448:
546:
351:. Fur trading continued to be the primary resource sold by Mobile. Mobile continued to have a very heterogeneous population, and Spain wanted more settlement in its Floridian colonies. It attracted British and American immigrants by adopting very liberal policies compared to those in other parts of the Spanish Empire. In Spanish colonies, all citizens were required to become Catholic, but the Spanish government in the Floridas allowed its inhabitants to worship as they pleased. The government also offered liberal land grants to potential settlers. In 1785, Spanish Mobile had 746 inhabitants. By 1788, Mobile had a population of over 1,400.
482:
385:
299:
191:
564:
222:, which they named after the Maubilian Indians. The outpost was populated by French soldiers, French-Canadian trappers and fur traders, and a few merchants and artisans accompanied by their families. The French had easy access to the Indian fur trade, and furs were the primary economic resource of Mobile. Along with fur, some settlers also raised cattle as well as produced ships' timbers and naval stores.
717:
465:
226:
640:
social heritage. Creoles continued to maintain their own schools, churches, social clubs, and the fabled Creole Steam Fire
Company Number I. Creoles worked as doctors, lawyers, educators, and businessmen. They mirrored the customs and practices of Mobile's white elite, and formed their own mystic societies, creating a "Colored Mardi Gras" celebration.
685:
635:
For
Creoles in Mobile, the following era was bleak. Poor economic conditions continued from reconstruction all the way until the first World War, and a rising tide of racism eroded many of the rights that Creoles once knew. A binary racial system took hold of Mobile; everyone was classified either as
618:
Nevertheless, in 1864, as Mobile needed defenders for the city, Creoles joined
Confederate cavalry units, and a company of Creoles in Confederate service, the Native Guards, formed from a Creole firefighting battalion. After Federal forces defeated the Confederates in Mobile, the Creole Native Guards
410:
Mobile experienced a dramatic growth as cotton flowed through its ports from plantations and farms in the
Alabama interior. Mobile also received a reputation for being quite unrefined, as young men and transients poured into the city, and made saloons, drinking, and prostitution a mainstay of life in
639:
In 1901, racist forces moved to permanently disenfranchise the black population of Mobile through the state constitution. The
Creoles of Mobile pleaded with the white leadership of the state, but it was of no use. Many Creoles turned inward, seeking solace in the glories of the past and their older
330:
The new colonial government enacted a harsher slave code that gave slaves very few legal rights and made emancipation much more difficult to obtain. Slaves became expensive, each one costing around 300 Spanish dollars. To counteract expensive slave labor, white indentured servants were imported and
643:
At the end of the 1930s, Mobile was essentially a small town where most people were comfortable and satisfied with the community institutions available. However, the city was deeply divided by race, and the lack of economic opportunity hampered the economic development of the city. Mobile's Creole
477:
Mobile contained approximately 40% of all of
Alabama's free black population. Mobile's free people of color were the Creoles. A people of diverse origins, the Creoles formed an elite with their own schools, churches, fire company, and social organizations. Many Creoles were the descendants of free
240:
Indian nations gathered annually at Mobile to be wined, dined, and showered with presents by the French. About 2,000 Indians descended on Mobile for as long as two weeks. Because of the close and friendly relationship between colonial French and Indian peoples, French colonists learned the Indian
1468:
Cajans were of varying racial mixtures; some under
Alabama's new racial laws were considered black, others were considered white, and others yet designated as Indians. Cajans were discriminated against due to their racial ambiguity, and many remained illiterate due to not having access to public
289:
By the mid-18th century, Mobile was populated by French
Creoles, European Frenchmen, French-Canadians, Africans, and Indians. This diverse group was united by Roman Catholicism, the exclusive religion of the colony. The town's inhabitants included 50 troops, a mixed group of approximately 400
515:
Southerners generally defended slavery as a positive institution for the benefit of the slaves. The large Creole community in Mobile posed serious practical and ideological problems for the proponents of slavery. How could slavery be a positive good for both whites and blacks when the Creole
627:
The Civil War completely destroyed Mobile as it once was. Prior to the Civil War, Mobile was
Alabama's most vital urban area, and it was the undisputed economic and social center of the state. In the years after the Civil War, Mobile's economy languished, and its population declined.
252:
Mobile was a melting pot of different peoples, and included continental
Frenchmen, French-Canadians, and various Indians mingled together in Mobile. The differences between continental Frenchmen and French-Canadians were so great that serious disputes occurred between the two groups.
