1845:
1975:: "Heat, is a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of the object, which produces in us that sensation, from whence we denominate the object hot: so what in our sensation is heat, in the object is nothing but motion. This appears by the way, whereby heat is produc'd: for we see that the rubbing of a brass-nail upon a board, will make it very hot; and the axle-trees of carts and coaches are often hot, and sometimes to a degree, that it sets them on fire, by rubbing of the nave of the wheel upon it."
1914:"Before I finish this paper, I would beg leave to observe, that although, in treating the subject I have endeavoured to investigate, I have made no mention of the names of those who have gone over the same ground before me, nor of the success of their labours; this omission has not been owing to any want of respect for my predecessors, but was merely to avoid prolixity, and to be more at liberty to pursue, without interruption, the natural train of my own ideas."
42:
1612:
1655:
1997:
From the footnotes on p. 84 of
Rumford's paper of 1798: "For fear I should be suspected of prodigality in the prosecution of my philosophical researches, I think it necessary to inform the Society, that the cannon I made use of in this experiment was not sacrificed to it. The short hollow cylinder
1949:: "The impulse given by the stroke, being unable either to drive the nail further on, or destroy its interness , must be spent in making various vehement and intestine commotion of the parts among themselves, and in such an one we formerly observed the nature of heat to consist."
1998:
which was formed at the end of it, was turned out of a cylindrical mass of metal, about 2 feet in length, projecting beyond the muzzle of the gun, called in the German language the verlorner kopf, (the head of the cannon to be thrown away) and which is represented in fig. 1."
1817:, and this section was removed and discarded later in the manufacturing process. Rumford took an unfinished cannon and modified this section to allow it to be enclosed by a watertight box while a blunted boring tool was used on it. He showed that water in this box could be
2247:
Experiments, notes, &c., about the mechanical origine or production of divers particular qualities: Among which is inserted a discourse of the imperfection of the chymist's doctrine of qualities; together with some reflections upon the hypothesis of alcali and
2497:
1944:
At the conclusion of
Experiment VI, Boyle notes that if a nail is driven completely into a piece of wood, then further blows with the hammer cause it to become hot as the hammer's force is transformed into random motion of the nail's atoms. From
1821:
within roughly two and a half hours, and that the supply of frictional heat was seemingly inexhaustible. Rumford confirmed that no physical change had taken place in the material of the cannon by comparing the
1864:, believed that there was enough uncertainty in the caloric theory to allow its adaptation to account for the new results. It had certainly proved robust and adaptable up to that time. Furthermore, Thomson,
1829:
Rumford also argued that the seemingly indefinite generation of heat was incompatible with the caloric theory. He contended that the only thing communicated to the barrel was motion.
1962:: "Now Heat, as I shall afterward prove, is nothing but the internal Motion of the Particles of Body; and the hotter a Body is, the more violently are the Particles moved."
1166:
1111:
1056:
863:
816:
731:
684:
596:
549:
1641:
767:
635:
1001:
1342:
500:
1230:
839:
792:
707:
660:
572:
525:
464:
1320:
17:
1353:
923:
1757:
In his 1798 paper, Rumford acknowledged that he had predecessors in the notion that heat was a form of motion. Those predecessors included
1634:
1221:
457:
335:
890:
273:
2477:
1876:
could be indefinitely generated by friction. No educated scientist of the time was willing to hold that electricity was not a fluid.
1405:
1379:
900:
354:
1988:: "I think Sir Isaac Newton's opinion, that heat consists in the internal motion of the particles of bodies, much the most probable."
2458:
306:
1458:
1722:
of heat. His views were out of step with the accepted science of the time and the latter theory had particularly been attacked by
929:
328:
1710:
of heat which held that heat is a fluid that could be neither created nor destroyed. He had further developed the view that all
1627:
1558:
90:
1453:
1849:
1833:
1533:
1306:
283:
1898:
in the 1840s. Joule's more exact measurements were pivotal in establishing the kinetic theory at the expense of caloric.
