Amusia - Knowledge (XXG)

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regions of the brain is extremely important since these regions play critical roles in music processing. Changes in the temporal areas of the amusic brain are most likely associated with deficits in pitch perception and other musical characteristics, while changes in the frontal areas are potentially related to deficits in cognitive processing aspects, such as memory, that are needed for musical discrimination tasks. Memory is also concerned with the recognition and internal representation of tunes, which help to identify familiar songs and confer the ability to sing tunes in one's head. The activation of the superior temporal region and left inferior temporal and frontal areas is responsible for the recognition of familiar songs, and the right auditory cortex (a perceptual mechanism) is involved in the internal representation of tunes. These findings suggest that any abnormalities and/or injuries to these regions of the brain could facilitate amusia.

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context of the work. Distinct neural networks also exist for music memories, singing, and music recognition. Neural networks for music recognition are particularly intriguing. A patient can undergo brain damage that renders them unable to recognize familiar melodies that are presented without words. However, the patient maintains the ability to recognize spoken lyrics or words, familiar voices, and environmental sounds. The reverse case is also possible, in which the patient cannot recognize spoken words, but can still recognize familiar melodies. These situations overturn previous claims that speech recognition and music recognition share a single processing system. Instead, it is clear that there are at least two distinct processing modules: one for speech and one for music.

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response to an advertisement in the newspaper. Monica had no psychiatric or neurological history, nor did she have any hearing loss. MRI scans showed no abnormalities. Monica also scored above average on a standard intelligence test, and her working memory was evaluated and found to be normal. However, Monica had a lifelong inability to recognize or perceive music, which had persisted even after involvement with music through church choir and band during her childhood and teenage years. Monica said that she does not enjoy listening to music because, to her, it sounded like noise and evoked a stressful response.

210:. Most cases of those with amusia do not show any symptoms of aphasia. However, a number of cases have shown that those who have aphasia can exhibit symptoms of amusia, especially in acquired aphasia. The two are not mutually exclusive and having one does not imply possession of the other. In acquired amusia, inability to perceive music correlates with an inability to perform other higher-level functions. In this case, as musical ability improves, so too do the higher cognitive functions which suggests that musical ability is closely related to these higher-level functions, such as 574:

that children reacted positively to these tone differentiation techniques, while adults found the training annoying. However, further research in this direction would aid in determining if this would be a viable treatment option for people with amusia. Additional research can also serve to indicate which processing component in the brain is essential for normal music development. Also, it would be extremely beneficial to investigate musical learning in relation to amusia since this could provide valuable insights into other forms of learning disabilities such as

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pair contained a wrong note. Monica's score on this test was well below the average score generated by the control group. Further tests showed that Monica struggled with recognizing highly familiar melodies, but that she had no problems in recognizing the voices of well-known speakers. Thus, it was concluded that Monica's deficit seemed limited to music. A later study showed that not only do amusics experience difficulty in discriminating variations in pitch, but they also exhibit deficits in perceiving patterns in pitch.

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and this deficit is most apparent when congenital amusics are asked to pick out a wrong note in a given melody. If the distance between two successive pitches is small, congenital amusics are not able to detect a pitch change. As a result of this defect in pitch perception, a lifelong musical impairment may emerge due to a failure to internalize musical scales. A lack of fine-grained pitch discrimination makes it extremely difficult for amusics to enjoy and appreciate music, which consists largely of small pitch changes.

225:, a disorder in which the person's speech is affected, becoming extremely monotonous. It has been found that both amusia and aprosody can arise from seizures occurring in the non-dominant hemisphere. They can also both arise from lesions to the brain, as can Broca's aphasia come about simultaneously with amusia from injury. There is a relation between musical abilities and the components of speech; however, it is not understood very well. 139:. Amusics performed more quickly than normal individuals on a combined task of both spatial and musical processing tasks, which is most likely due to their deficit. Normal individuals experience interference due to their intact processing of both musical and spatial tasks, while amusics do not. Pitch processing normally depends on the cognitive mechanisms that are usually used to process spatial representations. 460:

right temporal auditory cortex is responsible for temporal segmenting, and the left temporal auditory cortex is responsible for temporal grouping. Other studies suggest the participation of motor cortical areas in rhythm perception and production. Therefore, a lack of involvement and networking between bilateral temporal cortices and neural motor centers may contribute to both congenital and acquired amusia.

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ability to play an instrument (instrumental amusia or musical apraxia), and the ability to write music (musical agraphia). Additionally, brain damage to the receptive dimension affects the faculty to discriminate tunes (receptive or sensorial amusia), the ability to read music (musical alessia), and the ability to identify songs that were familiar prior to the brain damage (amnesic amusia).

