20:
32:
1390:
pollution still results in PM2.5 formation and reduces air quality. Despite efforts to reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions, the persistent presence of ammonia pollution continues to pose challenges to air quality management, particularly in densely populated areas like urban centers
1060:
systems are also commonly limited by nitrogen. Eutrophication can also occur in salt water due to increases in ammonia available, however it is more common in freshwaters because they have limited circulation and shallower waters. The pH of the ocean tends to be about 8.1 which means that ammonium is
883:
Ammonia seeps into aquatic ecosystem in many different ways from both anthropogenic (waste water, fertilizers, and industrial waste) and natural (Nitrogen fixation and air deposition) sources. Ammonia is toxic to most aquatic life including fish, corals, and planktonic crustaceans. Ammonia can have 2
318:
contribute largely to ammonia emissions. Studies show that ammonia emission rates were 700 kg/h and ammonia emissions from a single CAFO averaged 101.9 ± 40.6 kg/h and 437.7 ± 202.0 kgCH4/h, respectively, corresponding to emission factors per livestock of 9.1 ± 2.7 gNH3/LU/h and 40.1 ± 17.8
130:
are also used. Much is still unknown about the impact of ammonia pollution, but rising emission rates concern scientists. The level of ammonia in the atmosphere was more than twice as large in 2010 as it was in 1940. Ammonia is now recognized by many countries as a major pollutant and some have begun
874:
In livestock, high ammonia concentrations has been linked to ascites, gastrointestinal irritation and respiratory disease. These issues are easily observable in poultry, specifically turkeys. Turkeys have been shown to have trachea irritation at 10 ppm and at above 20 ppm they have an increased rate
118:
Ammonia also has effects on aquatic ecosystems and decreases the biodiversity. Ammonia is toxic to aquatic life which leads to increased amounts of fish deaths. Ammonia pollution also leads to eutrophication. Eutrophication is the growth of algae that kills other aquatic life and creates dead zones.
1048:
Ammonia is also directly toxic to fish and as the amount of ammonia increases, the more that accumulates in their bodies and it becomes harder to for the animals to remove it from their bodies. Freshwaters tend to have a wide range of pH values from 6.5 to 9. Freshwaters that have a higher pH would
1016:
and temperature. Waters that are more basic have more ammonia compared to the amount of ammonium. Ammonia is directly toxic to aquatic life while ammonium is not. This is because ammonia can diffuse across cell membranes but ammonium can't. This means that the more basic the waters, the more toxic
1511:
Ammonia pollution regulations mainly focus on mitigation through better farming practices. One suggested change is keeping manure and fertilizer in large storage tanks to prevent runoff and volatilization into the air. Another strategy involves feeding livestock diets less dense in protein. This
384:
in engines reduce noxious chemical emission, but also cause ammonia to be released as a byproduct. Operation of a three way catalyst converter type causes this. Newer vehicles have reduced ammonia emissions through modifications such as decreasing exhaust temperatures and increasing air to fuel
875:
of contracting
Newcastle disease. Above 25 ppm, growth rate and body weight is reduced. Above 50 ppm, there are increases levels of keratoconjunctivitis and tracheitis. Such trachea and lung complications make turkeys more prone to contracting infections like E. coli.
1378:, and premature death in humans. The smaller ammonium PM2.5 can also travel further distances (100–1000 km) when compared to unreacted ammonia (less than 10–100 km) in the atmosphere. Some countries like China have focused on reducing SO
1479:
Although ammonia is now recognized as a potentially hazardous air pollutant, only some countries have taken further action to reduce their emission. Reduction strategies predominantly focus on controlling agricultural practices. In particular,
1049:
be more sensitive to increases in ammonia due to the balance between ammonia and ammonium and the aquatic life would be more affected. The ammonia causes stress on the fish and damages internal organs which will eventually lead to death.
1061:
more abundant than ammonia, however, when the pH increases, as it does when primary production rates are high, ammonia becomes more abundant. This also means that there are more toxic effects than in freshwater that can be more acidic.
1040:
occurs. Eutrophication is an increase in algal growth which causes the oxygen dissolved in the water to decrease. This decrease creates hypoxic waters that cause the death of other aquatic life like fish. This decreases the amount of
1366:(PM2.5 or particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in size). The small size of PM2.5 particles allows them to enter the lungs and bloodstream through inhalation. Ammonium particles can then cause complications including
821:
343:
of waste in the ocean releases ammonium into the seawater. Surface levels can release this into the atmosphere through volatilization which increases with rough waves, high winds, high acidity, and high temperatures.
