813:) the reduction in atmospheric pressure signifies less atmospheric resistance, which generally results in improved athletic performance. For endurance events (races of 5,000 metres or more) the predominant effect is the reduction in oxygen which generally reduces the athlete's performance at high altitude. Sports organizations acknowledge the effects of altitude on performance: the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF), for example, marks record performances achieved at an altitude greater than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) with the letter "A".
186:
459:
251:
133:
284:(18,000 feet (5,500 m) in the US, but may be as low as 3,000 feet (910 m) in other jurisdictions). So when the altimeter reads the country-specific flight level on the standard pressure setting the aircraft is said to be at "Flight level XXX/100" (where XXX is the transition altitude). When flying at a flight level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure (29.92
58:
764:
Medicine recognizes that altitudes above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) start to affect humans, and there is no record of humans living at extreme altitudes above 5,500–6,000 metres (18,000–19,700 ft) for more than two years. As the altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, which affects
394:
atmospheric conditions. Aircraft performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day, density altitude at an airport (especially one at a high elevation) may be so high as to preclude takeoff, particularly for helicopters or a
796:
There is a significantly lower overall mortality rate for permanent residents at higher altitudes. Additionally, there is a dose response relationship between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States. In addition, the recent hypothesis suggests that high altitude
91:
In aviation, altitude is typically measured relative to mean sea level or above ground level to ensure safe navigation and flight operations. In geometry and geographical surveys, altitude helps create accurate topographic maps and understand the terrain's elevation. For high-altitude trekking and
381:
is the elevation above a standard datum air-pressure plane (typically, 1013.25 millibars or 29.92" Hg). Pressure altitude is used to indicate "flight level" which is the standard for altitude reporting in the U.S. in Class A airspace (above roughly 18,000 feet). Pressure altitude and indicated
797:
could be protective against
Alzheimer's disease via action of erythropoietin, a hormone released by kidney in response to hypoxia. However, people living at higher elevations have a statistically significant higher rate of suicide. The cause for the increased suicide risk is unknown so far.
986:
Transatmospheric orbit (TAO): orbital flight with perigee less than 80 km but more than zero. Potentially used by aerobraking missions and transatmospheric vehicles, also in some temporary phases of orbital flight (e.g. STS pre OMS-2, some failures when no apogee
847:. For example, small mammals face the challenge of maintaining body heat in cold temperatures, due to their small volume to surface area ratio. As oxygen is used as a source of metabolic heat production, the hypobaric hypoxia at high altitudes is problematic.
647:
is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.
262:
can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier (e.g. "true altitude"), or implicitly through the context of the communication. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used.
695:. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an
816:
Athletes also can take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level. These changes are the basis of
839:. Animals have developed physiological adaptations to enhance oxygen uptake and delivery to tissues which can be used to sustain metabolism. The strategies used by animals to adapt to high altitude depend on their
92:
sports, knowing and adapting to altitude is vital for performance and safety. Higher altitudes mean reduced oxygen levels, which can lead to altitude sickness if proper acclimatization measures are not taken.
72:
and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context (e.g., aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, or atmospheric pressure). Although the term
905:
789:
by breathing faster, having a higher heart rate, and adjusting its blood chemistry. It can take days or weeks to adapt to high altitude. However, above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft), (in the "
573:
is divided into several altitude regions. These regions start and finish at varying heights depending on season and distance from the poles. The altitudes stated below are averages:
699:, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the
1932:
McCracken, K. G.; Barger, CP; Bulgarella, M; Johnson, KP; et al. (October 2009). "Parallel evolution in the major haemoglobin genes of eight species of Andean waterfowl".
835:
Decreased oxygen availability and decreased temperature make life at high altitude challenging. Despite these environmental conditions, many species have been successfully
1143:. USARIEM-TN94-2. U.S. Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009
821:
which forms an integral part of the training of athletes in a number of endurance sports including track and field, distance running, triathlon, cycling and swimming.