451:(pitch direction) and interval (frequency ratio between successive notes) information. The right superior temporal gyrus recruits and evaluates contour information, while both right and left temporal regions recruit and evaluate interval information. In addition, the right anterolateral part of Heschl's gyrus (primary auditory cortex) is also concerned with processing pitch information. 345:

view has been broadened to show that music processing also encompasses generic cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, and executive processes. A study was published in 2009 which investigated the neural and cognitive mechanisms that underlie acquired amusia and contribute to its recovery. The study was performed on 53 stroke patients with a left or right hemisphere

406:, both of which are key components in the structure of music and aid in perception, memory, and performance. Also, the encoding of pitch and temporal regularity are both likely to be specialized for music processing. Pitch perception is absolutely crucial to processing music. The use of scales and the organization of scale tones around a central tone (called the 565:), or half steps. While this pitch-processing deficit is extremely severe, it does not seem to include speech intonation. This is because pitch variations in speech are very coarse compared with those used in music. In conclusion, Monica's learning disability arose from a basic problem in pitch discrimination, which is viewed as the origin of congenital amusia. 314:. This could be evidence that the ability to reproduce and distinguish between notes may be a learned skill; conversely, it may suggest that the genetic predisposition towards accurate pitch discrimination may influence the linguistic development of a population towards tonality. A correlation between 573:

Over the past decade, much has been discovered about amusia. However, there remains a great deal more to learn. While a method of treatment for people with amusia has not been defined, tone differentiation techniques have been used on amusic patients with some success. It was found with this research

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In order to determine if Monica's disorder was amusia, she was subjected to the MBEA series of tests. One of the tests dealt with Monica's difficulties in discriminating pitch variations in sequential notes. In this test, a pair of melodies was played, and Monica was asked if the second melody in the

349:(MCA) infarction one week, three months, and six months after the stroke occurred. Amusic subjects were identified one week following their stroke, and over the course of the study, amusics and non-amusics were compared in both brain lesion location and their performances on neuropsychological tests. 344:

is a musical disability that shares the same characteristics as congenital amusia, but rather than being inherited, it is the result of brain damage. It is also more common than congenital amusia. While it has been suggested that music is processed by music-specific neural networks in the brain, this

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Memory is required in order to process and integrate both melodic and rhythmic aspects of music. Studies suggest that there is a rich interconnection between the right temporal gyrus and frontal cortical areas for working memory in music appreciation. This connection between the temporal and frontal

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are responsible for this faculty, while more recent studies suggest that lesions in other cortical areas, abnormalities in cortical thickness, and deficiency in neural connectivity and brain plasticity may contribute to amusia. While various causes of amusia exist, some general findings that provide

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music and detect the presence of wrong notes, but can preserve the individual's ability to assess the distance between pitches and the direction of the pitch. The opposite scenario can also occur, in which the individual loses pitch discrimination capabilities, but can sense and appreciate the tonal

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and above-average intellectual and memory skills. Also, they do not show sensitivity to dissonant chords in a melodic context, which, as discussed earlier, is one of the musical predispositions exhibited by infants. The hallmark of congenital amusia is a deficit in fine-grained pitch discrimination,

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or a tin ear, refers to a musical disability that cannot be explained by prior brain lesion, hearing loss, cognitive defects, or lack of environmental stimulation, and it affects about 4% of the population. Individuals with congenital amusia seem to lack the musical predispositions with which most

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While the possibility that certain individuals may be born with musical deficits is not a new notion, the first documented case of congenital amusia was published only in 2002. The study was conducted with a female volunteer, referred to as Monica, who declared herself to be musically impaired in

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The brain analyzes the temporal (rhythmic) components of music in two ways: (1) it segments the ongoing sequences of music into temporal events based on duration, and (2) it groups those temporal events to understand the underlying beat to music. Studies on rhythmic discrimination reveal that the

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The diagnosis of amusia requires multiple investigative tools all described in the Montreal Protocol for Identification of Amusia. This protocol has at its center the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA), which involves a series of tests that evaluate the use of musical characteristics

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This finding led to another test that was designed to assess the presence of a deficiency in pitch perception. In this test, Monica heard a sequence of five piano tones of constant pitch followed by a comparison sequence of five piano tones in which the fourth tone could be the same pitch as the

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Studies suggest that the analysis of pitch is primarily controlled by the right temporal region of the brain. The right secondary auditory cortex processes pitch change and manipulation of fine tunes; specifically, this region distinguishes the multiple pitches that characterize melodic tunes as

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Clinical symptoms of acquired amusia are much more variable than those of congenital amusia and are determined by the location and nature of the lesion. Brain injuries may affect motor or expressive functioning, including the ability to sing, whistle, or hum a tune (oral-expressive amusia), the

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Amusic individuals have a remarkable sparing of emotional responses to music in the context of severe and lifelong deficits in processing music. Some individuals with amusia describe music as unpleasant. Others simply refer to it as noise and find it annoying. This can have social implications

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MCA stroke, as evidenced by the 60% of patients who were found to be amusic at the one-week post-stroke stage. While significant recovery takes place over time, amusia can persist for long periods of time. Test results suggest that acquired amusia and its recovery in the post-stroke stage are

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other notes in the sequence or a completely different pitch altogether. Monica was asked to respond "yes" if she detected a pitch change on the fourth tone or respond "no" if she could not detect a pitch change. Results showed that Monica could barely detect a pitch change as large as two

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Studies have shown that congenital amusia is a deficit in fine-grained pitch discrimination and that 4% of the population has this disorder. Acquired amusia may take several forms. Patients with brain damage may experience the loss of ability to produce musical sounds while sparing

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Currently, no forms of treatment have proven effective in treating amusia. One study has shown tone differentiation techniques to have some success; however, future research on treatment of this disorder will be necessary to verify this technique as an appropriate treatment.