527:
Although the antebellum period was the most colorful, exuberant period of Mobile's history, it was also short-lived. Young Alabama Creoles who began their careers in the 1820s lived to see their fortunes and the accomplishments of their city destroyed by a
478:
blacks at the time of Mobile's capture by American forces, and who retained their freedoms by treaty and treated by the American government as a unique people. Other Creoles were blood relatives of white Mobilians including those of prominent families.
434:... Here is a sailor just on shore with a pocket full of rocks ready for devilment of any kind and there is a beggar in rags. Pretty Creoles, pale-faced sewing girls, painted vice, big-headed and little-headed men, tall anatomies and short Falstaffs
524:(savannah liberty), although outlawed by Americans, many slaves hired themselves out and accumulated personal funds. Slaves in Mobile learned to read and write from the highly educated Creoles, and they gained freedom through their skilled labor.
603:
Creoles in Mobile also continuously petitioned to join the war effort. In November 1862, Alabama's General Assembly passed legislation allowing Creoles to enroll in the state militia, and a unit of Alabama Creole Guards was raised.
611:, requested that the Confederate War Department immediately accept Creole state militia into Confederate service, with the idea of making them heavy artillerists to man Mobile's shore batteries. Confederate Secretary of War
647:
World War II changed the economic outlook of Mobile. New industry appeared, and Mobile became an important port once more. After World War II, racial tension became inflamed again leading to the protests and riots of the
1560:(1st ed.). United States of America: Windsor Publications. pp. 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 88, 92, 105, 119, 120, 123.
1739:
519:
Creoles maintained their own schools, churches, fire companies, and social institutions; urban slaves had access to money, as well as the company of other slaves and free blacks. Following the Creole custom
497:
486:
652:
that changed the situation of blacks in the United States. After the Civil Rights Movement, institutionalized segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement were finally abolished.
327:
Life changed very little for Alabama Creoles under British rule. The fur trade continued and British adopted the Creole practice of holding Indian congresses and inviting Indian guests.
503:
The Creoles of Mobile built a Catholic school run by and for Creoles. Mobilians supported several literary societies, numerous book stores, and number of book and music publishers.
430:"Clerks of all shapes and sizes, white and red haired men, staid thinking men and brainless flops. Here goes a staid, demeure-faced priest and behind him is a dashing gambler
256:
The French also established slavery in 1721. Slaves infused elements of African and French Creole culture into Mobile, as many of the slaves who came to Mobile worked in the
331:
they began to supply much of the town's labor. White indentured servants usually worked for two to four years and their masters provided them housing, food, and clothing.
1622:
1593:
496:
The Catholic community of primarily French Creole descent remained numerous and influential. In 1825, the Catholic community began the 15-year construction of the
447:
1724:
365:
On April 11, 1813, an American force of 600 overwhelmed 60 Spanish troops stationed in Mobile. On April 13, the Spanish commander surrendered his 60 men and
1734:
1729:
270:, was instituted in French colonies which allowed slaves certain legal and religious rights not found in either British colonies or the United States. The
969:
358:, and they claimed that the Spanish Floridas were part of the purchase. Americans within the Floridas plotted against the Spanish government. During the
1744:
877:
593:
1396:
290:
civilians which included merchants, laborers, fur traders, artisans, and slaves. This mixed diverse group and its descendants are called Creoles.
1265:
889:
407:
that had not yet developed a thriving mercantile community. As Mobile grew, it attracted medical and legal professionals as well as printers.
51:
143:. They are the descendants of colonial French and Spanish settlers who arrived in Mobile in the 18th century. They are sometimes known as
1719:
1368:
581:
545:
1714:
1348:
964:
585:
1442:(Creole peasant), and the Cajans of Alabama adopted the Cajan name to distinguish themselves from the urban Creoles of Mobile.
872:
354:
As time went on, however, the Americans began desiring the Spanish lands. In 1803 the Americans bought French Louisiana from
199:
954:
589:
55:
116:
112:
1389:
769:
636:
black or white. An informal, but rigid segregation code restricted the social and economic activities of the Creoles.
1260:
934:
823:
774:
348:
592:
to form military units to protect their homes, their cities, and their states. In New Orleans, Creoles formed the
994:
843:
804:
47:
1709:
1057:
916:
867:
794:
656:
366:
1417:
were designated as "Cajans" during the years after the Civil War. They gained their name from a corruption of
911:
855:
1704:
597:
570:
481:
321:
277:
267:
136:
500:. For most of the antebellum era, friction between Protestants and Catholics was practically non-existent.