462:
Low (cyan) and Medium (yellow) Earth orbit regions to scale. The black dashed line is the geosynchronous orbit. The green dashed line is the 20,230 km orbit used for
1772:
Wehrlin, JP; Zuest, P; Hallén, J; Marti, B (June 2006). "Live high—train low for 24 days increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume in elite endurance athletes".
913:
1052:
1469:
2002:
861:
However, some species, such as birds, thrive at high altitude. Birds thrive because of physiological features that are advantageous for high-altitude flight.
688:
of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.
1455:
1848:
Jacobsen, Dean (24 September 2007). "Low oxygen pressure as a driving factor for the altitudinal decline in taxon richness of stream macroinvertebrates".
624:. The thermosphere and exosphere (along with the higher parts of the mesosphere) are regions of the atmosphere that are conventionally defined as space.
1290:
691:
However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of
1901:"Metabolic traits of westslope cutthroat trout, introduced rainbow trout and their hybrids in an ecotonal hybrid zone along an elevation gradient"
726:(5.5 °C per kilometer or 3 °F per 1000 feet). As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an
878:
At higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. At a certain altitude it is very difficult to keep an airplane in stable flight.
1224:
1298:
1080:
945:
1748:
1198:
1070:
1260:
1001:
759:
1025:
727:
391:
172:
537:
Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than that of the geosynchronous orbit. A special case of high Earth orbit is the
741:(up to approximately 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes notable convection; in the
805:
For athletes, high altitude produces two contradictory effects on performance. For explosive events (sprints up to 400 metres,
734:
of 6.49 °C per kilometer (3.56 °F per 1,000 feet). The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location.
502:. At 160 km, one revolution takes approximately 90 minutes, and the circular orbital speed is 8 km/s (26,000 ft/s).
154:
122:
116:
1336:
1108:
1510:
1176:
778:
1484:
1140:
875:
782:
1048:
363:
is the vertical distance above a reference point, commonly the terrain elevation. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage,
2046:
2006:
2056:
830:
723:
524:
Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi). The period of the orbit equals one
190:
143:
1447:
463:
150:
49:
35:
836:
786:
719:
339:
is the vertical distance of the aircraft above the terrain over which it is flying. It can be measured using a
858:
in high altitude habitats, meaning there will be less energy available for consumption, growth, and activity.
1579:"Association of Elevation, Urbanization and Ambient Temperature with Obesity Prevalence in the United States"
528:, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3 km/s (9,800 ft/s).
365:
the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from a specified datum
1056:
663:
538:
498:
Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 160 km (100 mi) to 2,000 km (1,200 mi) above
372:
706:
The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent
1713:
Ward-Smith, AJ (1983). "The influence of aerodynamic and biomechanical factors on long jump performance".
1489:
U.S. Army
Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report
855:
703:, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.
471:
323:
the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean sea level
77:
511:
Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee ranging between 2,000 km (1,200 mi) and that of the
1504:
1156:
570:
458:
1941:
1857:
1542:
West, John B. (January 2011). "Exciting Times in the Study of
Permanent Residents of High Altitude".
840:
707:
700:
644:
553:
518:
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304:
193:
1235:
2051:
881:
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281:
2041:
1965:
1881:
1755:
1643:
1463:
564:
505:
440:– the density of the air in terms of altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere in the air
344:
224:
heats the stratosphere, making conditions stable. The stratosphere is also the altitude limit of
97:
399:
These types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude:
1190:
640:. High altitude is sometimes defined to begin at 2,400 meters (8,000 ft) above sea level.
1957:
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42:
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1949:
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Rasmussen, Joseph B.; Robinson, Michael D.; Hontela, Alice; Heath, Daniel D. (8 July 2011).
1865:
1820:
1781:
1722:
1685:
1677:
1627:
1618:
Ismailov, RM (July–September 2013). "Erythropoietin and epidemiology of
Alzheimer disease".