918:
121:
111:
126:
116:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1737:
and it is likely that he wished to grant water a privileged and providential status in the regulation of human life.
1869:
1687:
1448:
1410:
1374:
86:
1669:
1203:
951:
397:
210:
200:
1690:
in 1798. The paper provided a substantial challenge to established theories of heat, and began the 19th century
2487:
2326:
Henry, W. (1802). "A review of some experiments which have been supposed to disprove the materiality of heat".
1861:
1923:
In his Novum
Organum, Francis Bacon concludes that heat is the motion of the particles composing matter. From
2492:
2482:
2266:"Observations on Mr. Hutchins's Experiments for Determining the Degree of Cold at Which Quicksilver Freezes"
1865:
1857:
1745:
1727:
1615:
1443:
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418:
407:
73:
1844:
1806:
1790:
1548:
1468:
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349:
103:
78:
1946:
1483:
1060:
373:
219:
68:
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1895:
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1563:
1488:
1478:
278:
152:
140:
1508:
1503:
1270:
292:
258:
253:
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2355:
A collection of several pieces of Mr. John Locke, never before printed, or not extant in his works
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2385:
2301:
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1260:
1208:
1121:
1066:
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47:
41:
2398:
1935:: "Heat is not a uniform Expansive Motion of the whole, but of the small particles of the body."
1931:: "The very essence of Heat, or the Substantial self of Heat, is motion and nothing else." From
1255:
845:
798:
713:
666:
578:
531:
2454:
1972:
1959:
1891:
of
Rumford's results and it is possible to see the whole experiment as somewhat tendentious.
1814:
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363:
228:
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1311:
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606:
429:
190:
157:
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482:
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63:
33:
18:
An
Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction
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2424:
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1823:
1758:
1587:
905:
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435:
147:
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1762:
1538:
1523:
1473:
956:
1879:
Ultimately, Rumford's claim of the "inexhaustible" supply of heat was a reckless
1832:
Rumford made no attempt to further quantify the heat generated or to measure the
2353:
Locke, J. (1720) . "Elements of natural philosophy". In Des
Maizeaux, P. (ed.).
1873:
1723:
1654:
1493:
301:
1770:
1691:
1582:
1528:
2498:
Works originally published in
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
2451:
From Watt to
Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age
2313:
Haldat, C.N.A. (1810). "Inquiries concerning the heat produced by friction".
2257:
From Watt to
Clausius: The rise of thermodynamics in the early industrial age
2399:"An enquiry concerning the nature of heat and the mode of its communication"
180:
2415:
2380:
2364:"An inquiry concerning the source of the heat which is excited by friction"
2289:
2363:
1786:
1750:
1676:
An
Inquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat Which Is Excited by Friction
1296:
1213:
1005:
413:
185:
1818:
1810:
1798:
402:
2297:
2265:
1985:
1802:
1794:
1715:
2238:
Novum organum: Or true suggestions for the interpretation of nature
1843:
1653:
1826:
of the material machined away and that remaining were the same.
1813:
with an extra section of metal forward of what would become the
378:
2346:
An Experimental Enquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat
2245:
Boyle, R. (1675). "Of the mechanical origin of heat and cold".
1711:
2335:
Hooke, R. (1705) . "Lectures of light". In Waller, R. (ed.).
