Ancient Macedonian army - Knowledge (XXG)

2195:, were at a similar strength to the Macedonians at about 10,000–11,000 troops. Philip had 600 cavalry, the Illyrians were concerned about being outflanked by the Macedonian cavalry and formed up in a hollow square. Philip massed his cavalry on his right flank and arranged his army in echelon, with the left refused. As had been anticipated, the Illyrians stretched their formation in order to bring the Macedonian left wing into action. Philip waited until the inevitable gap appeared in the left of the Illyrian square, then threw his cavalry at the gap. The cavalry forced their way into the Illyrian ranks and were followed by elements of the phalanx. The Illyrians broke after a fierce struggle, and three-quarters of Bardylis' army were slaughtered. The oblique advance with the left refused, the careful manoeuvring to create disruption in the enemy formation and the knock out charge of the strong right wing, spearheaded by the Companion cavalry, became standard Macedonian practice. 2145:, were siege towers; these allowed men to approach and assault the enemy walls without being exposed to potentially withering missile fire. Equally, they meant that more men could be put on the walls in a shorter period of time, as simple ladders constrained the men attacking to moving up in single file, thus making the task of defending the walls far easier. These structures, which were wheeled and several stories high, were covered with wet hide or metal sheathing to protect from missile fire, especially incendiaries, and the largest might be equipped with artillery. The Macedonian army could also deploy various forms of suspended, metal-tipped, rams. Such rams were usually provided with a wheeled, roofed covering to protect their users from missile fire; they were employed to batter down gates or to dislodge masonry from walls and so cause a breach (this latter form was sometimes called a 'drill' rather than a ram). 928: 630:

Alexander did not dare assault the dense infantry formation with his cavalry, but rather waited for his infantry to arrive, while he and his cavalry harassed their flanks. It is a common mistake to portray the Companion cavalry as a force able to burst through compact infantry lines. Alexander usually launched the Companions at the enemy after a gap had opened up between their units or disorder had already disrupted their ranks. However, the ancient historian Arrian implies that the Companion cavalry were successful in an assault, along with heavy infantry, on the Greek mercenary hoplites serving Persia in the closing stages of the Battle of Granicus. Their success may have been largely due to the poor morale of the hoplites, who had just witnessed the rest of their army broken and put to flight.

1581: 552: 1789: 1815:, which was a cuirass of stiff linen built up of glued or stitched layers of textile; though it is possible that linen was used as a facing material over leather. It was composed of the 'girdle' a tubular section, often of four vertical panels, that enclosed the torso. A shoulder-piece was attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this element was split into two wings which were pulled forward over the top of each shoulder and laced to the chest-section of the girdle. Ancient representations show the shoulder pieces standing vertical when not laced down to the chest of the corselet. This suggests that the linothorax as a whole was very stiff and inflexible. 579:

cavalry was prominent in Macedonian armies from early times. However, it was the reforms in organisation, drill and tactics introduced by Philip II that transformed the Companion cavalry into a battle-winning force, especially the introduction of, or increased emphasis on, the use of a lance and shock tactics. Coinage indicates that from an early period the primary weapons used by Macedonian cavalry were a pair of javelins. This remained true through to the reign of Archelaus I (413–399). Subsequently, despite the adoption of the lance, it is highly probable that the Companion cavalry continued to employ javelins when on scouting or skirmishing missions.