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This musical pitch disorder represents a phenotype that serves to identify the associated neuro-genetic factors. Both MRI-based brain structural analyses and electroencephalography (EEG) are common methods employed to uncover brain anomalies associated with amusia (See

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of amusic individuals as compared to controls. Lack of extensive exposure to music could be a contributing factor to this white matter reduction. For example, amusic individuals may be less inclined to listen to music than others, which could ultimately cause reduced

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known to contribute to the memory and perception of conventional music, but the protocol also allows for the ruling out of other conditions that can explain the clinical signs observed. The battery comprises six subtests which assess the ability to discriminate

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Amusia has been classified as a learning disability that affects musical abilities. Research suggests that in congenital amusia, younger subjects can be taught tone differentiation techniques. This finding leads researchers to believe that amusia is related to

410:) assign particular importance to notes in the scale and cause non-scale notes to sound out of place. This enables the listener to ascertain when a wrong note is played. However, in individuals with amusia, this ability is either compromised or lost entirely. 536:

was the first to describe in the medical literature what would later be termed congenital amusia, calling it "note-deafness". Later, during the late nineteenth century, several influential neurologists studied language in an attempt to construct a

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are spoken, amusia may have the more pronounced social and emotional impact of experiencing difficulty in speaking and understanding the language. However, context clues are often strong enough to determine the correct meaning, similarly to how

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in the right hemisphere could not be detected, suggesting a disconnection between the posterior superior temporal gyrus and the posterior inferior frontal gyrus. Researchers suggested the posterior superior temporal gyrus was the origin of the

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are due to a malformation in cortical development and also lead to an increase in cortical thickness, which leads researchers to believe that congenital amusia may be caused by the identical phenomenon in a different area of the brain.

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Results showed that there was no significant difference in the distribution of left and right hemisphere lesions between amusic and non-amusic groups, but that the amusic group had a significantly higher number of lesions to the

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Hutchings, Tiffany, Seth Hayden, Mandy Politziner, and Erina Kainuma. "Amusia." Web log post. Amusia: Definition, Welcome to Amusia..., Congenital and Acquired Amusia, Neural Overview. 25 February 2008. Web. 10 October

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Symptoms of amusia are generally categorized as receptive, clinical, or mixed. Symptoms of receptive amusia, sometimes referred to as "musical deafness" or "tone deafness", include the inability to recognize familiar

329:), or the inability to remember or recognize a song. These disabilities can appear separately, but some research shows that they are more likely to appear in tone-deaf people. Experienced musicians, such as 2798: 378:

Neurologically intact individuals appear to be born musical. Even before they are able to talk, infants show remarkable musical abilities that are similar to those of adults in that they are sensitive to

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Sarkamo T, Tervaniemi M, Soinila S, Autti T, Silvennoinen HM, Laine M, et al. (2009). "Cognitive deficits associated with acquired amusia after stroke: A neuropsychological follow-up study." ".

266:(VBM) is used to detect anatomical differences between the MRIs of amusic brains and musically intact brains, specifically with respect increased and/or decreased amounts of white and grey matter. 2312:

Gaab, N., Gaser, C., Zaehle, T., Jancke, L., Schlaug, G. (2003). Functional anatomy of pitch memory-an fMRI study with sparse temoral sampling. NeuroLmage. 19:1417-1426.

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DiPietro M, Laganaro M, Leeman B, Schnider A (2004). "Receptive amusia: temporal auditory deficit in a processional musician following a left temporo-parietal lesion".

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mentioned a "musical organ" in a specific region of the human brain that could be spared or disrupted after a traumatic event resulting in brain damage. In 1865,

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Halsband U, Ito N, Tanji J, Freund HJ (1993). "The role of premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area in the temporal control of movement in man".

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Many research studies of individuals with amusia show that a number of cortical regions appear to be involved in processing music. Some report that the

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Lesions in (or the absence of) associations between the right temporal lobe and inferior frontal lobe. In nine of ten tone-deaf people, the superior

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Burkhard Maess, Stefan Koelsch, Thomas C. Gunter and Angela D. Friederici. "Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: an MEG study" (2001)

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is involved in the processing of musical syntax. Furthermore, brain damage can disrupt an individual's ability to tell the difference between

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Prolonged exposure to music develops and refines these skills. Extensive musical training does not seem to be necessary in the processing of

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Foxton JM, Dean JL, Gee R, Peretz I, Griffiths TD (2004). "Characterization of deficits in pitch perception underlying 'tone deafness'." ".