1670:
History of thermodynamics § Heat and friction (Rumford)
2151:
2149:
2094:
2092:
2403:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
2368:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
2270:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
2166:
2164:
2109:
2107:
2136:
2134:
1664:
Benjamin Thompson § Mechanical equivalent of heat
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669:
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485:
1744:, there is no evidence that he was committed to the
1740:Though Rumford was to come to associate heat with
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833:
810:
786:
761:
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629:
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494:
2434:Encyclopædia Britannica, Supplement on chemistry
1688:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
1894:However, the experiment inspired the work of
1635:
8:
1642:
1628:
1191:
343:
162:
40:
29:
27:1798 scientific paper by Benjamin Thompson
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484:
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2059:
2035:
2023:
1887:made some penetrating criticisms of the
2016:
1907:
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1319:
1279:
1229:
1194:
387:
362:
291:
218:
165:
32:
2206:
2047:
1733:Rumford was heavily influenced by the
2182:
2140:
2125:
2113:
2098:
1856:Most established scientists, such as
7:
2339:. Samuel Smith and Benjamin Walford.
2337:The posthumous works of Robert Hooke
1848:Joule's apparatus for measuring the
2194:
1927:"Heat appears to be Motion." From
849:
802:
717:
670:
582:
535:
355:Intensive and extensive properties
25:
1684:Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford
1611:
1610:
930:Table of thermodynamic equations
1984:From the footnote continued on
1706:Rumford was an opponent of the
1406:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
1140:
1128:
1085:
1073:
1030:
1018:
990:
978:
1:
1850:mechanical equivalent of heat
1834:mechanical equivalent of heat
1805:. At that time, cannons were
1686:, which was published in the
1307:Mechanical equivalent of heat
919:Onsager reciprocal relations
1411:Entropy as energy dispersal
1222:"Perpetual motion" machines
1161:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1106:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1051:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
2514:
1667:
1661:
858:{\displaystyle \partial T}
811:{\displaystyle \partial V}
726:{\displaystyle \partial p}
679:{\displaystyle \partial V}
591:{\displaystyle \partial T}
544:{\displaystyle \partial S}
2478:Thermodynamics literature
2449:Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971).
2255:Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971).
1785:Rumford had observed the
1332:An Inquiry Concerning the
2250:. Printed by E. Flesher.
1345:Heterogeneous Substances
762:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
630:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
2432:Thomson, T. "Caloric".
1870:Antoine CĂ©sar Becquerel
2416:10.1098/rstl.1804.0009
2381:10.1098/rstl.1798.0006
2290:10.1098/rstl.1783.0021
2264:Cavendish, H. (1783).
1853:
1659:
1162:
1107:
1052:
997:
996:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
859:
835:
812:
788:
763:
727:
703:
680:
656:
631:
592:
568:
545:
521:
496:
475:Specific heat capacity
79:Quantum thermodynamics
2453:. Heinemann: London.
2397:Thompson, B. (1804).
2362:Thompson, B. (1798).
1847:
1657:
1343:On the Equilibrium of
1163:
1108:
1061:Helmholtz free energy
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998:
860:
836:
813:
789:
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728:
704:
681:
657:
632:
593:
569:
546:
522:
497:
2240:. William Pickering.
1896:James Prescott Joule
1866:Jöns Jakob Berzelius
1748:or the principle of
1735:argument from design
1356:Motive Power of Fire
1122:
1067:
1012:
972:
924:Bridgman's equations
901:Fundamental relation
846:
825:
799:
778:
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714:
693:
667:
646:
615:
579:
558:
532:
511:
483:
2344:Leslie, J. (1804).
2315:Journal de Physique
2282:1783RSPT...73..303C
2236:Bacon, F. (1850) .
2101:, pp. 164–168.
1334:Source ... Friction
1266:Loschmidt's paradox
458:Material properties
336:Conjugate variables
2328:Manchester Memoirs
2074:, pp. 99–100.
1854:
1789:heat generated by
1660:
1598:Order and disorder
1354:Reflections on the
1261:Heat death paradox
1158:
1103:
1048:
993:
855:
831:
808:
784:
759:
723:
699:
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652:
627:
588:
564:
541:
517:
495:{\displaystyle c=}
492:
465:Property databases
441:Reduced properties
425:Chemical potential
389:Functions of state
312:Thermal efficiency
48:Carnot heat engine
2116:, pp. 61–62.