528: 1633:. The double spear points meant that, should the xyston break during a battle, the rider need only turn his weapon around to re-arm himself. The Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed similarly to the Companions. The xyston was used to thrust either overarm or underarm with the elbow flexed. This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander Mosaic, King Alexander is shown thrusting with his xyston underarm, whilst immediately behind him a cavalryman is employing the overarm thrust. There is no evidence that the Macedonian cavalry ever used a two-handed grip on their lances, as did later 1928: 1652:). The sarissa was over 6 m (20 ft) in length, with a counterweight and spiked end at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have had an iron sleeve in the middle which may mean that it was in two pieces for the march with the sleeve joining the two sections before use. Like the xyston, the sarissa was greatly tapered towards the point. This, along with the sauroter, helped to make the point of balance as far towards the butt of the weapon as possible. It should be stressed that the archaeological discoveries show that the phalangites also used the two-edged sword ( 876: 2085: 1014:. Foot Companions were levied from the peasantry of Macedon. Once levied they became professional soldiers. Discharge could only be granted by the King. Under Philip, the Foot Companions received no regular pay. This seems to have changed by Alexander's time as during the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC, the men were chastised by Alexander for having run up debts despite earning "good pay". Through extensive drilling and training, the Foot Companions were able to execute complex manoeuvres in absolute silence, an ability that was fascinating and unnerving to enemies. 448: 1463:. The introduction of Asiatic troops into the army was actively resented by many of the native Macedonians, especially when the cadre of young Persians from aristocratic families was trained in Macedonian fighting techniques and enrolled in the companion cavalry. Alexander's reaction was to make plans to rule Asia with a locally recruited army, but his death intervened before he could carry out this plan. His successors reversed his aim of diversifying the army and recruited Greeks and Macedonians almost exclusively. 1833:. This, alongside the evidence of the depiction of Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make plate armour in iron existed at this time. It is to be doubted that this type of armour was worn by persons other than of royal or very exalted rank. At the Battle of Granicus, Alexander the Great's cuirass was pierced at a joint, by a javelin. Such joints are found connecting the plates of the iron Vergina cuirass, suggesting that Alexander was wearing an armour of similar construction. 1976: 2007:), though this was a general term for any shield, it is more properly referred to as the 'Argive shield'. This shield, also circular, was larger than the phalangite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden base; it was held with the left forearm passing through a central armband with a hand-grip set just inside the rim. This shield was much more convex than the phalangite shield and had a projecting rim, both features precluding its use with a double handed pike. The style of shield used by 622:, a double ended cornel-wood lance, with a sword as a secondary weapon. From descriptions of combat, it would appear that once in melee the Companion cavalryman used his lance to thrust at the chests and faces of the enemy. It is possible that the lance was aimed at the upper body of an opposing cavalryman in the expectation that a blow which did not wound or kill might have sufficient leverage to unseat. If the lance broke, the Companion could reverse it and use the other end, or draw his sword. 1797: 1717: 2154: 1693: 867:, a tribal region to the north of Macedonia. The Paeones had been conquered and reduced to tributary status by Philip II. Led by their own chieftains, the Paeonian cavalry was usually brigaded with the Prodromoi and often operated alongside them in battle. They appear to have been armed with javelins and swords and are, unusually, described as carrying shields. Initially only one squadron strong, they received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600 at Susa. 1781: 1472: 1313: 1155: 643: 540: 896:, created a 1,000 strong unit of horse archers that was recruited from various Iranian peoples. They were very effective at scouting and in screening the rest of the army from the enemy. Firing their bows whilst mounted, they offered highly mobile missile fire on the battlefield. At the Battle of Hydaspes, the massed fire of the horse archers was effective at disordering the Indian cavalry and helped to neutralise the Indian chariots. 330: 1110:

first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time. The men of the rear ranks raised their sarissas so as to provide protection from aerial missiles. A phalangite also carried a sword as a secondary weapon for close quarter fighting should the phalanx disintegrate. The phalanx, however, was extremely vulnerable in the flanks and rear.

1244:) so as to enhance their stamina and mobility. However, when engaging in heavy hand-to-hand fighting, for instance during a siege or pitched battle, they would have worn body armour of either linen or bronze. This variety of armaments made them an extremely versatile force. Their numbers were kept at full strength, despite casualties, by continual replenishment through the transfer of veteran soldiers chosen from the phalanx. 6830: 6840: 6850: 1324: 1410:

infantry. They could throw their javelins at will at the enemy and, unencumbered by armour or heavy shields, easily evade any counter-charges made by heavily equipped hoplites. They were, however, quite vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and often operated to particular advantage on broken ground where cavalry was useless and heavy infantry found it difficult to maintain formation.

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weaknesses were not immediately apparent. However, the Hellenistic armies were eventually faced by forces from outside the successor kingdoms, such as the Roman and Parthian armies, composed of differing troop types using novel tactics. Against such foes the Hellenistic-era phalanx proved vulnerable. The phalanx finally met its end in the Ancient world when the more flexible Roman

916: 992:, whose reforms formed the basis of Philip's later tactics. The equipment of the Macedonian phalangite is believed to have been influenced by the 'peltast' developed by the Athenian general Iphicrates. The Iphicratean peltast was not a skirmisher but a form of light hoplite, characterised by using a longer spear and smaller shield. However, the introduction of the 1760:

Thracian type helmet. The Boeotian helmet, though it did not have cheek pieces, had a flaring rim which was folded into a complex shape offering considerable protection to the face. The Alexander Mosaic suggests that officers of the heavy cavalry had rank badges in the form of laurel wreaths (perhaps painted or constructed from metal foil) on their helmets.

