).
2559:10.1163/15685195-00240A01
2518:10.1017/S0020743807002553
2066:Gauvain, Richard (2015).
2031:Columbia University Press
1932:Columbia University Press
1676:10.1163/15685195-00240A01
1431:Columbia University Press
1062:At-Tasfiyah wa't-Tarbiyah
635:At the foundation of the
497:. He became known by the
300:Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i
272:
200:
180:historiographer/historian
2298:Jocelyne Cesari (2007).
2019:Lauzière, Henri (2015).
1628:
1592:Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
1497:Harvard University Press
1105:Talkhis Ahkam al-Jana'iz
871:Abd al-Fattah Abu Ghudda
409:Early life and education
378:. A major figure of the
328:Ismail Falah Al Mandakar
2547:Islamic Law and Society
1710:Oxford University Press
1664:Islamic Law and Society
1172:Sifatu Salati An-Nabiyy
436:(school of thought) of
425:, was a scholar of the
399:hadith and its sciences
311:Muhammad bin Jamil Zeno
295:Umar Sulayman al-Ashqar
252:Muhammad Bahjat al-Atar
249:'Izz al-Din al-Tanoukhi
243:Shaykh Saeed al Burhani
1203:Silsalat al-Hadith as-
1188:Silsalat al-Hadith ad-
1050:At-Targhib wa't-Tarhib
901:
899:has taken great pride.
448:. Fearing the rise of
2784:Critics of Shia Islam
2372:Hamdeh, Emad (2021).
1743:Oneworld Publications
1565:Brookings Institution
993:Sayyed Imam Al-Sharif
854:Assessment and legacy
590:from 1381 until 1383
462:French occupied-Syria
357:Muhammad Nasir al-Din
38:Muhammad Nasir al-Din
2789:Watchmakers (people)
2414:Lav, Daniel (2012).
2118:on October 16, 2021.
2068:Salafi Ritual Purity
1647:on November 8, 2020.
749:, the leader of the
679:United Arab Emirates
660:Az-Zahiriyah library
645:Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
615:Later life and death
567:Muhammad Rashid Rida
529:) with his teacher,
2764:People from Shkodër
2202:Understanding Jihad
1835:on October 10, 2017
1499:. pp. 68–220.
1380:, pp. 209–210.
1034:
985:based revisionism".
981:" and his "radical
947:Gibril Fouad Haddad
539:Mukhtasar al-Quduri
452:during the rule of
331:Ali Hasan Al Halabi
2714:20th-century imams
2482:10.1111/muwo.12157
1770:Al-Albani (1989),
1563:. Analysis Paper.
1433:. pp. 63–68.
1427:C. Hurst & Co.
1025:
841:his view that the
751:Muslim Brotherhood
204:Influenced by
2664:978-1-10716-366-9
2639:978-1-1071-5743-9
2614:978-1-1340-5541-8
2589:978-0-87249-977-5
2456:978-1-1369-3285-4
2431:978-1-1070-0964-6
2389:978-1-108-61836-6
2358:978-1-1340-5541-8
2250:978-1-1070-2641-4
2216:978-0-5209-6249-1
2049:10.7312/lauz17550
1941:978-0-2315-4127-5
1826:Leiden University
1772:Shareet al-Khobar
1601:978-0-6740-4964-2
1542:978-1-1369-3286-1
1506:978-0-6740-6107-1
1392:, pp. 10–11.
1231:
1230:
1133:Sunan at-Tirmidhi
481:. He learned the
454:Ahmed Muhtar Zogu
354:
353:
290:Rabee Al-Madkhali
2821:
2809:Salafi Quietists
2769:Albanian Salafis
2668:
2643:
2618:
2593:
2581:
2570:
2537:
2503:
2493:
2470:The Muslim World
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1719:9780-1-9061-1675
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1640:. Archived from
1638:The Albaani Site
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1356:, pp. 9–10.
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1276:The Arabic word
1274:
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1243:Biography portal
1240:
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1238:
1218:Salat ut-Tarawih
1118:Sunan Abu Dawood
1035:
875:Sahih al-Bukhari
863:
743:Oneness of Being
541:
531:Sa'id al-Burhani
528:
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188:watchmaker/fixer
150:Main interest(s)
62:
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2749:Non-conformists
2744:Hadith scholars
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2306:Greenwood Press
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2277:. p. 325.
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2144:. p. 327.
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1148:Sunan Ibn Majah
1146:Sahih wa Da'if
1131:Sahih wa Da'if
1116:Sahih wa Da'if
1006:
975:Safar Al-Hawali
889:He stated that:
856:
788:
767:
747:Hassan al-Banna
726:and unbelief."
699:
617:
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520:al-Shurunbulali
514:Maraqi al-Falah
483:Arabic language
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2607:. p. 33.
2594:
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2402:
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2382:. p. 41.
2364:
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2351:. p. 33.
2333:
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2321:
2314:
2308:. p. 25.
2290:
2284:978-9004158399
2283:
2265:Jonathan Brown
2256:
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2185:978-9004158399
2184:
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2033:. p. 10.
2011:
1980:
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1712:. p. 25.
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1670:(3): 211–253.
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799:his view that
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421:. His father,
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1567:. p. 14.
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813:(innovation).
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626:Hafiz al-Asad
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221:Ibn Taymiyyah
219:
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196:Muslim leader
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184:bibliographer
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118:Jurisprudence
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2398:, and creed.
2395:
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2343:
2336:
2324:
2300:
2293:
2269:
2259:
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2136:
2116:the original
2111:
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2090:
2067:
2061:
2051:– via
2026:
2014:
2005:
1998:. Retrieved
1993:
1983:
1956:
1950:
1926:
1919:
1913:. July 2020.
1905:
1881:
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