1718:are absolute non-
1658:Benjamin Thompson
1652:
1651:
1593:Self-organization
1418:
1417:
1116:Gibbs free energy
914:Maxwell relations
872:
871:
868:
867:
834:{\displaystyle V}
787:{\displaystyle 1}
742:Thermal expansion
736:
735:
702:{\displaystyle V}
655:{\displaystyle 1}
601:
600:
567:{\displaystyle N}
520:{\displaystyle T}
448:
447:
364:Process functions
350:Property diagrams
329:System properties
319:
318:
284:Endoreversibility
176:Equation of state
16:(Redirected from
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2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2159:
2156:Cavendish (1783)
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2138:
2129:
2123:
2117:
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2087:
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1999:
1995:
1989:
1982:
1976:
1969:
1963:
1956:
1950:
1942:
1936:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1883:from the study.
1680:scientific paper
1644:
1637:
1630:
1614:
1613:
1321:Key publications
1302:
1301:("living force")
1251:Brownian ratchet
1246:Entropy and life
1241:Entropy and time
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1002:
1000:
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896:Clausius theorem
891:Carnot's theorem
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2488:1798 in science
2468:
2467:
2461:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2436:(3rd ed.).
2431:
2396:
2361:
2357:. R. Francklin.
2352:
2343:
2334:
2325:
2312:
2263:
2254:
2244:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2219:Cardwell (1971)
2217:
2213:
2205:
2201:
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2171:Thompson (1798)
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2105:
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2084:Thompson (1798)
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2072:Cardwell (1971)
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2060:Thompson (1804)
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2054:
2046:
2042:
2036:Cardwell (1971)
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2024:Thompson (1798)
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1939:
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1918:
1913:
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1904:
1889:reproducibility
1842:
1797:barrels at the
1783:
1775:Henry Cavendish
1704:
1672:
1666:
1648:
1603:
1602:
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1398:
1384:
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1355:
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1344:
1337:
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1300:
1293:
1275:
1256:Maxwell's demon
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1120:
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966:Internal energy
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665:
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607:Compressibility
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430:Particle number
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279:Irreversibility
191:State of matter
158:Isolated system
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91:Non-equilibrium
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58:
50:
28:
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22:
15:
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5:
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2493:Physics papers
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2483:1798 documents
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2310:
2261:
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2242:
2232:
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2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:, p. 102.
2211:
2209:, p. 213.
2199:
2187:
2185:, p. 603.
2175:
2160:
2158:, p. 313.
2145:
2143:, p. 224.
2130:
2128:, p. 116.
2118:
2103:
2088:
2086:, p. 100.
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2064:
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2040:
2028:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
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2001:
2000:
1990:
1977:
1964:
1951:
1937:
1916:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1885:Charles Haldat
1872:observed that
1862:Thomas Thomson
1841:
1838:
1824:specific heats
1782:
1779:
1746:kinetic theory
1708:caloric theory
1703:
1700:
1696:thermodynamics
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1377:
1375:Thermodynamics
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1292:
1291:
1289:Caloric theory
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1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1113:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1058:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1003:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
962:
960:
959:
954:
948:
947:
942:
941:
938:
937:
934:
933:
926:
921:
916:
909:
908:
903:
898:
893:
887:
886:
881:
880:
877:
876:
870:
869:
866:
865:
854:
851:
841:
830:
819:
818:
807:
804:
794:
783:
769:
758:
755:
745:
738:
737:
734:
733:
722:
719:
709:
698:
687:
686:
675:
672:
662:
651:
637:
626:
623:
620:
610:
603:
602:
599:
598:
587:
584:
574:
563:
552:
551:
540:
537:
527:
516:
502:
491:
488:
478:
469:
468:
467:
461:
456:
455:
452:
451:
446:
445:
444:
443:
438:
433:
422:
411:
392:
391:
385:
384:
382:
381:
376:
370:
367:
366:
360:
359:
358:
357:
352:
333:
332:
327:
326:
323:
322:
317:
316:
315:
314:
309:
304:
296:
295:
289:
288:
287:
286:
281:
276:
271:
269:Free expansion
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
223:
222:
216:
215:
214:
213:
208:
206:Control volume
203:
198:
196:Phase (matter)
193:
188:
183:
178:
170:
169:
161:
160:
155:
150:
144:
139:
138:
135:
134:
130:
129:
124:
119:
114:
108:
107:
102:
101:
98:
97:
94:
93:
82:
81:
76:
71:
66:
60:
59:
56:
55:
52:
51:
46:The classical
45:
37:
36:
34:Thermodynamics
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2510:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2462:
2460:0-435-54150-1
2456:
2452:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2207:Haldat (1810)
2203:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2176:
2173:, p. 84.