1236:. This would have made them far better suited to engagements where formations and cohesion had broken down, making them well suited to siege assaults and special missions. Their armour appears to have varied depending on the type of mission they were conducting. When taking part in rapid forced marches or combat in broken terrain, so common in the eastern 1366: 1705: 47: 746:(in the sense of a single unit), other horsemen from subject or allied nations, filling various tactical roles and wielding a variety weapons, rounded out the cavalry. By the time Alexander campaigned in India, and subsequently, the cavalry had been drastically reformed and included thousands of horse-archers from Iranian peoples such as the 1964:

the sarissa. Recent reconstructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed that the shoulder strap supporting the shield effectively helps to transfer some of the weight of the sarissa from the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held horizontally in its fighting position. The Macedonian phalangite shield is described by

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Archers were also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples. Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his father's reign, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into

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of the Macedonian phalanx. The army supposedly reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did not include camp followers. There has been considerable debate as to when Alexander first used Orientals on active service with the army. During his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a

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soldiers) carried a small shield on their shoulder. This probably meant that, as both hands were needed to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended by a shoulder strap and steadied by the left forearm passing through the armband. The left hand would project beyond the rim of the shield to grip

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Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and a sword, carried a light shield but wore no armour, though they sometimes had helmets; they were adept at skirmishing and were often used to guard the flanks of more heavily equipped infantry. They usually adopted an open order when facing enemy heavy

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Alexander did not use the phalanx as the decisive arm in his battles, but instead used it to pin and demoralize the enemy while his heavy cavalry would charge selected opponents or exposed enemy unit flanks, usually after driving the enemy horse from the field. Polybius (18.31.5), emphasises that the

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pike in conjunction with a smaller shield seem to have been innovations devised by Philip himself, or at the very least he produced the definitive synthesis of earlier developments. Diodorus claimed that Philip was inspired to make changes in the organisation of his Macedonian infantry from reading a

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behind in Macedon (the 1,500 cavalrymen mentioned by Diodorus). Between 330 BC and 328 BC, the Companions were reformed into regiments (hipparchies) of 2–3 squadrons. In conjunction with this, each squadron was divided into two lochoi. This was probably undertaken to allow for the increase in size of

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Philip's first achievement was to unify Macedon through his army. He raised troops and made his army the single fount of wealth, honour and power in the land; the unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the officers and elite cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants became the footsoldiers. Philip

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The tactics used by the Macedonian army throughout the various campaigns it fought were, of course, varied; usually in response to the nature of the enemy forces and their dispositions, and to the physical nature of the battlefield. However, there were a number of features of the tactics employed by

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Alexander the Great in battle. The king wears a composite cuirass, which is a reinforced linothorax. The shoulder elements and upper chest are of plate iron, whilst the waist is composed of scale armour for ease of movement. There are pteruges of leather or stiffened linen at the shoulders and hips.

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According to Arrian, Alexander used Arachosian, Bactrian, Parapamisadaean, Sogdian, Indian, and Scythian troops. They were present at the grand army review Alexander assembled in 324 BC. Alexander was said to have been impressed by the drill of the 30,000 Persians who had been trained in the methods

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tribe, were the elite light infantry of the Macedonian army. They were often used to cover the right flank of the army in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion cavalry, a position of considerable honour. They were almost invariably part of any force on detached duty, especially missions

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shield and body armour. In appearance, they would have been almost identical to the hypaspists. In battle, the Greek hoplites had a less active role than the Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek infantry formed the defensive rear of the box formation Alexander arranged his

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shield employed by Greek hoplites (and probably the hypaspists). The extent to which phalangites were armoured is unclear, and may have changed over time. They were equipped with helmets and greaves, but do not appear to have worn the thorax at the time of Philip II, as this armour is not mentioned

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formation, which facilitated both manoeuvrability and the shock of the charge. The advantage of the wedge was that it offered a narrow point for piercing enemy formations and concentrated the leaders at the front. It was easier to turn than a square formation because everyone followed the leader at

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that dominated the region, he obtained the wealth to support a large army. It was a professional army imbued with a national spirit, an unusual combination for the Greek world of the time. The armies of contemporary Greek states were largely reliant on a combination of citizens and mercenaries. The

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Nicholas Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC. However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided

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Alexander the Great appears to have been one of the first generals to employ artillery on the open field of battle, rather than in a siege. He used massed artillery to fire across a river at a Scythian army, causing it to vacate the opposite river bank, thus allowing the Macedonian troops to cross

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The Macedonian phalangite shield, also termed the 'Telamon shield', was circular and displayed a slight convexity; its outer surface was faced by a thin bronze sheet. The inner face of the shield was of wood or a multilayered leather construction, with a band for the forearm fixed to the centre of

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would be armed with a number of javelins. The individual javelin would have a throwing thong attached to the shaft behind its point of balance. The thong was wound around the shaft and hooked over one or two fingers. The thong made the javelin spin in flight, which improved accuracy, and the extra

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The army led by Alexander the Great into the Persian Empire included Greek heavy infantry in the form of allied contingents provided by the League of Corinth and hired mercenaries. These infantrymen would have been equipped as hoplites with the traditional hoplite panoply consisting of a thrusting