1590:
1551:
1418:
1410:
1371:
854:
at high altitudes, likely due to lower oxygen partial pressures. These factors may decrease
851:
773:. The lack of oxygen above 2,400 metres (8,000 ft) can cause serious illnesses such as
766:
677:
531:
451:
386:
1314:
998:
1169:
1005:
492:
340:
229:
69:
68:
is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference
1017:
1945:
1861:
1452:
Human
Adaptation to High Terrestrial Altitude. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments
636:'s surface (or in its atmosphere) that are high above mean sea level are referred to as
580:: surface to 8,000 metres (5.0 mi) at the poles, 18,000 metres (11 mi) at the
1690:
1665:
1423:
1398:
499:
354:
267:
31:
1809:"Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure"
2035:
1953:
1917:
1900:
1726:
981:
295:
On the flight deck, the definitive instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure
289:
1969:
1785:
1647:
2026:
2021:
785:. The higher the altitude, the more likely are serious effects. The human body can
742:
599:
587:
525:
431:
382:
altitude are the same when the altimeter setting is 29.92" Hg or 1013.25 millibars.
277:
225:
197:
95:
Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as
1885:
1664:
Brenner, Barry; Cheng, David; Clark, Sunday; Camargo, Carlos A. Jr (Spring 2011).
250:
1825:
1808:
1631:
1340:
1287:
Manual of the ICAO Standard
Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet))
1141:"Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers"
1112:
270:(MSL) or local ground level (above ground level, or AGL) as the reference datum.
810:
738:
714:
and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming
668:
The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between
621:
577:
233:
213:
209:
185:
132:
680:
hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If
357:. It is indicated altitude corrected for non-standard temperature and pressure.
1869:
1414:
1375:
886:
790:
731:
692:
673:
657:
620:, by convention defines represents the demarcation between the atmosphere and
593:
217:
205:
343:(or "absolute altimeter"). Also referred to as "radar height" or feet/metres
844:
806:
711:
681:
669:
617:
605:
300:
296:
112:
85:
81:
1986:
1961:
1877:
1834:
1793:
1699:
1639:
1604:
1563:
1555:
1383:
61:
Altitude is a vertical measurement between a reference datum and an object.
1734:
1681:
1432:
1666:"Positive Association between Altitude and Suicide in 2584 U.S. Counties"
201:
17:
1595:
1578:
581:
541:, where altitude at perigee is less than 2,000 km (1,200 mi).
482:
157: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
999:
Definitions of geocentric orbits from the
Goddard Space Flight Center
770:
478:
57:
412:– altitude in terms of the distance above the ground directly below
1577:
Voss, JD; Masuoka, P; Webber, BJ; Scher, AI; Atkinson, RL (2013).
715:
633:
457:
303:
with a front face indicating distance (feet or metres) instead of
249:
221:
184:
56:
684:
were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the
1491:(USARIEM–TN–04–05). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009
850:
There is also a general trend of smaller body sizes and lower
330:
318:
126:
1339:. International Society for Mountain Medicine. Archived from
1111:. International Society for Mountain Medicine. Archived from
1022:
JetStream, the
National Weather Service Online Weather School
434:
718:), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the
371:, where the specified datum is the airfield elevation (see
969:. Department of the Air Force. 1 December 1989. AFM 51-40.
1362:
West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation".
2005:. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Archived from
1754:. IAAF Statistics Office. 9 March 2012. Archived from
616:, at an altitude of 100 kilometres (62 mi) above
317:
is the reading on the altimeter when it is set to the
2027:
Downloadable ETOPO5 Raw Data
Database (5 minute grid)
2022:
Downloadable ETOPO2 Raw Data Database (2 minute grid)
1807:
Gore, CJ; Clark, SA; Saunders, PU (September 2007).
608:: Thermosphere to 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi)
1134:
1132:
1130:
1454:. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC.
1047:Dr. S. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba (24 June 2004).