1313: 494:, an imaging technique used to explore structural differences in the brain, revealed a decrease in white matter concentration in the right 124:, and the inability to detect wrong or out-of tune notes. Clinical, or expressive, symptoms include the loss of ability to sing, write 1779:

Peretz, Isabelle; Brattico, Elvira; Järvenpää, Miika; Tervaniemi, Mari (2009). "The amusic brain: in tune, out of key, and unaware".

3293: 2943: 2923: 2819: 2770: 2700: 2675: 1872:"Linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes, ASPM and Microcephalin" 402:. The development of musical competence most likely depends on the encoding of pitch along musical scales and maintaining a regular 1211:

Gosselin, Nathalie; Paquette, Sébastien; Peretz, Isabelle (October 2015). "Sensitivity to musical emotions in congenital amusia".

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produced a cognitive model for music processing and termed it amusia. This model for music processing was the earliest produced.

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Dorgueille, C. 1966. Introduction à l'étude des amusies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Université de la Sorbonne, Paris.

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differences in pitch direction in their final word. This suggests that amusia can in subtle ways impair language processing.

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Zatorre RJ, Samson S (1991). "Role of the right temporal neocortex in retention of pitch in auditory short-term memory".

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Those with congenital amusia show impaired performance on discrimination, identification and imitation of sentences with

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Tone deafness is also associated with other musical-specific impairments such as the inability to keep time with music (

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Tramo M, Shah GD, Braida LD (2002). "Functional role of auditory cortex in frequency processing and pitch perception".

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Peretz I, Champod AS, Hyde KL (2003). "Varieties of musical disorders. The Montreal battery of evaluation of amusia".

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Tillmann, Barbara; Burnham, Denis; Nguyen, Sebastien; Grimault, Nicolas; Gosselin, Nathalie; Peretz, Isabelle (2011).

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described the first series of cases that involved the loss of music abilities that were due to brain injury. In 1878,

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associated with a variety of cognitive functions, particularly attention, executive functioning and working memory.

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Music-specific neural networks exist in the brain for a variety of music-related tasks. It has been shown that

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and other similar disorders. Research has been shown that amusia may be related to an increase in size of the

3343: 3155: 541:. While not studied as thoroughly as language, music and visual processing were also studied. In 1888–1890, 529: 491: 430: 263: 24: 107:, and emotional processing of music. Amusia may include impairment of any combination of these skill sets. 3719: 3692: 3635: 3391: 2611:"Congenital amusia – A group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder." [Article]" 2199: 2103: 1826: 1400: 851: 598: 495: 346: 3787: 3765: 3497: 3145: 2531:

Johnson, Julene K (2003). "August Knoblauch and amusia: A nineteenth-century cognitive model of music".

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and recognition. Two main classifications of amusia exist: acquired amusia, which occurs as a result of

128:, and/or play an instrument. A mixed disorder is a combination of expressive and receptive impairment. 842:

Peretz I, Hyde KL (2003). "What is specific to music processing? Insights from congenital amusia." ".

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and linguistic typological features has been recently discovered, supporting the latter hypothesis.

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Vuvan, D. T.; Paquette, S.; Mignault Goulet, G.; Royal, I.; Felezeu, M.; Peretz, I. (1 June 2018).

1405: 1012:"The genetics of congenital amusia (tone deafness): A family-aggregation study." [Article]" 251: 190:, which may be a result of a malformation in cortical development. Conditions such as dyslexia and 3540: 3570: 3243: 3223: 3026: 3018: 2867: 2556: 2494: 2351: 2225: 2172: 2129: 1852: 1758: 1682: 1541: 1426: 1236: 1152: 877: 795: 770: 671: 653: 603: 479: 315: 298:

Tone-deaf people seem to be disabled only when it comes to music as they can fully interpret the

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Wilson SJ, Pressing J, Wales RJ (2002). "Modeling rhythmic function in a musician post-stroke".

1317: 714:, the human ability to name a musical note when played or sung (less common than relative pitch) 3069: 1067: 740:, the human ability to accurately distinguish pitch intervals (more common than absolute pitch) 365:

lesions were also observed in patients with amusia. Amusia is a common occurrence following an

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people are born. They are unable to recognize or hum familiar tunes even if they have normal

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because amusics often try to avoid music, which in many social situations is not an option.

125: 121: 2160: 1529: 961: 908: 3782: 3530: 3492: 3447: 3432: 3358: 3323: 3308: 3273: 3233: 3160: 2679: 1937: 1172:"Intonation processing in congenital amusia: discrimination, identification and imitation" 1127:

Douglas KM, Bilkey DK (2007). "Amusia is Associated with Deficits in Spatial Processing".