842:
plants (those that prefer high nitrate concentrations) and disadvantages others. For example, an increase in nitrophilous plant populations shade other plants from necessary sunlight. Sensitive plant groups such as
833:
which lower the soil pH and lead to acidification. Increased soil acidity in the ecosystem leads to decreased protection against cold temperatures, drought, disease, and invasive species. The other product, nitrate
657:
2633:
Fitz, DR; Pisano JT; Goorahoo, D; Krauter, CF; Malkina, IL (2016). A Passive Flux
Denuder for Evaluating Emissions of Ammonia at a Dairy Farm, 11th International Emission Inventory Conference, San Diego, 2003.
1008:
462:
ammonia, another form of the compound, may seep directly into the ground or flow into aquatic ecosystems. Both terrestrial and aquatic ammonia pollution decrease biodiversity mainly through the process of
361:
of biomass (organic matter) results in the release of many chemicals which sometimes include ammonia. Different biomass results in different emissions. The burning of tropical forest biomass, such as the
1354:
1230:
287:
1072:
relationship and the death of the bacteria leads to the bleaching of the coral and death. Corals support biodiversity in the ocean and the loss of coral reefs leads to a decrease in biodiversity.
2319:
1068:. Coral are very important for diversity in oceans and increasing concentrations of ammonia in the water is harming the bacteria that are found on the coral. The coral and bacteria are in a
1459:
Systems of satellites measure gas signatures in the atmosphere over time. Ammonia’s signature is charted giving an estimate of its prevalence in the air and where it is most concentrated.
1080:
Beyond its impact on ecosystems, ammonia pollution poses significant risks to human health. Gaseous ammonia that is not deposited forms aerosols by combining with other emissions such as
1064:
Ammonia in salt water ecosystems will have similar effects on fish as ammonia in freshwater ecosystems. Another aquatic animal that that is affected by increasing amounts of ammonia is
1500:(1999) and the Directive on Integrated Pollution Protection and Control (1999). The National Emission Ceilings Directive was also put into effect in 2001 by the EU to further reduce NH
2094:"Ammonia Formation over Pd/Rh Three-Way Catalysts during Lean-to-Rich Fluctuations: The Effect of the Catalyst Aging, Exhaust Temperature, Lambda, and Duration in Rich Conditions"
1443:(no pump is used and collection depends only on airflow). A pipe fitted with cloth filters on either side serves as a tunnel for air to diffuse through. The cloth is coated in
1471:
Buckets of rain are collected and then tested for ammonia using techniques described above. This provides the concentration of ammonia gas trapped in atmospheric water vapor.
1012:
This reaction is showing how ammonia changes into ammonium in water and generates a hydroxide ion. The form that the ammonia takes in the water also depends on the
19:
1399:
Ammonia pollution is most commonly measured by its presence in the atmosphere. It has no automatic relay system as with other pollutant measurements such as
1794:
295:
is converted to ammonia gas, which then enters the atmosphere or dissolves in runoff. Volatilization is increased in moist, warm, and acidic environments.
1504:
emissions. The
Gothenburg Protocol was revised in 2012 to set new, stricter, ceiling limits on ammonia until 2020 and to include all EU-27 countries. The
1403:; therefore, ammonia samples must be collected through other methods including filter packs, fabric denuders, satellite imaging, and rainwater analysis.
139:
The table below lists sources of ammonia pollution and their percent contribution to global ammonia emissions. The sources are also classified as either
2644:
1756:
2566:"Increasing Ammonia Concentrations Reduce the Effectiveness of Particle Pollution Control Achieved via SO2 and NOX Emissions Reduction in East China"
2092:
Wang, Chengxiong; Tan, Jianwei; Harle, Gavin; Gong, Huiming; Xia, Wenzheng; Zheng, Tingting; Yang, Dongxia; Ge, Yunshan; Zhao, Yunkun (2019-11-05).
2411:
2157:"Ammonia emissions from a dairy housing and wastewater treatment plant quantified with an inverse dispersion method accounting for deposition loss"
1423:
which reacts with the slightly basic ammonia particles. This reaction essentially "glues" the ammonia in place. Later, the filter is tested with
677:
2654:
518:
1096:). Atmospheric reactions among sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, intermediate products, and other gases eventually result in formation of
71:
which is a byproduct of agriculture and industry. Common forms include air pollution by the ammonia gas emitted by rotting agricultural
2202:
Guthrie, Susan; Giles, Sarah; Dunkerley, Fay; Tabaqchali, Hadeel; Harshfield, Amelia; Ioppolo, Becky; Manville, Catriona (2018-09-16),
2410:
Glibert, Patricia; Seitzinger, Sybil; Heil, Cynthia; Burkholder, JoAnn; Parrow, Matthew; Codispoti, Louis; Kelly, Vince (2005-06-01).