793:"), altitude acclimatization becomes impossible.
310:There are several types of altitude in aviation:
27:Height in relation to a specified reference point
710:. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes
418:– altitude in terms of elevation above sea level
940:. UK Civil Aviation Authority. 1 January 1995.
914:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
1223:Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972).
1218:
1216:
554:Atmospheric pressure § Altitude variation
8:
602:: Mesosphere to 675 kilometres (419 mi)
596:: Stratosphere to 85 kilometres (53 mi)
1049:"The 100 km Boundary for Astronautics"
961:
959:
957:
590:: Troposphere to 50 kilometres (31 mi)
452:Geocentric orbit § Altitude classifications
319:local barometric pressure at mean sea level
266:Aviation altitude is measured using either
1659:
1657:
1468:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1446:Young, Andrew J.; Reeves, John T. (2002).
1916:
1905:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1824:
1689:
1594:
1483:Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004).
1422:
1291:International Civil Aviation Organization
481:higher than 100 km (62 mi) and
424:– vertical distance above a certain point
173:Learn how and when to remove this message
1989:. Apex (altitude physiology expeditions)
932:
930:
367:; this is referred to over the radio as
325:; this is referred to over the radio as
41:For broader coverage of this topic, see
897:
745:, there is little vertical convection.
321:. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage,
276:divided by 100 feet (30 m) is the
1502:
1461:
1165:
1154:
1072:Webster's New World Medical Dictionary
1053:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
406:– the altitude shown on the altimeter.
390:is the altitude corrected for non-ISA
1458:from the original on 11 January 2009.
1397:Peacock, Andrew J (17 October 1998).
1028:from the original on 19 December 2005
7:
1670:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
1544:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
1201:from the original on 25 January 2009
477:Geocentric orbits with altitudes at
155:adding citations to reliable sources
515:at 35,786 km (22,236 mi).
88:is often preferred for this usage.
980:McDowell, Jonathan (24 May 1998).
760:Effects of high altitude on humans
25:
1337:"Non-Physician Altitude Tutorial"
728:international standard atmosphere
392:International Standard Atmosphere
1954:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04352.x
1918:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01768.x
1583:International Journal of Obesity
1485:"Altitude Acclimatization Guide"
450:This section is an excerpt from
131:
30:For the usage in astronomy, see
1786:10.1152/japplphysiol.01284.2005
1234:. Prentice-Hall. Archived from
1197:. Public Broadcasting Service.
142:needs additional citations for
2003:"The Race to the Stratosphere"
1987:"Altitude pressure calculator"
1749:"IAAF World Indoor Lists 2012"
1139:Cymerman, A; Rock, PB (1994).
628:High altitude and low pressure
353:is the actual elevation above
117:Vertical separation (aviation)
1:
1364:High Altitude Medical Biology
906:"The Stratosphere - overview"
779:high altitude pulmonary edema
76:is commonly used to mean the
1826:10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49d3
1727:10.1016/0021-9290(83)90116-1
1632:10.1097/WAD.0b013e31827b61b8
1620:Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord
1315:"The stratosphere: overview"
1024:. National Weather Service.
876:Coffin corner (aerodynamics)
783:high altitude cerebral edema
254:Vertical distance comparison
246:of that in the troposphere.
2073:
1263:. tpub.com. Archived from
1261:"Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate"
1225:"Atmospheric Temperatures"
1018:"Layers of the Atmosphere"
831:Organisms at high altitude
828:
757:
724:moist adiabatic lapse rate
661:
655:
584:, ending at the Tropopause
562:
551:
449:
204:typically cruise to avoid
120:
110:
47:
40:
29:
1870:10.1007/s00442-007-0877-x
1509:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1415:10.1136/bmj.317.7165.1063
1399:"Oxygen at high altitude"
1376:10.1089/15270290260512882
982:"Jonathan's Space Report"
837:adapted at high altitudes
730:(ISA) with a temperature
485:that intersects with the
113:Sea level § Aviation
36:Altitude (disambiguation)
1531:. PBS. 24 February 1998.
