17:
43:(1644–1911). In Chinese history, glass played a peripheral role in arts and crafts, when compared to ceramics and metal work. The limited archaeological distribution and use of glass objects are evidence of the rarity of the material. Literary sources date the first manufacture of glass to the 5th century AD. However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes from the
93:
Western influences are eye beads or dragonfly-eyed beads. The key difference between Near
Eastern eye beads and Chinese eye beads is their chemical composition. The coloured glasses used to produce the Chinese eye beads have a high lead and barium content. This type of composition was exclusive to China, and it was used to produce a range of glass objects until the end of the Han dynasty.
548:
rectangular pieces have perforations in 4 corners, indicating that they were strung together, or sewn into a fabric, to form a protective burial suit. Other shapes, such as circular, triangular, and rhomboidal, are often decorated with moulded patterns. All the glass plaque shapes have jade counterparts, suggesting that glass burial suits were a cheaper alternative to jade burial suits.
489:. Many glass objects found in burial contexts in this period were made of opaque green, light green, or milky white glass. These objects have similar shapes to their jade counterparts, and were no doubt imitating that precious stone. Among these objects there were bi disks, 'glass garments' (or glass suits), sword accessories, and vessels, among others.
473:
glass body covered by several layers of coloured glass. The layers of different colour glass are applied in alternating fashion to produce concentric circles. The patterns of circles resemble eyes, giving the beads their name. This style of bead originated in the Near East during the mid 2nd millennium BC. The stylistic influence later spread to the
477:. The use of eye beads in burials rapidly declined at the beginning of the Western Han period. This is believed to be a result of the invasion of Chu kingdom territories by Qin and Han armies at the end of the 3rd century. The collapse of the Chu kingdom would have brought production of eye-beads to an end.
472:
The earliest types of glass objects found in China are polychrome eye beads or dragonfly-eyed beads. The beads are found in burials from the late Spring and Autumn and early
Warring States periods (early 5th century BC) up to late Warring State – early Western Han period. Most beads have a monochrome
439:) as an ingredient. The use of a separate ingredient implies that barium had a specific function. This function could have been to flux the glass, by lowering the melting point of the melt; or stabilize the glass, by making it less soluble to water. It could also have been added to opacify the glass.
430:
Table 1: Elemental compositions of
Chinese glass from the Warring States period to Han dynasty. Data from the first 4 objects was taken from Brill et al. 1991; data from glass garment plaque was taken from Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan 1991; and data from the ritual disk was taken from Shi Meiguang
87:
At present, it is accepted that in China, glassmaking began around the 5th century BCE during the late Spring and Autumn to early
Warring States periods. Chemical analyses of glass samples dating to this time have identified no less than three glass systems: potash-lime, lead-barium, and potash; of
547:
Plaques from glass burial suits or glass garments are directly linked to jade objects. Several pieces of burial suit plaques have been found in a few wooden-chambered burials from the late West Han dynasty. The plaques come in different shapes, with rectangular being the most common. Some of these
92:
During the
Warring States period and the Han dynasty (5th century BC to early 3rd century AD) glass was imported from regions outside of East Asia, such as Mesopotamia. Imported Western faience and glass probably inspired the production of the first Chinese glasses. The main group of objects with
455:
The period between the
Warring States period and the Han dynasty shaped the early Chinese glass industry. Most of the glass objects from this period come from archaeological excavations of tombs. Because of this, most glass objects have fairly secure dating and context. During this period, the
530:
disks look very similar to their stone contemporaries, usually decorated on one side with a simple grain or cloud pattern typical of jade objects. They are mainly found in medium to small-sized tombs, indicating the middle strata of society rather than the elite. This suggests that glass
573:. The tomb at Xuzhou contained 16 light green cylindrical cups; while Prince Liu Sheng's tomb contained 2 shallow double-handled cups and a plate. All of the vessels were traditional Chinese shapes and made of lead-barium glass. Vessels in these forms were normally made out of
65:
During the Han period (206 BC to 220 AD) the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects. The
Chinese glass objects from the Warring States period and
78:, distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th and 5th centuries AD.