889:
31:
479:(an overabundance of nutrients). Both of these occur as a direct result of nitrification. In this process, ammonia is converted into
1938:"Ammonia and methane emissions from dairy concentrated animal feeding operations in California, using mobile optical remote sensing"
1705:"Eutrophication causes invertebrate biodiversity loss and decreases cross-taxon congruence across anthropogenically-disturbed lakes"
1658:
2067:
1977:
Paulot, F.; Jacob, D. J.; Johnson, M. T.; Bell, T. G.; Baker, A. R.; Keene, W. C.; Lima, I. D.; Doney, S. C.; Stock, C. A. (2015).
1447:
which attracts ammonia gas (a base). Air flows through the tube and ammonia sticks to the filters which can then be tested for NH
1424:
1236:
1125:
1924:
196:
122:
Ammonia detection is facilitated through the use of filter packs and fabric denuders (a gas separator). Techniques such as
1028:
systems are commonly limited by nitrogen. This means that increases in nitrogen in freshwater ecosystems can increase the
1419:
filter. The pump sucks in air and the filters remove ammonia particles. The Teflon and glass fiber filter are coated in
455:
1508:
in particular has announced that they plan to cut emissions by 16% by 2030, however no new policies have been enacted.
1551:
119:
Ammonia pollution affects freshwater and salt water ecosystems differently due to physical and chemical differences.
2673:
2218:
2155:
Valach, Alex C.; Häni, Christoph; Bühler, Marcel; Mohn, Joachim; Schrade, Sabine; Kupper, Thomas (2023-12-02).
1481:
312:) which, similar to manure, is released as ammonia through volatilization (into the atmosphere or in runoff).
1412:
1512:
would result in less nitrogen proteins (including ammonia) ending up in manure. A final idea is using less
2320:"Ammonia and aquatic ecosystems - A review of global sources, biogeochemical cycling, and effects on fish"
399:
Production plants may release ammonia as a byproduct through chemical combustion or in effluent streams.
2604:
1497:
308:
is manufactured to have high nutrient contents. This includes nitrogen based compounds like ammonium (NH
127:
1978:
2156:
2105:
1990:
1854:
1616:
1607:
Sutton, Mark A.; Howard, Clare M. (5 December 2018), "Satellite pinpoints ammonia sources globally",
1566:
140:
381:
176:
because farmers use nutrient dense feed. Almost 80% of this nitrogen ends up in animals’ manure as
2708:
2527:"Effects of temperature, hypoxia, ammonia and nitrate on the bleaching among three coral species"
2137:
2024:
1818:
1703:
Wang, Huan; García
Molinos, Jorge; Heino, Jani; Zhang, Huan; Zhang, Peiyu; Xu, Jun (2021-08-01).
1590:
1109:
1029:
2650:
2546:
2507:
2433:
2392:
2341:
2184:
2176:
2129:
2121:
2016:
1959:
1872:
1810:
1734:
1726:
1654:
1632:
1582:
1428:
123:
1676:
838:), is a key nutrient for plant growth. This excess nitrate from ammonia nitrification favors
2703:
2577:
2538:
2497:
2489:
2423:
2382:
2372:
2331:
2168:
2113:
2006:
1998:
1979:"Global oceanic emission of ammonia: Constraints from seawater and atmospheric observations"
1949:
1862:
1802:
1716:
1624:
1574:
1440:
1097:
459:
2646:
Actions on Air
Quality: A Global Summary of Policies and Programmes to Reduce Air Pollution
2617:
2596:
1444:
91:
of seabird colonies. Gaseous ammonia reacts with other pollutants in the air to form fine
2294:
2203:
1795:"Ammonia, a poorly understood smog ingredient, could be key to limiting deadly pollution"
1496:
has had two policies in place since 1999 to prevent ammonia pollution. These include the
2564:
Fu, Xiao; Wang, Shuxiao; Xing, Jia; Zhang, Xiaoye; Wang, Tao; Hao, Jiming (2017-06-13).