2172:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2048:Leslie (1804)
2044:
2041:
2038:, p. 99.
2037:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2017:
2010:
2005:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1881:extrapolation
1877:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1860:, as well as
1859:
1858:William Henry
1851:
1846:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1759:Francis Bacon
1755:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1656:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1588:Self-assembly
1586:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1559:van der Waals
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1484:von Helmholtz
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1423:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1175:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1125:
1117:
1114:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1062:
1059:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1007:
1004:
987:
984:
981:
975:
967:
964:
963:
958:
955:
953:
950:
949:
945:
940:
939:
932:
931:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
911:
907:
906:Ideal gas law
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
888:
884:
879:
878:
852:
842:
828:
821:
820:
805:
795:
781:
774:
773:
770:
756:
753:
746:
743:
740:
739:
720:
710:
696:
689:
688:
673:
663:
649:
642:
641:
638:
624:
621:
618:
611:
608:
605:
604:
585:
575:
561:
554:
553:
538:
528:
514:
507:
506:
503:
489:
486:
479:
476:
473:
472:
466:
463:
462:
459:
454:
453:
442:
439:
437:
436:Vapor quality
434:
432:
431:
426:
423:
421:
420:
415:
412:
409:
405:
404:
399:
396:
395:
394:
393:
390:
386:
380:
377:
375:
372:
371:
369:
368:
365:
361:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
346:
345:
341:
337:
330:
325:
324:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
299:
298:
297:
294:
290:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
274:Reversibility
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
225:
224:
221:
217:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
173:
172:
171:
168:
164:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
148:Closed system
146:
145:
142:
137:
136:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
105:
100:
99:
92:
88:
85:
84:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
54:
53:
49:
43:
39:
38:
35:
31:
19:
2450:
2443:Bibliography
2433:
2406:
2402:
2371:
2367:
2354:
2345:
2336:
2327:
2318:
2314:
2273:
2269:
2259:. Heinemann.
2256:
2246:
2237:
2214:
2202:
2190:
2183:Henry (1802)
2178:
2141:Locke (1720)
2126:Hooke (1705)
2121:
2114:Boyle (1675)
2099:Bacon (1850)
2079:
2067:
2055:
2043:
2031:
2019:
1993:
1980:
1967:
1954:
1940:
1919:
1910:
1893:
1878:
1855:
1831:
1828:
1784:
1767:Robert Hooke
1763:Robert Boyle
1756:
1749:
1739:
1732:
1705:
1675:
1673:
1449:Carathéodory
1380:Heat engines
1352:
1341:
1331:
1330:
1312:Motive power
1297:
957:Free entropy
928:
428:
427: /
417:
416: /
408:introduction
401:
400: /
339:
302:Heat engines
89: /
2276:: 303–328.
1874:electricity
1781:Experiments
1728:John Leslie
1724:John Dalton
1271:Synergetics
952:Free energy
398:Temperature
259:Quasistatic
254:Isenthalpic
211:Instruments
201:Equilibrium
153:Open system
87:Equilibrium
69:Statistical
2472:Categories
2409:: 77–182.