1382:
838:
833:
828:
736:
700:
420:
313:
376:
and held on to the territory that they had won. Mobile was thereafter administered by the United States.
108:
1749:
1450:
1414:
1343:
1187:
1165:
1113:
860:
649:
644:
population was prevented from fully contributing its energy and talents towards building a better city.
373:
309:
185:
552:
317:
302:
282:
1240:
980:
629:
404:
1255:
655:
The Creoles of Alabama slowly disappeared, either emigrating to other states or assimilating into
384:
1616:
1587:
1177:
1015:
799:
529:
355:
312:
where France relinquished all of its continental colonial territory to Britain and ceded half of
1449:, which was all of the bayou country surrounding Mobile; to the north, it reached the hills of
615:
denied Maury's request and stated that blacks could never be enlisted as Confederate soldiers.
1670:
Mixed-blood Populations of Eastern United States as to Origins, Localizations, and Persistence
1325:
1285:
1278:
1225:
1213:
1160:
1140:
1135:
944:
88:
1315:
1235:
1155:
1150:
1106:
1099:
1092:
1071:
1064:
1050:
1030:
1022:
1008:
974:
663:
100:
1458:
1434:
1426:
1410:
1320:
1310:
1303:
1290:
1245:
1230:
1120:
1085:
959:
949:
754:
612:
608:
512:
490:
389:
286:(ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects.
246:
234:
219:
152:
140:
128:
59:
190:
1250:
1145:
76:
1409:
Country Creoles who lived in the bayous outside of Mobile, in the forests surrounding
298:
1698:
1462:
1220:
740:
708:
689:
679:
416:
412:
362:, the Americans finally had a justification to take Spanish Mobile and the Floridas.
242:
203:
563:
464:
344:
340:
215:
1203:) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).
411:
the city. Gradually Mobile evolved into the third most important port city in the
395:
The first Americans to arrive in Mobile after the War of 1812 were merchants from
1078:
511:
The institution of slavery presented white Alabamians with a serious challenge.
400:
396:
359:
257:
211:
632:
replaced Mobile in its economic development and became Alabama's largest city.
1643:. United States of America: Trinity University Press. pp. Tour 9:2, 3, 4.
1454:
809:
782:
92:
939:
1001:
904:
894:
789:
764:
716:
272:
262:
164:
63:
1672:. Berkley, United States of America: University of California. p. 73.
426:
In 1844, a Northern visitor described the diversity and beauty of Mobile:
225:
1418:
1363:
1182:
1036:
659:, replacing their Creole history, language, and heritage in the process.
324:
at this time moved to Mobile, as they preferred British to Spanish rule.
230:
104:
684:
1358:
1353:
1200:
35:
1657:. United States of America: National Urban League. 1933. p. 312.
1422:
1196:
1043:
987:
731:
675:
455:
207:
168:
160:
96:
1582:. United States of America: Hackett Publishing. pp. 56, 57, 58.
1611:. United States of America: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 346.
683:
480:
383:
297:
224:
189:
316:
to Spain, Britain merged the Southern Louisiana territories into
1457:; to the east, it reached through the bayous and forests around
1425:
of Louisiana. Creoles at this time used the term Cajun/Cajan (
167:, and most do not trace their roots to the French settlers of
1469:
schools. Cajans tended to stay among their own communities.
1740:
Self-identification as Native American in the United States
1687:. United States of America: Time Incorporated. p. 51.
532:, which they more than other Alabamians, sought to avoid.
1634:
1632:
1490:. United States of America: Theatre Arts. p. 1027.
399:, and they recognized a unique opportunity compared to
1607:
Jacques Arends, Pieter Muysken, Norval Smith (1995).
1578:
Wesley Moody, Alfred J. Andrea, Andrew Holt (2017).
607:
In November 1863, the general in command of Mobile,
662:The last speakers of Alabama Creole French died at
372:In 1815, the Americans defeated the British at the
82:
69:
41:
29:
1558:Mobile the life and times of a great Southern city
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
438:... a great country this is and make no mistake."
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
536:Alabama Creoles during the Civil War (1861–1864)
428:
1438:) interchangeably with the social designation
600:forces ultimately dissolved the unit in 1862.
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1445:Alabama Cajans inhabited a region called the
1390:
8:
1641:The WPA Guide to Alabama: The Camellia State
1621:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1592:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
516:population not only existed, but prospered?
22:
1683:Briton Hadden; Henry Robinson Luce (1934).