2267:
2109:
2043:
1994:
1925:
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/documents/1/delmorofarmfairnh3.pdf
1858:
1620:
1570:
2502:
2477:
2387:
2360:
1525:
1505:
1493:
1400:
1089:
1081:
1037:
476:
189:
100:
2697:
2141:
1822:
1530:
464:
414:
340:
104:
2336:
2028:
1936:
Vechi, N. T.; Mellqvist, J.; Samuelsson, J.; Offerle, B.; Scheutz, C. (2023-01-15).
1594:
2205:
Impact of ammonia emissions from agriculture on biodiversity: An evidence synthesis
1954:
1937:
1375:
1363:
1057:
1042:
484:
435:
363:
92:
2595:
Programme, United
Nations Environment; Coalition, Climate & Clean Air (2018).
2172:
475:
In terrestrial settings, ammonia increases soil acidity (decreased pH) and causes
103:
on which it settles and will, for example, degrade the conditions required by the
2377:
1721:
1704:
2581:
2412:"The Role of Eutrophication in the Global Proliferation of Harmful Algal Blooms"
1420:
1416:
1371:
1025:
488:
454:
Gaseous ammonia emissions enter Earth’s soil and water through both wet and dry
84:
24:
2242:
1628:
1516:
and ammonium based fertilizers which are prone to volatilization into ammonia.
2565:
1578:
839:
358:
76:
72:
2550:
2437:
2180:
2125:
2020:
1963:
1876:
1814:
1730:
2428:
2117:
1843:"Significant atmospheric aerosol pollution caused by world food cultivation"
1806:
1069:
860:
439:
108:
52:
2511:
2396:
2345:
2188:
2133:
1738:
1636:
1586:
2597:"Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific: Science-based Solutions - Summary"
2493:
2361:"Nitrogen Limitation of Pond Ecosystems on the Plains of Eastern Colorado"
2093:
1463:
has been using satellite imaging to monitor ammonia emissions since 2008.
816:{\displaystyle {\ce {NO2- (aq) + H2O(l) -> NO3- (aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-}}}
2068:"What Is Left in the Air After a Wildfire Depends on Exactly What Burned"
2002:
1867:
1842:
826:
446:
in the atmosphere which can cause human health complications if inhaled.
177:
173:
112:
96:
68:
64:
2542:
1032:
of plants and algae. When too much nitrogen is added to the water, the
851:
are particularly susceptible to ammonia pollution and habitats such as
652:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH3(aq) + O2(g) -> NO2- (aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e-}}}
506:
480:
443:
56:
40:
1893:
2526:
2295:"Ecological Effects of Ammonia | Minnesota Department of Agriculture"
2011:
1919:
Del Moro, Sarah; Holcomb, Jess; Horneck, Don; Sullivan, Dan. (2013).
1367:
868:
844:
305:
99:
salts, which affect human breathing. Ammonia gas can also affect the
80:
36:
27:
matter resulting from ammonia emissions associated with food export
2525:
Zhu, Baohua; Wang, Guangce; Huang, Bo; Tseng, C. K. (2004-09-01).
1065:
1033:
864:
502:
88:
79:
factories while natural sources include the burning coal mines of
30:
18:
2243:"Ammonia Emission from Animal Feeding Operations and Its Impacts"
1003:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH3(aq) + H2O(l) -> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)}}}
2452:
1923:. Hermiston Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Oregon.
1513:
1460:
1451:
concentrations using
Nessler's reagent and a spectrophotometer.
856:
848:
852:
830:
1894:"The surprising way fumes from farms are harming our health"
1349:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH3(g) + H2SO4 (g) -> NH4HSO4 (g)}}}
1841:
Bauer, Susanne E.; Tsigaridis, Kostas; Miller, Ron (2016).
1757:"Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services"
1552:"Industrial and agricultural ammonia point sources exposed"
1013:
23:
Estimated increase in annual mean surface concentration of
2649:. United Nations Environment Programme. 2021. p. 47.
1755:
Services, Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer.
1331:
1318:
1291:
1278:
1251:
1225:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH3(g) + HNO3 (g) -> NH4NO3(g)}}}
1207:
1194:
1167:
1140:
931:
904:
721:
560:
533:
240:
417:
all contribute to ammonia emissions via volatilization.