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Involvement of the parahippocampal gyrus (responsible for the emotional reaction to music)

358: 187: 136: 2979: 1256:"Congenital Amusia (or Tone-Deafness) Interferes with Pitch Processing in Tone Languages" 414: 1889: 1662: 274:

There are two general classifications of amusia: congenital amusia and acquired amusia.

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intervals. These perceptual skills indicate that music-specific predispositions exist.

311: 68: 2544: 2213: 1745: 1728: 865: 3911: 3843: 3838: 3760: 3746: 3640: 3620: 3610: 3595: 3550: 3545: 3502: 3467: 3452: 3406: 3386: 3278: 3135: 3085: 3030: 2339: 1933:"Congenital amusia: a group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder" 1840: 1577: 1560: 1099: 1082: 448: 434: 407: 403: 395: 380: 362: 330: 322: 247: 239: 235: 207: 64: 2560: 2355: 2229: 2176: 1856: 1762: 1686: 1240: 799: 3891: 3833: 3818: 3671: 3625: 3605: 3575: 3427: 3353: 3338: 2871: 2386: 1545: 1462: 1430: 1156: 881: 748: 618: 487: 354: 259: 76: 72: 2133: 1727:

Peretz I, Ayotte J, Zatorre RJ, Mehler J, Ahad P, Penhune VB, et al. (2002).

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insight to the brain mechanisms involved in music processing are discussed below.

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Research suggests that patients with amusia also have difficulty when it comes to

3081: 1224: 3896: 3792: 3630: 3560: 3038: 2324:"Effect of unilateral temporal-lobe excision on percention and imagery of songs" 1561:"Expressive Aprosody and Amusia as a Manifestation of Right Hemisphere Seizures" 1083:"Expressive Aprosody and Amusia as a Manifestation of Right Hemisphere Seizures" 932:"Revisiting the dissociation between singing and speaking in expressive aphasia" 743: 628: 533: 500: 399: 307: 203: 2463: 2291: 2071: 2054: 2027: 2010: 3886: 3869: 3772: 3615: 3565: 3525: 3462: 2256: 1618: 1601: 613: 593: 562: 291: 1975: 1627: 1281: 1272: 3742: 1898: 1670: 575: 422: 164: 48: 3054: 2863: 2786: 2636: 2627: 2610: 2595: 2587: 2552: 2450: 2441: 2424: 2404: 2221: 2168: 2125: 2080: 2055:"Patterns of music agnosia associated with middle cerebral artery infarcts" 2036: 1960: 1951: 1932: 1917: 1848: 1800: 1792: 1754: 1678: 1635: 1586: 1537: 1481: 1422: 1373: 1364: 1347: 1299: 1232: 1197: 1188: 1171: 1148: 1108: 1045: 957: 948: 916: 873: 791: 79:

amusia, which results from a music-processing anomaly present since birth.

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Can't chant, can't speak English? Pope says it's because he's tone-deaf

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Peretz I, Zatorre R (2005). "Brain Organization for Music Processing".

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Alossa, Nicoletta; Castelli, Lorys, "Amusia and Musical Functioning",

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below the mean obtained by musically competent controls.

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Sensory aphasia and amusia; the myeloarchitectonic basis

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of human speech. Tone deafness has a strong negative

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Other regions of the brain possibly linked to amusia