1556:Melton McLaurin, Michael Thomason (1981).
1397:
1383:
695:
214:to a wooded bluff on the west bank of the
21:
1478:
707:
1614:
1585:
498:Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
487:Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
249:, and intermarried with Indian women.
159:) although they are distinct from the
1433:
580:Creoles during the Civil war in both
7:
1609:Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction
30:Regions with significant populations
1725:African-American history of Alabama
1369:Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
1735:Native American history of Alabama
1730:French-American culture in Alabama
339:In 1783, Spain took possession of
218:in early 1702, where they founded
139:group native to the region around
14:
1639:Federal Writers' Project (2013).
507:Antebellum Alabama Creole society
1745:People of Louisiana (New France)
1192:Overseas parts of France proper
715:
562:
555:August 2, 1864 – August 23, 1864
544:
463:
446:
16:French Creoles of Mobile Alabama
1488:Theatre Arts Monthly, volume 14
335:Spanish occupation (1783–1815)
294:British occupation (1763–1783)
1:
1655:Opportunity, Volumes 11 to 12
573:April 2, 1865 – April 9, 1865
380:Antebellum period (1815–1861)
1668:Edward Thomas Price (1950).
1580:Seven Myths of the Civil War
1195:Migration of minorities in
623:Late 19th to 20th centuries
200:Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
1766:
1720:History of Mobile, Alabama
673:
619:disappeared from service.
349:American Revolutionary War
183:
453:A Creole girl with a red
87:
74:
46:
34:
1715:Ethnic groups in Alabama
1349:People of French descent
657:African American culture
266:, a slave code based on
1266:Cultural Heritage sites
598:Confederate States Army
571:Battle of Fort Blakeley
470:A bourgeois Creole girl
194:Fort Louis de la Mobile
1413:, and in the hills of
693:
594:Louisiana Native Guard
493:
440:
421:New Orleans, Louisiana
392:
322:Creoles of New Orleans
305:
237:
195:
156:
132:
1486:Theatre Arts (1930).
1344:List of French people
1114:Franco-Newfoundlander
970:Saint Kitts and Nevis
687:
650:Civil Rights Movement
484:
387:
374:Battle of New Orleans
310:French and Indian War
301:
228:
193:
186:Mississippian culture
184:Further information:
83:Related ethnic groups
23:Alabama Creole people
878:United Arab Emirates
553:Battle of Mobile Bay
318:British West Florida
303:British West Florida
133:Créoles de l'Alabama
25:Créoles de l'Alabama
981:French Louisianians
522:liberté des savanes
405:Louisiana Territory
308:In 1763, after the
198:Adventurers led by
26:
912:Germany (pre-1918)
726:Native communities
703:of articles on the
694:
596:in 1861, although
494:
393:
356:Napoleon Bonaparte
306:
258:French West Indies
238:
196:
1435:[ka.dʒɛ̃]
1407:
1406:
1286:History of France
1123:
1116:
1109:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1004:
997:
990:
983:
908:
898:
813:
786:
590:state governments
588:petitioned their
245:of the area, the
122:
121:
117:African Americans
89:Louisiana Creoles
1757:
1689:
1688:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1636:
1627:
1626:
1620:
1612:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1583:
1575:
1562:
1561:
1553:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1437:
1399:
1392:
1385:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1100:Franco-Yukonnais
1098:
1093:Franco-Columbian
1091:
1084:
1077:
1072:Franco-Manitoban
1070:
1065:Franco-Ontarians
1063:
1056:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1021:
1014:
1007:
1000:
995:French Canadians
993:
986:
979:
902:
892:
807:
780:
719:
696:
664:Mon Louis Island
566:
548:
467:
450:
437:
433:
137:Louisiana French
101:Creoles of color
27:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1710:American Creole
1695:
1694:
1693:
1692:
1685:Time, Volume 24
1682:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1637:
1630:
1613:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1584:
1577:
1576:
1565:
1555:
1554:
1495:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1421:, matching the
1403:
1374:
1373:
1339:
1331:
1330:
1306:
1296:
1295:
1291:Napoleonic wars
1281:
1271:
1270:
1216:
1206:
1205:
1193:
1121:Franco-Nunavois
1086:Franco-Albertan
940:French Antilles
757:
747:
746:
727:
682:
672:
625:
613:James A. Seddon
609:Dabney H. Maury
578:
577:
576:
575:
574:
567:
558:
557:
556:
549:
538:
509:
491:Mobile, Alabama
475:
474:
473:
472:
471:
468:
460:
459:
451:
435:
431:
382:
337:
296:
280:also conferred
260:. In 1724, the
247:Mobilian Jargon
188:
182:
177:
141:Mobile, Alabama
125:Alabama Creoles
60:Mobilian Jargon
24:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1763:
1761:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1705:Creole peoples
1697:
1696:
1691:
1690:
1675:
1660:
1646:
1628:
1599:
1563:
1493:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1440:petit habitant
1405:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1307:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1282:
1277:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1096:
1089:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1047:
1040:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1012:
1005:
998:
991:
984:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
926:
925:
922:
919:
914:
909:
899:
890:United Kingdom
881:
880:
875:
870:
865:
864:
863:
847:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
815:
814:
802:
797:
792:
787:
777:
772:
767:
758:
753:
752:
749:
748:
745:
744:
734:
728:
725:
724:
721:
720:
712:
711:
705:
704:
671:
670:Alabama Cajans
668:
666:in the 1990s.