2674:"Ammonia (NH3) emissions — European Environment Agency"
1649:
Mark Sutton; Stefan Reis; Samantha Baker, eds. (2008),
1550:
Van Damme, Martin; Clarisse, Lieven (5 December 2018),
1036:
in the water can increase their output so rapidly that
282:{\displaystyle {\ce {NH4+(aq) -> NH3(g) + H+(aq)}}}
2161:
1239:
1128:
892:
680:
521:
199:
2478:"Mechanisms and assessment of water eutrophication"
1411:Filter packs consist of an air pump fitted with a
1348:
1224:
1002:
815:
651:
281:
316:3. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
413:Human waste, wild animal waste, wastewater, and
1017:ammonia pollution will be to the aquatic life.
2570:Environmental Science & Technology Letters
491:) performing the following two step reaction:
1698:
1696:
8:
2219:"Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizers on Soil pH"
1677:"Ammonia | Air Pollution Information System"
366:, releases the largest quantity of ammonia.
1750:
1748:
2501:
2427:
2386:
2376:
2335:
2010:
1953:
1866:
1720:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1317:
1312:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1277:
1272:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1188:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1127:
988:
983:
966:
960:
955:
937:
930:
925:
907:
903:
898:
893:
891:
806:
801:
784:
778:
773:
756:
750:
745:
727:
720:
715:
697:
691:
686:
681:
679:
642:
637:
620:
614:
609:
592:
586:
581:
563:
559:
554:
536:
532:
527:
522:
520:
267:
261:
243:
239:
234:
216:
210:
205:
200:
198:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1484:practices can reduce ammonia emission.
145:
1888:
1886:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1671:
1669:
1542:
131:taking steps to limit their emissions.
44:which is sensitive to ammonia pollution
2668:
2666:
2629:
2627:
2613:
2602:
2482:Journal of Zhejiang University Science
2098:Environmental Science & Technology
825:The products of this reaction include
2289:
2287:
1915:
1913:
1431:reads the amount of ammonia present.
483:by bacteria (usually of genera
7:
2348:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
143:(resulting from humans) or natural.
184:) which is converted to ammonia (NH
1362:) aerosols are classified as fine
14:
2318:Edwards, Thea (10 January 2024).
2268:"Aquatic Life Criteria - Ammonia"
2044:"Aquatic Life Criteria - Ammonia"
1439:Fabric denuders function through
1045:in the waters where this occurs.
2324:Science of the Total Environment
2337:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167911
1386:emissions, however increased NH
2359:Mischler, John (13 May 2014).
1955:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119448
1341:
1335:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1261:
1255:
1217:
1211:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1150:
1144:
995:
989:
973:
967:
948:
944:
938:
914:
908:
791:
785:
763:
757:
738:
734:
728:
704:
698:
627:
621:
599:
593:
574:
570:
564:
543:
537:
274:
268:
250:
244:
227:
223:
217:
1:
2173:10.1080/10962247.2023.2271426
1427:(an ammonia indicator) and a
668:) is oxidized into nitrate(NO
2378:10.1371/journal.pone.0095757
1983:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
1847:Geophysical Research Letters
1793:Plautz, Jason (2018-09-13).
1722:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106494
1358:These resulting ammonium (NH
155:Percent of Global Emissions
2582:10.1021/acs.estlett.7b00143
2476:Yang, Xiao-e (March 2008).
438:of terrestrial and aquatic
2725:
2451:US EPA, ORD (2015-11-04).
1629:10.1038/d41586-018-07584-7
884:different forms in water.
423:Anthropogenic and natural
372:Anthropogenic and natural
328:(⅓ from fertilizer)
2266:US EPA, OW (2015-08-20).
2042:US EPA, OW (2015-08-20).
1709:Environment International
1579:10.1038/s41586-018-0747-1
1374:, cardiovascular issues,
172:contains high amounts of
2531:Chinese Science Bulletin
1482:conservation agriculture
2429:10.5670/oceanog.2005.54
2223:Vegetable Crops Hotline
2118:10.1021/acs.est.9b03893
1942:Atmospheric Environment
1807:10.1126/science.aav3862
2612:Cite journal requires
1921:Ammonia Volatilization
1350:
1226:
1004:
817:
653:
434:Ammonia decreases the
283:
45:
28:
16:Chemical contamination
2494:10.1631/jzus.B0710626
1395:Monitoring techniques
1351:
1227:
1005:
871:are mainly affected.
818:
654:
396:Industrial Processes
302:Artificial fertilizer
284:
101:chemistry of the soil
34:
22:
2003:10.1002/2015GB005106
1868:10.1002/2016GL068354
1237:
1126:
1120:) by the following:
1030:primary productivity
890:
678:
519:
382:catalytic converters
291:About half of the NH
197:
2299:www.mda.state.mn.us
2110:2019EnST...5312621W
2104:(21): 12621–12628.