2374:: 80–102.
2006:References
1787:frictional
1771:John Locke
1720:conductors
1702:Background
1692:revolution
1668:See also:
1662:See also:
1583:Nucleation
1427:Scientists
1231:Philosophy
944:Potentials
307:Heat pumps
264:Polytropic
249:Isentropic
239:Isothermal
2425:186211958
2390:186208954
2348:. London.
2330:(V): 603.
2306:186208906
2011:Citations
1947:pp. 61-62
1840:Reception
1564:Waterston
1514:von Mayer
1469:de Donder
1459:Clapeyron
1439:Boltzmann
1434:Bernoulli
1395:Education
1366:Timelines
1150:−
1095:−
883:Equations
850:∂
803:∂
754:α
718:∂
671:∂
625:−
619:β
583:∂
536:∂
244:Adiabatic
234:Isochoric
220:Processes
181:Ideal gas
64:Classical
1751:vis viva
1616:Category
1554:Thompson
1464:Clausius
1444:Bridgman
1298:Vis viva
1280:Theories
1214:Gas laws
1006:Enthalpy
414:Pressure
229:Isobaric
186:Real gas
74:Chemical
57:Branches
2278:Bibcode
2229:Sources
2195:Thomson
1811:foundry
1809:at the
1799:arsenal
1716:liquids
1678:" is a
1539:Smeaton
1534:Rankine
1524:Onsager
1509:Maxwell
1504:Massieu
1209:Entropy
1204:General
1195:History
1185:Culture
1182:History
406: (
403:Entropy
340:italics
141:Systems
2457:
2423:
2388:
2304:
2298:106496
2296:
2248:acidum
1986:p. 313
1973:p. 224
1960:p. 116
1933:p. 168
1929:p. 165
1925:p. 164
1868:, and
1819:boiled
1815:muzzle
1803:Munich
1795:cannon
1791:boring
1773:, and
1742:motion
1529:Planck
1519:Nernst
1494:Kelvin
1454:Carnot
744:
609:
477:
419:Volume
334:Note:
293:Cycles
122:Second
112:Zeroth
2421:S2CID
2386:S2CID
2302:S2CID
2294:JSTOR
1971:From
1958:From
1902:Notes
1712:gases
1577:Other
1544:Stahl
1499:Lewis
1489:Joule
1479:Gibbs
1474:Duhem
167:State
127:Third
117:First
2455:ISBN
1807:cast
1793:out
1726:and
1714:and
1549:Tait
379:Heat
374:Work
104:Laws
2411:doi
2376:doi
2319:lxv
2286:doi
1801:in
1765:,
1694:in
1682:by
1392:Art
338:in
2474::
2419:.
2407:94
2405:.
2401:.
2384:.
2372:88
2370:.
2366:.
2317:.
2300:.
2292:.
2284:.
2274:73
2272:.
2268:.
2163:^
2148:^
2133:^
2106:^
2091:^
1836:.
1777:.
1769:,
1761:,
1754:.
1730:.
1698:.
2463:.
2427:.
2413::
2392:.
2378::
2321:.
2308:.
2288::
2280::
2197:.
2062:.
2050:.
2026:.
1852:.
1674:"
1643:e
1636:t
1629:v
1156:S
1153:T
1147:H
1144:=
1141:)
1138:p
1135:,
1132:T
1129:(
1126:G
1101:S
1098:T
1092:U
1089:=
1086:)
1083:V
1080:,
1077:T
1074:(
1071:A
1046:V
1043:p
1040:+
1037:U
1034:=
1031:)
1028:p
1025:,
1022:S
1019:(
1016:H
991:)
988:V
985:,
982:S
979:(
976:U
853:T
829:V
806:V
782:1
757:=
721:p
697:V
674:V
650:1
622:=
586:T
562:N
539:S
515:T
490:=
487:c
410:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