1525:"Everest:The Death Zone"
720:dry adiabatic lapse rate
395:heavily loaded aircraft.
280:, and is used above the
216:, fading further to the
212:. The blue layer is the
48:Not to be confused with
1715:Journal of Biomechanics
1403:British Medical Journal
765:humans by reducing the
664:Atmospheric temperature
539:highly elliptical orbit
1556:10.1089/ham.2011.12101
1191:"Atmospheric pressure"
1175:CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1164:Cite journal requires
1109:"An Altitude Tutorial"
787:adapt to high altitude
548:In atmospheric studies
472:Transatmospheric orbit
467:
255:
247:
78:height above sea level
62:
34:. For other uses, see
1682:10.1089/ham.2010.1058
1004:May 27, 2010, at the
938:Radiotelephony Manual
662:Further information:
461:
253:
188:
123:Altitudes in aviation
60:
1813:Med Sci Sports Exerc
749:Effects on organisms
708:heat of vaporization
701:adiabatic lapse rate
645:atmospheric pressure
519:Geosynchronous orbit
513:geosynchronous orbit
305:atmospheric pressure
151:improve this article
1946:2009MolEc..18.3992M
1934:Molecular Evolution
1862:2008Oecol.154..795J
1761:on 22 October 2013.
1409:(7165): 1063–1066.
1343:on 23 December 2005
1195:NOVA Online Everest
882:Geocentric altitude
871:Atmosphere of Earth
652:Temperature profile
445:In satellite orbits
282:transition altitude
2047:Physical geography
1596:10.1038/ijo.2013.5
1289:(Third ed.).
1089:on 8 December 2011
737:Finally, only the
676:. Sunlight in the
643:At high altitude,
571:Earth's atmosphere
565:Atmospheric layers
559:Atmospheric layers
506:Medium Earth orbit
487:defined atmosphere
468:
404:Indicated altitude
345:above ground level
315:Indicated altitude
256:
248:
80:of a location, in
63:
2057:Vertical position
1940:(19): 3992–4005.
1589:(10): 1407–1412.
1300:978-92-9194-004-2
1082:978-0-470-18928-3
1059:on 9 August 2011.
947:978-0-86039-601-7
819:altitude training
775:altitude sickness
697:adiabatic process
686:greenhouse effect
428:Pressure altitude
410:Absolute altitude
379:Pressure altitude
337:Absolute altitude
301:aneroid barometer
274:Pressure altitude
236:there is roughly
183:
182:
175:
43:Vertical position
16:(Redirected from
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852:species richness
767:partial pressure
678:visible spectrum
532:High Earth orbit
438:Density altitude
387:Density altitude
288:or 1013.25
245:
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230:weather balloons
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2009:on 9 March 2006
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341:radar altimeter
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1980:External links
1978:
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32:Altitude angle
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351:True altitude
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163:December 2018
156:
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140:This section
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19:
2011:. Retrieved
2007:the original
1991:. Retrieved
1937:
1933:
1927:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1816:
1812:
1802:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1756:the original
1743:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1673:
1669:
1626:(3): 204–6.
1623:
1619:
1613:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1528:
1519:
1505:cite journal
1493:. Retrieved
1488:
1478:
1451:
1441:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1345:. Retrieved
1341:the original
1331:
1319:. Retrieved
1309:
1286:
1281:
1269:. Retrieved
1265:the original
1255:
1243:. Retrieved
1236:the original
1231:
1203:. Retrieved
1194:
1185:
1157:cite journal
1145:. Retrieved
1117:. Retrieved
1113:the original
1103:
1091:. Retrieved
1087:the original
1071:
1065:
1057:the original
1042:
1030:. Retrieved
1021:
1012:
994:
985:
975:
966:
937:
917:. Retrieved
909:
900:
860:
856:productivity
849:
834:
815:
804:
795:
763:
743:stratosphere
736:
705:
690:
667:
642:
637:
631:
611:
600:Thermosphere
588:Stratosphere
568:
526:sidereal day
437:
432:air pressure
427:
421:
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398:
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378:
368:
364:
360:
350:
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322:
314:
309:
294:
278:flight level
272:
265:
259:
257:
226:jet aircraft
198:stratosphere
169:
160:
149:Please help
144:verification
141:
108:
96:
94:
90:
73:
65:
64:
54:
1676:(1): 31–5.