1995:2015GBioC..29.1165P
1859:2016GeoRL..43.5394B
1651:Atmospheric Ammonia
1621:2018Natur.564...49S
1571:2018Natur.564...99V
1531:Haber-Bosch process
1498:Gothenburg Protocol
1333:
1320:
1293:
1280:
1253:
1209:
1196:
1169:
1142:
965:
933:
906:
755:
723:
696:
591:
562:
535:
471:Terrestrial Effects
325:(⅔ from livestock)
242:
215:
2543:10.1007/BF03184283
1467:Rainwater analysis
1364:particulate matter
1346:
1321:
1308:
1281:
1268:
1241:
1222:
1197:
1184:
1157:
1130:
1110:ammonium bisulfate
1053:Salt water effects
1021:Freshwater effects
1000:
951:
921:
894:
813:
741:
711:
682:
649:
577:
550:
523:
279:
230:
201:
128:rainwater analysis
63:) – a compound of
46:
41:Bryoria fuscescens
29:
2678:www.eea.europa.eu
2656:978-92-807-3880-3
2537:(18): 1923–1928.
2074:. 23 January 2020
1853:(10): 5394–5400.
1455:Satellite imaging
1429:spectrophotometer
1425:Nessler’s reagent
1340:
1324:
1311:
1300:
1284:
1271:
1260:
1244:
1216:
1200:
1187:
1176:
1160:
1149:
1133:
994:
982:
972:
954:
943:
936:
924:
913:
897:
805:
790:
777:
762:
744:
733:
726:
714:
703:
685:
641:
626:
613:
598:
580:
569:
553:
542:
526:
427:
426:
304:usage such as in
273:
260:
249:
233:
222:
204:
124:satellite imaging
49:Ammonia pollution
2716:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2684:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2622:
2621:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2600:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2431:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2380:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2339:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2247:ohioline.osu.edu
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2014:
1989:(8): 1165–1178.
1974:
1968:
1967:
1957:
1933:
1927:
1917:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1890:
1881:
1880:
1870:
1838:
1827:
1826:
1790:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1752:
1743:
1742:
1724:
1700:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1687:
1673:
1664:
1663:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1565:(7734): 99–103,
1556:
1547:
1441:passive sampling
1355:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1269:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1242:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1158:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1131:
1098:ammonium nitrate
1009:
1007:
1006:
1001:
999:
998:
992:
987:
980:
976:
970:
964:
959:
952:
947:
941:
934:
932:
929:
922:
917:
911:
905:
902:
895:
822:
820:
819:
814:
812:
811:
810:
803:
794:
788:
783:
782:
775:
766:
760:
754:
749:
742:
737:
731:
724:
722:
719:
712:
707:
701:
695:
690:
683:
658:
656:
655:
650:
648:
647:
646:
639:
630:
624:
619:
618:
611:
602:
596:
590:
585:
578:
573:
567:
561:
558:
551:
546:
540:
534:
531:
524:
288:
286:
285:
280:
278:
277:
271:
266:
265:
258:
253:
247:
241:
238:
231:
226:
220:
214:
209:
202:
146:
55:by the chemical
2724:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2682:
2680:
2672:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2625:
2611:
2601:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2461:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2303:
2301:
2293:
2292:
2285:
2276:
2274:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2251:
2249:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2227:
2225:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2167:(12): 930–950.
2154:
2153:
2149:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2052:
2050:
2041:
2040:
2036:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1918:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1840:
1839:
1830:
1792:
1791:
1774:
1765:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1746:
1702:
1701:
1694:
1685:
1683:
1675:
1674:
1667:
1661:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1615:(7734): 49–50,
1606:
1605:
1601:
1554:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1522:
1503:
1490:
1477:
1469:
1457:
1450:
1445:phosphoric acid
1437:
1435:Fabric denuders
1409:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1361:
1235:
1234:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1090:nitrogen oxides
1087:
1078:
1055:
1023:
888:
887:
881:
879:Aquatic effects
837:
802:
774:
676:
675:
671:
667:
638:
610:
517:
516:
512:
500:
473:
452:
442:and also forms
432:
311:
294:
257:
195:
194:
187:
183:
170:Livestock waste
137:
62:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2722:
2720:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2662:
2655:
2636:
2623:
2614:|journal=
2587:
2576:(6): 221–227.
2556:
2517:
2488:(3): 197–209.
2468:
2443:
2422:(2): 198–209.