3852: 3806: 3753: 3649: 3511: 3415: 3367: 3169: 3128: 42: 37: 387:. Also, infants are able to differentiate between 503:of connections to the frontal areas of the brain. 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 930:Hébert S, Racette A, Gagnon L, Peretz I (2003). 91:lose speech selectively but can sometimes still 16:"Tone deaf" redirects here. For other uses, see 1877:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2371:"Tone Deafness: A New Disconnection Syndrome?" 1170:Liu F, Patel AD, Fourcin A, Stewart L (2010). 1063: 1061: 1059: 1057: 1055: 63:that appears mainly as a defect in processing 3727: 3106: 3001:Kazez D (1985). "The myth of tone deafness". 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 8: 2831: 2829: 2827: 1774: 1772: 218:, mental flexibility, and semantic fluency. 2914:Crow, James Franklin and Dove, William F.; 837: 835: 833: 831: 829: 3734: 3720: 3712: 3113: 3099: 3091: 2812:Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain 2048: 2046: 1511: 827: 825: 823: 821: 819: 817: 815: 813: 811: 809: 34: 2853: 2626: 2440: 2394: 2369:Loui, P.; Alsop, D.; Schlaug, S. (2009). 2203: 2107: 2070: 2026: 1950: 1907: 1897: 1870:Dediu, Dan; Ladd, D. Robert (June 2007). 1830: 1744: 1617: 1576: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1491: 1471: 1461: 1404: 1363: 1289: 1271: 1187: 1122: 1120: 1118: 1098: 1035: 947: 855: 202:in that they affect similar areas of the 2787:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429419896792 1005: 1003: 1001: 3349:Temporal dynamics of music and language 1812: 1810: 760: 2801:", Catholic News Service, 2 April 2013 2161:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.12.004 1530:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.05.015 1010:Peretz I, Cummings S, Dube MP (2007). 909:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070225 2731:"Darwin's Legacy: Natural selections" 7: 2609:Ayotte J, Peretz I, Hyde K (2002). 2468:, Vol. 61, No. 5, pp. 269–77 (2009) 158:In China and other countries where 2934:Hamilton, W. D. and Ridley, Mark; 1559:Bautista RE, Ciampetti MZ (2003). 1316:. 13 February 2006. Archived from 1016:American Journal of Human Genetics 14: 3294:Music in psychological operations 3082:Tone-Deaf Choir audio description 2763:John Dewey's Aesthetic Philosophy 2512:Correa, Jasmine (24 March 2014). 433:, secondary auditory cortex, and 310:with belonging to societies with 3239:Generative theory of tonal music 2729:LaFee, Scott (9 February 2009). 1841:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00683.x 1578:10.1046/j.1528-1157.2003.36502.x 1100:10.1046/j.1528-1157.2003.36502.x 1081:Bautista R, Ciampetti M (2003). 644:Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester 3249:Hedonic music consumption model 3146:Cognitive neuroscience of music 2885:Baril, Daniel (12 April 1999). 2836:Münte, Thomas (February 2002). 723:Cognitive neuroscience of music 486:Cortical thickness and reduced 2387:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1701-09.2009 2322:Zatorre RJ, Halpern R (1993). 1463:10.1523/jneurosci.3039-07.2007 221:Amusia can also be related to 120:, the loss of ability to read 1: 3686:Psychology of Music (journal) 3229:Eye movement in music reading 2893:. Vol. 33, no. 26. 2545:10.1016/S0278-2626(02)00527-4 2214:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00198-1 2009:Zatorre RJ, Berlin P (2001). 1746:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00580-3 866:10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00150-5 3254:Illusory continuity of tones 2651:Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts 2340:10.1016/0028-3932(93)90086-f 1225:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.06.022 844:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3700:This Is Your Brain on Music 3679:Music, Thought, and Feeling 3665:Musicae Scientiae (journal) 2736:The San Diego Union-Tribune 2479:Allen, Grant (April 1878). 1450:The Journal of Neuroscience 897:Annual Review of Psychology 3954: 3473:Neuronal encoding of sound 3443:Melodic intonation therapy 3151:Culture in music cognition 2781:*Thibeault, M. D. (2018). 2096:Journal of Neurophysiology 198:Amusia is also similar to 174: 22: 18:Tone deaf (disambiguation) 15: 3798:Scientific pitch notation 3199:Consonance and dissonance 2980:"The Life of W. B. Yeats" 1619:10.3758/s13428-017-0941-3 1606:Behavior Research Methods 3778:Helmholtz pitch notation 3488:Psychoanalysis and music 3468:Neurologic music therapy 3402:Music-specific disorders 3214:Embodied music cognition 3204:Deutsch's scale illusion 2292:10.1093/brain/114.6.2403 2072:10.1093/brain/123.9.1926 2028:10.1093/cercor/11.10.946 1273:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00120 733:Music-specific disorders 177:Music-specific disorders 3933:Communication disorders 3344:Speech-to-song illusion 3156:Evolutionary musicology 3003:Music Educators Journal 2375:Journal of Neuroscience 2257:10.1093/brain/116.1.243 1997:Nature Publishing Group 1899:10.1073/pnas.0610848104 1671:10.1196/annals.1284.006 1260:Frontiers in Psychology 991:Sacks, Oliver. (2007). 530:Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud 492:voxel-based morphometry 431:primary auditory cortex 389:consonant and dissonant 264:voxel-based morphometry 25:Amusia (disambiguation) 3693:The World in Six Songs 3636:William Forde Thompson 3392:Musical hallucinations 2895:Université de Montréal 696:Rodrigo De Souza from 599:William Lawrence Bragg 496:inferior frontal gyrus 347:middle cerebral artery 3788:Piano key frequencies 3498:Systematic musicology 2118:10.1152/jn.00104.1999 1819:Psychological Science 589:Alfonso XIII of Spain 490:– in a recent study, 67:but also encompasses 3304:Music-related memory 3141:Cognitive musicology 3080:The Listening Book: 3076:Distorted Tunes Test 2887:"Le cerveau musical" 2838:"Brains out of Tune" 2761:Zeltner, Philip N.; 2662:Marmon Silko, Leslie 2628:10.1093/brain/awf028 2588:10.1093/brain/awh105 2442:10.1093/brain/awl204 1952:10.1093/brain/awf028 1793:10.1093/brain/awp055 1365:10.1093/brain/awf028 1189:10.1093/brain/awq089 949:10.1093/brain/awg186 699:Mozart in the Jungle 659:William Butler Yeats 285:, commonly known as 150:Social and emotional 23:For other uses, see 3591:Max Friedrich Meyer 3483:Philosophy of music 3478:Performance science 3423:Aesthetics of music 3397:Musician's dystonia 3382:Auditory arrhythmia 3269:Melodic expectation 2691:Hunter, Graeme K.; 2533:Brain and Cognition 1890:2007PNAS..10410944D 1663:2003NYASA.999...58P 1393:Annals of Neurology 1348:"Congenital Amusia" 1320:on 13 February 2006 1129:Nature Neuroscience 539:theory of cognition 252:standard deviations 167:can be understood. 3650:Books and journals 3571:Carol L. Krumhansl 3289:Music and movement 3244:Glissando illusion 3224:Exercise and music 2984:The New York Times 2670:, p. 254. Arcade. 2501:– via JSTOR. 771:European Neurology 684:James Fraser from 672:Horatio Hornblower 654:Theodore Roosevelt 604:Alfred Duff Cooper 480:arcuate fasciculus 455:Temporal relations 316:allele frequencies 137:spatial processing 111:Signs and symptoms 3905: 3904: 3824:Pitch circularity 3709: 3708: 3458:Musical acoustics 3334:Sharawadji effect 3314:Musical semantics 3284:Music and emotion 3184:Auditory illusion 2967:978-0-7658-0241-5 2717:978-0-7538-2105-3 2381:(33): 10215–120. 1976:"Tone-Deaf Choir" 1524:(12): 2642–2651. 1415:10.1002/ana.20606 784:10.1159/000089606 679:Home on the Range 526:Franz Joseph Gall 325:, or the lack of 283:Congenital amusia 278:Congenital amusia 262:). Additionally, 54: 53: 32:Medical condition 3945: 3928:Music psychology 3860:Electronic tuner 3736: 3729: 3722: 3713: 3658:Music Perception 3601:Richard Parncutt 3586:Leonard B. Meyer 3536:Jane W. Davidson 3521:Jamshed Bharucha 3299:Music preference 3194:Background music 3189:Auditory imagery 3122:Music psychology 3115: 3108: 3101: 3092: 3058: 3034: 2988: 2987: 2976: 2970: 2952: 2946: 2932: 2926: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2857: 2848:(6872): 589–90. 2833: 2822: 2808: 2802: 2795: 2789: 2779: 2773: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2743:on 25 April 2009 2739:. Archived from 2726: 2720: 2709: 2703: 2689: 2683: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2630: 2621:(Pt 2): 238–51. 2606: 2600: 2599: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2476: 2470: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2444: 2420: 2409: 2408: 2398: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2328:Neuropsychologia 2319: 2313: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2207: 2192:Neuropsychologia 2187: 2181: 2180: 2149:Neuropsychologia 2144: 2138: 2137: 2111: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2074: 2050: 2041: 2040: 2030: 2006: 2000: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1954: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1911: 1901: 1884:(26): 10944–49. 1867: 1861: 1860: 1834: 1814: 1805: 1804: 1776: 1767: 1766: 1748: 1724: 1691: 1690: 1651:Ann N Y Acad Sci 1646: 1640: 1639: 1621: 1597: 1591: 1590: 1580: 1556: 1550: 1549: 1518:Neuropsychologia 1513: 1486: 1485: 1475: 1465: 1456:(47): 13028–32. 1441: 1435: 1434: 1408: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1367: 1343: 1330: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1293: 1275: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1191: 1167: 1161: 1160: 1124: 1113: 1112: 1102: 1078: 1072: 1065: 1050: 1049: 1039: 1007: 996: 989: 983: 980: 974: 973: 971: 969: 960:. Archived from 951: 927: 921: 920: 892: 886: 885: 859: 839: 804: 803: 765: 728:Musical aptitude 718:Auditory agnosia 634:J. B. S. Haldane 624:Ulysses S. Grant 543:August Knoblauch 171:Related diseases 126:musical notation 122:musical notation 61:musical disorder 35: 3953: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3923:Music cognition 3908: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3865:Mersenne's laws 3848: 3802: 3783:Letter notation 3749: 3740: 3710: 3705: 3645: 3531:Robert Cutietta 3507: 3493:Sociomusicology 3448:Music education 3433:Ethnomusicology 3411: 3363: 3359:Tritone paradox 3324:Octave illusion 3309:Musical gesture 3274:Melodic fission 3264:Lipps–Meyer law 3234:Franssen effect 3165: 3161:Psychoacoustics 3124: 3119: 3065: 3037: 3015:10.2307/3396499 3000: 2997: 2995:Further reading 2992: 2991: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2953: 2949: 2933: 2929: 2913: 2909: 2899: 2897: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2855:10.1038/415589a 2835: 2834: 2825: 2810:Sacks, Oliver; 2809: 2805: 2796: 2792: 2780: 2776: 2760: 2756: 2746: 2744: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2710: 2706: 2690: 2686: 2660: 2656: 2648: 2644: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2493:(10): 157–167. 2481:"Note-Deafness" 2478: 2477: 2473: 2462: 2458: 2435:(10): 2562–70. 