1347:22 December
1232:Atmospheres
1032:22 December
811:triple jump
739:troposphere
614:Kármán line
578:Troposphere
466:satellites.
234:air density
214:ozone layer
210:troposphere
105:In aviation
2052:Topography
2036:Categories
2013:25 January
1205:23 January
919:6 February
893:References
887:Near space
841:morphology
791:death zone
732:lapse rate
693:convection
674:convection
658:Lapse rate
594:Mesosphere
552:See also:
218:mesosphere
206:turbulence
111:See also:
2042:Aerospace
1911:: 56–72.
1850:Oecologia
1464:cite book
950:. CAP413.
845:phylogeny
807:long jump
712:saturated
682:radiation
670:radiation
618:sea level
606:Exosphere
297:altimeter
258:The term
232:, as the
202:airliners
86:elevation
84:the term
82:geography
18:Altitudes
1993:8 August
1970:16820157
1962:19754505
1878:17960424
1835:17805094
1794:16497842
1700:21214344
1648:32245379
1640:23314061
1605:23357956
1564:21452955
1550:(1): 1.
1456:Archived
1384:12631426
1293:. 1993.
1199:Archived
1093:27 April
1026:Archived
1002:Archived
987:restart)
865:See also
801:Athletes
327:altitude
260:altitude
200:, where
194:cruising
74:altitude
66:Altitude
50:Attitude
1942:Bibcode
1858:Bibcode
1735:6643537
1691:3114154
1495:5 March
1433:9774298
1424:1114067
1147:5 March
1119:22 June
722:to the
582:Equator
483:perigee
241:⁄
196:in the
1968:
1960:
1886:484645
1884:
1876:
1833:
1792:
1733:
1698:
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1421:
1382:
1317:. UCAR
1297:
1079:
944:
781:, and
771:oxygen
754:Humans
716:clouds
479:apogee
430:– the
422:Height
369:height
361:Height
347:(AGL).
329:.(see
220:. The
115:, and
1966:S2CID
1882:S2CID
1759:(PDF)
1752:(PDF)
1644:S2CID
1321:2 May
1271:2 May
1245:2 May
1239:(PDF)
1228:(PDF)
634:Earth
622:space
534:(HEO)
521:(GEO)
508:(MEO)
495:(LEO)
474:(TAO)
222:ozone
98:depth
70:datum
2015:2006
1995:2006
1958:PMID
1874:PMID
1831:PMID
1790:PMID
1731:PMID
1696:PMID
1636:PMID
1601:PMID
1560:PMID
1529:Nova
1511:link
1497:2009
1470:link
1448:"21"
1429:PMID
1380:PMID
1349:2005
1323:2016
1295:ISBN
1273:2016
1247:2016
1207:2009
1177:link
1170:help
1149:2009
1121:2011
1095:2010
1077:ISBN
1034:2005
942:ISBN
921:2021
843:and
672:and
612:The
569:The
286:inHg
243:1000
228:and
1950:doi
1913:doi
1909:105
1866:doi
1854:154
1821:doi
1782:doi
1778:100
1723:doi
1686:PMC
1678:doi
1628:doi
1591:doi
1552:doi
1419:PMC
1411:doi
1407:317
1372:doi
769:of
464:GPS
373:QFE
331:QNH
292:).
290:hPa
153:by
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1956:.
1948:.
1938:18
1936:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