2402:
2351:
2310:
2283:
2258:
2234:
2210:
2194:
2147:
2084:
2059:
2034:
1969:
1928:
1909:
1882:
1828:
1772:
1744:
1692:
1681:www.apis.ac.uk
1665:
1659:
1641:
1599:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1526:Nitrogen cycle
1521:
1518:
1506:United Kingdom
1501:
1494:European Union
1489:
1486:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1465:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1436:
1433:
1408:
1405:
1401:carbon dioxide
1396:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1359:
1343:
1337:
1328:
1315:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1288:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1248:
1219:
1213:
1204:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1137:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1085:
1082:sulfur dioxide
1077:
1074:
1054:
1051:
1038:eutrophication
1022:
1019:
997:
991:
986:
979:
975:
969:
963:
958:
950:
946:
940:
928:
920:
916:
910:
901:
880:
877:
835:
809:
800:
797:
793:
787:
781:
772:
769:
765:
759:
753:
748:
740:
736:
730:
718:
710:
706:
700:
694:
689:
669:
665:
645:
636:
633:
629:
623:
617:
608:
605:
601:
595:
589:
584:
576:
572:
566:
557:
549:
545:
539:
530:
510:
498:
477:eutrophication
472:
469:
451:
448:
431:
428:
425:
424:
421:
418:
411:
407:
406:
405:Anthropogenic
403:
400:
397:
393:
392:
391:Anthropogenic
389:
386:
378:
374:
373:
370:
367:
356:
352:
351:
348:
345:
338:
334:
333:
332:Anthropogenic
330:
321:
309:
292:
276:
270:
264:
256:
252:
246:
237:
229:
225:
219:
213:
208:
190:volatilization
185:
181:
164:
160:
159:
156:
153:
150:
136:
133:
83:, the caustic
60:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2721:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2640:
2637:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2371:(5): e95757.
2370:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2311:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2235:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2198:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1762:
1761:www.fdacs.gov
1758:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1660:9781402091216
1656:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1546:
1543:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1474:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1394:
1392:
1377:
1376:birth defects
1373:
1369:
1365:
1356:
1326:
1313:
1286:
1273:
1265:
1246:
1232:
1202:
1189:
1162:
1154:
1135:
1121:
1111:
1099:
1091:
1083:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1010:
984:
977:
961:
956:
926:
918:
899:
885:
878:
876:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
841:
832:
828:
823:
807:
798:
795:
779:
770:
767:
751:
746:
716:
708:
692:
687:
673:
663:
659:
643:
634:
631:
615:
606:
603:
587:
582:
555:
547:
528:
514:
508:
504:
496:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
470:
468:
466:
465:nitrification
461:
457:
449:
447:
445:
441:
437:
429:
422:
419:
416:
415:decomposition
412:
409:
408:
404:
401:
398:
395:
394:
390:
387:
383:
379:
376:
375:
371:
368:
365:
360:
357:
354:
353:
349:
346:
342:
341:Decomposition
339:
336:
335:
331:
329:
326:
322:
320:
317:
313:
307:
303:
300:
296:
289:
262:
254:
235:
211:
206:
191:
179:
175:
171:
168:
165:
162:
161:
157:
154:
151:
148:
147:
144:
142:
141:anthropogenic
134:
132:
129:
125:
120:
116:
114:
110:
106:
105:sphagnum moss
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
58:
54:
50:
43:
42:
38:
33:
26:
21:
2681:. Retrieved
2677:
2645:
2639:
2605:cite journal
2590:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2460:. Retrieved
2456:
2446:
2419:
2416:Oceanography
2415:
2405:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2327:
2323:
2313:
2302:. Retrieved
2298:
2275:. Retrieved
2271:
2261:
2250:. Retrieved
2246:
2237:
2226:. Retrieved
2222:
2213:
2204:
2197:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2076:. Retrieved
2071:
2062:
2051:. Retrieved
2047:
2037:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1945:
1941:
1931:
1920:
1901:. Retrieved
1897:
1850:
1846:
1798:
1764:. Retrieved
1760:
1712:
1708:
1684:. Retrieved
1680:
1653:, Springer,
1650:
1644:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1562:
1558:
1545:
1510:
1491:
1478:
1470:
1458:
1438:
1410:
1407:Filter packs
1398:
1357:
1233:
1122:
1079:
1076:Human health
1063:
1056:
1047:
1043:biodiversity
1024:
1011:
886:
882:
873:
840:nitrophilous
824:
674:
661:
660:
515:
494:
493:
485:Nitrosomonas
474:
453:
450:Biodiversity
436:biodiversity
433:
377:Automobiles
364:Amazon Basin
327:
324:
315:
314:
301:
298:
297:
290:
193:
169:
166:
163:Agriculture
152:Description
138:
121:
117:
48:
47:
39:
2457:www.epa.gov
2272:www.epa.gov
1475:Regulations
1421:citric acid
1417:glass fiber
1372:lung cancer
664:Nitrite (NO
497:Ammonia (NH
489:Nitrobacter
319:gCH4/LU/h.