556:
The earliest known
Chinese glass vessels come from Western Han dynasty tombs. To this date only two tombs are known to have had glass vessels among their funerary objects: the tomb of the Liu Dao, Prince of Chu in
435:
The
Chinese lead-barium glasses typically present 5-15% BaO. The source of barium in the glass in not clear; however it is possible that ancient Chinese glassmakers used witherite (a mineral form of
918:
Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the
Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.)
904:
Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.)
898:
Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.)
515:) and date back to the late Neolithic period; they became important burial elements during the 3rd millennium BC. They were placed on or near the head of the deceased person.
1050:
1009:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp. 157–165
50:
The Chinese learned to manufacture glass comparatively later than the Mesopotamians, Egyptians and Indians. Imported glass objects first reached China during the late
985:
Shi Meiguang, He Ouli, Wu Zongdao and Zhou Fuzheng (1991) "Investigations of some ancient Chinese lead glasses" pp. 21–26 in Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds)
937:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass,
893:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass,
989:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass
951:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass
944:. Proceedings of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass
940:
Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan (1991) "A 'glass garment' from a Western Han tomb in Jiangsu Province" pp. 21–26 in Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds)
522:
disks are the most numerous kind of monochrome glass objects. They first became abundant in the Chu kingdom during the Warring States period.
933:, Tong, S. and Dohrenwend, D. (1991) "Chemical analysis of some early Chinese glasses" pp. 21–26 in Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds)
447:
of certain lead-barium glasses is produced by barium disilicate crystals. This turbidity gives the glasses a jade-like appearance.
1031:
1021:
973:
925:
916:
Braghin, C. (2002b) "Polycrome and monochrome glass of the Warring States and Han periods" pp. 3–43 in Braghin, C. (ed)
911:
947:
Gao Zhixi (1991) "A glass bi and a decorated sword from Hunan province" pp. 119–123 in Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds)
896:
An Jiayao (2002) "Polycrome and monochrome glass of the Warring States and Han periods" pp. 45–70 in Braghin, C. (ed)
70:
vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of
954:
591:
21:
485:
During the Warring States and Han periods, Chinese glassworkers took advantage of the similarities between glass and
577:
or ceramic, although some jade vessels in those shapes are also known. All vessels were produced by mould casting.
1055:
1005:
Zhang Fukang (1991) "Scientific studies of early glasses excavated in China'. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds)
678:
679:
Early Chinese Lead-Barium Glass; Its Production and Use from the Warring States to Han Periods (475 BCE-220 CE)
51:
508:
55:
44:
440:
1027:
969:
921:
907:
586:
562:
436:
978:
Pinder-Wilson, R. (1991) "The Islamic lands and China" pp. 112–143 in Tait, H. (ed)
930:
886:
16:
1044:
526:
disks from this period tend to be between 7.9 and 9.4 cm in diameter. The glass
474:
71:
62:'. These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads.
40:
993:
Shi Meiguang, Li Yinde and Zhou Fuzhen (1992). "Some new glass finds in China".
67:
96:
Table 1 shows examples of chemical compositions of some Chinese glass objects.
461:
457:
501:
444:
968:. Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press.
570:
512:
59:
511:). The earliest archeological specimens were carved from stone (usually
902:
Braghin, C. (2002a) "Introduction" pp. XI-XIV in Braghin, C. (ed)
574:
558:
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Chinese mainly used glass to produce two distinct types of objects:
36:
32:
15:
486:
75:
964:
Kerr, R. and Wood, N. (2004) "Part XII: Ceramic technology" in
885:
An Jiayao (1991) "The early glass of China" pp. 5–19 in
82:
Chemical composition of Warring States and Han period glasses
817:
815:
88:
these, lead-barium was the most significant in early China.
700:
698:
696:
565:; and the tomb of Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan (113
959:
Chinese Art III: Textiles, Glass and Painting on Glass
878:
An Jiayao. (1984) “Early Glassware in Ancient China”,
805:
803:
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disks were regarded as cheaper alternatives to jade
451:
Glass objects in the Warring States and Han periods
58:(early 5th century BC), in the form of polychrome '
736:
734:
732:
730:
728:
507:is a ritual object in the shape of a flat ring (
443:analysis of glass fragments have shown that the
793:
791:
8:
1026:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
1051:History of science and technology in China
1007:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
987:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
949:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
942:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
935:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
891:Scientific research in early Chinese glass
98:
1023:China: dawn of a golden age, 200-750 AD
607:
1020:Watt, James C.Y.; et al. (2004).