624:
621:
568:
561:
560:
559:
550:
543:
542:
541:
540:
539:
537:
534:
513:Anglo-American
508:
505:
469:
462:
461:
452:
445:
444:
443:
442:
441:
413:American Union
381:
378:
367:Fort Charlotte
336:
333:
295:
292:
229:Portrait of a
181:
178:
176:
173:
120:
119:
85:
84:
80:
79:
77:Roman Catholic
75:Predominantly
72:
71:
67:
66:
44:
43:
39:
38:
32:
31:
18:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1762:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1686:
1679:
1676:
1671:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1581:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
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1241:Architecture
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216:Mobile River
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163:of southern
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19:Ethnic group
1188:New Zealand
1079:Fransaskois
965:Puerto Rico
850:Middle East
401:New Orleans
397:New England
360:War of 1812
233:Woman from
212:Mississippi
202:moved from
1699:Categories
1473:References
1455:Citronelle
1226:Literature
810:Afrikaners
800:Seychelles
783:Afrikaners
770:Madagascar
692:of Alabama
674:See also:
630:Birmingham
347:after the
283:affranchis
278:Roman laws
268:Roman laws
1617:cite book
1588:cite book
1178:Australia
1166:Venezuela
1136:Argentina
1058:Québécois
1002:Huguenots
945:Guatemala
905:Huguenots
895:Huguenots
824:Hong Kong
775:Mauritius
582:Louisiana
530:civil war
388:American
314:Louisiana
276:based on
273:Code Noir
263:Code Noir
165:Louisiana
109:Québecois
64:Franglais
42:Languages
1364:Walloons
1304:Language
1221:Religion
1151:Colombia
1037:Acadians
1016:Corsican
924:Portugal
844:Pakistan
779:Namibia
755:Diaspora
701:a series
699:Part of
135:) are a
105:Acadians
70:Religion
1461:to the
1419:Acadian
1359:Bretons
1354:Basques
1326:Romance
1316:Walloon
1279:History
1261:Symbols
1251:Cuisine
1214:Culture
1201:Basques
1172:Oceania
1161:Uruguay
955:Jamaica
917:Hungary
868:Lebanon
795:Senegal
790:Réunion
765:Algeria
586:Alabama
415:behind
403:in the
320:. Some
231:Choctaw
180:Origins
175:History
157:Cadjins
93:Isleños
48:English
36:Alabama
1459:Daphne
1431:Cadjin
1427:French
1423:Cajuns
1411:Daphne
1321:Breton
1311:French
1236:Cinema
1199:(i.e.
1197:France
1141:Brazil
1051:Basque
1044:Brayon
1031:Canada
1023:Basque
1009:Breton
988:Cajuns
960:Mexico
884:Europe
873:Turkey
856:Israel
760:Africa
732:France
676:Cajuns
456:tignon
436:
432:
390:Mobile
235:Mobile
220:Mobile
208:Biloxi
169:Acadia
161:Cajuns
153:French
149:Cajuns
145:Cajans
129:French
97:Cajuns
52:French
1338:Other
1256:Dress
1246:Sport
1231:Music
1146:Chile
950:Haiti
921:Spain
839:Korea
834:Japan
829:India
741:Aosta
737:Italy
1623:link
1594:link
1453:and
1156:Peru
935:Cuba
861:Jews
818:Asia
688:The
678:and
584:and
569:The
551:The
485:The
419:and
343:and
489:in
206:in
147:or
1701::
1631:^
1619:}}
1615:{{
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1586:{{
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