85:Lake Natron
25:particulate
2698:Categories
2683:2020-11-15
2462:2024-04-15
2330:: 167911.
2304:2024-04-12
2277:2024-04-12
2252:2024-03-14
2228:2020-11-14
2078:2020-11-14
2053:2020-10-22
1948:: 119448.
1903:2020-11-14
1766:2024-04-15
1715:: 106494.
1686:2020-11-15
1537:References
1058:Salt water
1026:Freshwater
865:heathlands
861:grasslands
456:deposition
440:ecosystems
359:Combustion
355:Wildfires
188:) through
77:fertilizer
2709:Pollution
2551:1861-9541
2438:1042-8275
2181:1096-2247
2142:203639098
2126:0013-936X
2021:1944-9224
2012:1912/7658
1964:1352-2310
1877:1944-8007
1823:133673554
1815:0036-8075
1731:0160-4120
1306:⟶
1182:⟶
1070:symbiotic
985:−
949:⟶
857:peatlands
808:−
752:−
739:⟶
693:−
644:−
588:−
575:⟶
323:Over 70%
228:⟶
93:particles
53:pollution
2512:18357622
2397:24824838
2365:PLOS ONE
2346:37871823
2189:37846922
2134:31577131
2029:18373876
1739:33882434
1637:30518893
1595:54458643
1587:30518888
1520:See also
827:hydrogen
503:oxidized
444:aerosols
420:< 1%
402:< 2%
388:< 2%
385:ratios.
350:Natural
178:ammonium
174:nitrogen
113:peatland
109:heathers
97:ammonium
87:and the
69:hydrogen
65:nitrogen
2704:Ammonia
2503:2266883
2388:4019484
2106:Bibcode
1991:Bibcode
1855:Bibcode
1799:Science
1617:Bibcode
1567:Bibcode
869:forests
662:Step 2:
507:nitrite
495:Step 1:
481:nitrate
460:Aqueous
430:Effects
337:Oceans
149:Source
135:Sources
57:ammonia
2653:
2549:
2510:
2500:
2436:
2395:
2385:
2344:
2187:
2179:
2140:
2132:
2124:
2048:US EPA
2027:
2019:
1962:
1875:
1821:
1813:
1737:
1729:
1657:
1635:
1609:Nature
1593:
1585:
1559:Nature
1488:Policy
1413:Teflon
1382:and NO
1368:asthma
1108:) and
1088:) and
867:, and
845:lichen
513:) by:
410:Other
306:slurry
81:Jharia
73:slurry
37:lichen
2138:S2CID
2025:S2CID
1898:Ensia
1819:S2CID
1591:S2CID
1555:(PDF)
1066:coral
1034:algae
505:into
501:) is
158:Type
89:guano
2651:ISBN
2634:EPA.
2618:help
2547:ISSN
2508:PMID
2453:"pH"
2434:ISSN
2393:PMID
2342:PMID
2185:PMID
2177:ISSN
2130:PMID
2122:ISSN
2017:ISSN
1960:ISSN
1873:ISSN
1811:ISSN
1735:PMID
1727:ISSN
1655:ISBN
1633:PMID
1583:PMID
1514:urea
1492:The
1461:NASA
1415:and
853:bogs
849:moss
847:and
831:ions
829:(H)
487:and
380:The
369:10%
347:15%
126:and
107:and
75:and
67:and
35:The
2578:doi
2539:doi
2498:PMC
2490:doi
2424:doi
2383:PMC
2373:doi
2332:doi
2328:907
2169:doi
2114:doi
2072:Eos
2007:hdl
1999:doi
1950:doi
1946:293
1863:doi
1803:doi
1717:doi
1713:153
1625:doi
1613:564
1575:doi
1563:564
1323:HSO
1159:HNO
1116:HSO
1112:(NH
1100:(NH
1092:(NO
1084:(SO
834:(NO
509:(NO
180:(NH
111:of
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