1001:. The Corning Museum of Glass: 23–26.
7:
797:Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan 1991
982:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
14:
966:Science and Civilisation in China
24:, dating from late 2nd century BC
20:Blue glass plaques found in the
713:Shi Meiguang et al. 1992, p 24
659:Kerr and Wood 2004, pp 474-477
1:
980:Five thousand years of glass
592:Warring States crystal glass
22:Mausoleum of the Nanyue King
677:Christopher F. Kim (2012),
1072:
880:Acta Archaeological Sinica
632:Pinder-Wilson 1991, p 140
543:Glass burial suit plaques
481:Monochrome opaque objects
995:Journal of Glass Studies
857:Braghin 2002b, pp 28 -31
821:Shi Meiguang et al. 1992
722:Zhang Fukang 1991, p 157
690:Kerr and Wood 2004, p474
668:An Jiayao 2002, pp 45-46
260:4th to 1st centuries BC
176:4th to 3rd centuries BC
52:Spring and Autumn period
866:Braghin 2002b, pp 31-34
704:Brill et al. 1991, p 34
650:Pinder-Wilson 1991 p140
344:'Glass garment' plaque
31:refers to all types of
90:
25:
889:and Martin, J. (eds)
882:, Vol. 4, pp. 413–448
830:Gao Zhixi 1991, p 119
776:Jenyns, R. 1981, p 96
85:
56:Warring States period
45:Warring States period
29:Ancient Chinese glass
19:
47:(475 BC to 221 BC).
839:Braghin 2002b, p 23
809:An Jiayao 1991, p 7
785:Fenn 1991, pp 59-60
767:Gao Zhixi 1991, 119
758:Braghin 2002b, p 14
441:Electron microprobe
873:General references
749:Braghin 2002b, p 4
641:Braghin 2002b, p 6
464:funerary objects.
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347:Late Han dynasty
257:Cube shaped bead
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72:barium oxide
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41:Qing dynasty
28:
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623:Jenyns 1981
215:Large bead
68:Han dynasty
1045:Categories
1033:1588391264
974:0521838339
955:Jenyns, R.
926:8822251628
912:8822251628
681:, PDF file
598:References
561:(128 BC),
462:monochrome
458:polychrome
74:(BaO) and
931:Brill, R.
887:Brill, R.
468:Eye beads
445:turbidity
173:Eye bead
60:eye beads
581:See also
571:Mancheng
513:nephrite
102:Objects
54:– early
957:(1981)
575:lacquer
569:BC) at
552:Vessels
539:disks.
509:annulus
1030:
972:
924:
910:
567:
559:Xuzhou
518:Glass
392:37.16
350:36.03
281:0.084
603:Notes
496:disks
431:1991.
413:3.32
410:0.27
407:0.40
404:1.95
401:0.03
398:0.16
395:0.62
380:40.37
375:21.49
371:2.27
368:0.07
365:0.08
362:0.22
359:----
356:0.07
353:0.02
329:1.87
326:0.16
323:0.15
320:0.46
317:0.02
314:0.14
311:0.28
308:36.8
302:disk
284:6.12
278:1.52
275:0.37
272:0.01
269:0.10
266:0.46
242:3.94
239:0.02
236:1.17
233:1.01
230:0.30
227:0.01
224:0.15
221:37.2
200:7.53
197:4.05
194:1.27
191:2.95
188:0.31
185:0.62
182:2.13
105:Date
37:China
33:glass
1028:ISBN
970:ISBN
922:ISBN
908:ISBN
505:disk
487:jade
422:39.8
417:13.4
338:42.6
333:17.4
293:28.3
288:11.4
251:41.4
246:14.6
209:15.0
204:9.74
140:MgO
137:CaO
134:CuO
76:lead
263:51
179:55
166:PbO
159:BaO
108:SiO
1047::
999:34
997:.
920:.
906:.
814:^
802:^
790:^
727:^
695:^
537:bi
533:bi
528:bi
524:Bi
520:bi
503:bi
500:A
494:Bi
300:Bi
154:O
150:Na
147:O
124:Fe
114:Al
1036:.
152:2
145:2
143:K
130:3
128:O
126:2
120:3
118:O
116:2
110:2
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