2422: 2421: 2412: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2321: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2205:10.1.1.511.1384 2198:(8): 1494–505. 2189: 2188: 2184: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2109:10.1.1.588.2041 2093: 2092: 2088: 2052: 2051: 2044: 2015:Cerebral Cortex 2008: 2007: 2003: 1994: 1990: 1980: 1978: 1974:Mathieu, W. A. 1973: 1972: 1968: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1832:10.1.1.485.7939 1816: 1815: 1808: 1778: 1777: 1770: 1726: 1725: 1694: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1599: 1598: 1594: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1515: 1514: 1489: 1443: 1442: 1438: 1386: 1385: 1381: 1345: 1344: 1333: 1323: 1321: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1253: 1252: 1248: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1169: 1168: 1164: 1126: 1125: 1116: 1080: 1079: 1075: 1066: 1053: 1009: 1008: 999: 990: 986: 981: 977: 967: 965: 964:on 21 July 2012 929: 928: 924: 894: 893: 889: 857:10.1.1.585.2171 841: 840: 807: 767: 766: 762: 757: 708: 668: 663: 649:Isabel Paterson 584: 571: 522: 513: 475: 466: 457: 444: 442:Pitch relations 376: 359:auditory cortex 342:Acquired amusia 339: 337:Acquired amusia 312:tonal languages 280: 272: 270:Classifications 231: 188:cerebral cortex 179: 173: 160:tonal languages 152: 113: 33: 28: 21: 12: 11: 5: 3951: 3949: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3910: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3875:Musical tuning 3872: 3867: 3862: 3856: 3854: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3829:Relative pitch 3826: 3821: 3816: 3814:Absolute pitch 3810: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3769: 3768: 3757: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3741: 3739: 3738: 3731: 3724: 3716: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3696: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3668: 3661: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3581:Daniel Levitin 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3556:Henkjan Honing 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3517: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3506: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3419: 3417: 3416:Related fields 3413: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3373: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3329:Relative pitch 3326: 3321: 3319:Musical syntax 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3259:Levitin effect 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3179:Absolute pitch 3175: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3110: 3103: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3078: 3072: 3064: 3063:External links 3061: 3060: 3059: 3047:Pergamon Press 3035: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2971: 2947: 2927: 2907: 2877: 2823: 2803: 2790: 2774: 2754: 2721: 2704: 2684: 2654: 2642: 2601: 2566: 2523: 2504: 2471: 2456: 2410: 2361: 2314: 2305: 2286:(6): 2403–17. 2270: 2235: 2182: 2155:(7): 868–977. 2139: 2086: 2065:(9): 1926–38. 2042: 2021:(10): 946–53. 2001: 1988: 1966: 1923: 1862: 1806: 1787:(5): 1277–86. 1768: 1692: 1641: 1592: 1551: 1487: 1436: 1406:10.1.1.598.544 1379: 1331: 1305: 1246: 1203: 1182:(6): 1682–93. 1162: 1141:10.1038/nn1925 1114: 1073: 1051: 1028:10.1086/521337 997: 984: 975: 942:(8): 1838–50. 922: 887: 805: 759: 758: 756: 753: 752: 751: 746: 741: 738:Relative pitch 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 712:Absolute pitch 707: 704: 703: 702: 694: 692:Diana Gabaldon 682: 674: 667: 664: 662: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 639:W. D. Hamilton 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 609:Charles Darwin 606: 601: 596: 591: 585: 583: 580: 578:and dyslexia. 570: 567: 521: 518: 512: 509: 508: 507: 504: 484: 474: 471: 465: 462: 456: 453: 443: 440: 383:and a regular 381:musical scales 375: 372: 338: 335: 279: 276: 271: 268: 240:musical scales 230: 227: 175:Main article: 172: 169: 151: 148: 112: 109: 69:musical memory 52: 51: 46: 40: 39: 31: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3950: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3844:Virtual pitch 3842: 3840: 3839:Tone deafness 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3761:Concert pitch 3759: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3732: 3730: 3725: 3723: 3718: 3717: 3714: 3702: 3701: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3688: 3687: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3641:Sandra Trehub 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3621:Roger Shepard 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3611:Carl Seashore 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3596:James Mursell 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3551:Tuomas Eerola 3549: 3547: 3546:Diana Deutsch 3544: 3542: 3541:Irène Deliège 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3503:Zoomusicology 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3453:Music therapy 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3407:Tone deafness 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3387:Beat deafness 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3279:Mozart effect 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3136:Biomusicology 3134: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3111: 3109: 3104: 3102: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3086:W. A. 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