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The organisation of the hypaspist regiment seems to have been into units of 500 (pentakosiarchies) before 331 and later, by 327, it was divided into three battalions (chiliarchies) of 1,000 men, which were then further sub-divided in a manner similar to the Foot Companions. Each battalion would be

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approach, and the phalanx once more became the arm of decision. The phalangites were armed with longer pikes and as a result the phalanx itself became less mobile and adaptable than it had been in Alexander's era. Because all the competing Hellenistic armies were employing the same tactics, these

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There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that the different classes of Macedonian soldier trained to use a variety of arms and equipment. Certainly, cavalry, including Alexander himself, fought on foot during sieges and assaults on fortified settlements, phalangites are described using

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requiring speed of movement. Other nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian army. Especially numerous were the Thracians; the Thracian peltasts performed the same function in battle as the Agrianians, but for the left wing of the army. It is unclear if the Thracians, Paeonians, and

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shield needed to be gripped by the left hand, therefore the Macedonian phalangite gained in both weapon reach and in the added force of a two handed thrust. At close range, such large weapons were of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of the

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Largely recruited from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian cavalry also acted as scouts on the march. In battle, they performed much the same function as the Prodromoi and Paeonians, except they guarded the flank of the Thessalian cavalry on the left wing of the army. The Thracians deployed in their

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The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted and refined by Philip, and he created a uniquely flexible and effective army. By introducing military service as a full-time occupation, Philip was able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks. In a remarkably

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and perhaps some native Macedonians. In most Greek states, archery was not greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythians prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was notable for its very effective archers, whose services as

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acted as scouts, reconnoitering in front of the army when it was on the march. In battle, they were used in a shock role to protect the right flank of the Companion cavalry. Persian light cavalry took over scouting duties when they became available to the Macedonian army following Gaugamela. The

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One important military innovation of Philip II is often overlooked, he banned the use of wheeled transport and limited the number of camp servants to one to every ten infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform made the baggage train of the army very small for its size and improved its

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included 1,800 such men. This number would have risen no higher than 2,000. They were typically entrusted with the defensive role of guarding the left flank from enemy cavalry, allowing the decisive attack to be launched on the right. They often faced tremendous opposition when in this role. At

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in their ability to retain their seat and the control of their weapons through the impact of a charge. Along with Thessalian cavalry contingents, the Companions – raised from landed nobility – made up the bulk of the Macedonian heavy cavalry. Central Macedonia was good horse-rearing country and

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As a political counterbalance to the native-born Macedonian nobility, Philip invited military families from throughout Greece to settle on lands he had conquered or confiscated from his enemies, these 'personal clients' then also served as army officers or in the Companion cavalry. After taking

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Tomb contained a helmet which was a variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, this would support its use by cavalry. Additionally, a fresco depicting a Macedonian mounted lancer spearing an infantryman, from the Kinch Tomb, near Naousa, shows the cavalryman wearing a

1616:, are shown in images and are mentioned in texts. An archaeological find of a well-preserved Macedonian xiphos revealed a sword with a blade length of 55 cm (22 in) and a weight of 300 g (11 oz). The cutting swords are particularly associated with cavalry use, especially by 1437:

with a protective flap over its opening. Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small and faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had some ability in hand-to-hand fighting, an additional factor in their popularity as mercenaries.

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Although the Companion cavalry is largely regarded as the first real shock cavalry of Antiquity, it seems that Alexander was very wary of using it against well-formed infantry, as attested by Arrian in his account of the battle against the Malli, an Indian tribe he faced after Hydaspes. There,

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The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics under Philip. They had for the first time conducted successful sieges against strongly held and fortified positions. This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where Greek armies had lacked the ability to conduct an effective assault. For

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as forming part of the necessary equipment for sarissa-armed infantry. The thorax is, however, shown being worn by an infantryman on the Alexander Sarcophagus, however, this figure is equipped with an 'Argive' shield and may depict a hypaspist, rather than a phalangite. It is indicated in the

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The original 1,800 Companions who accompanied Alexander to Asia were augmented by 300 reinforcements arriving from Macedon after the first year of campaigning. They were usually arrayed on the right flank (this being the position of honour in Hellenic armies, where the best troops would be

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The Hellenic states allied to, or more accurately under the hegemony of, Macedon provided contingents of heavy cavalry and the Macedonian kings hired mercenaries of the same origins. Alexander had 600 Greek cavalrymen at the start of his campaign against Persia, probably organised into 5

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former were not full-time soldiers, and the latter, though professional, had little or no inherent loyalty to their employers. By the time of his death, Philip's army had pushed the Macedonian frontier into southern Illyria, conquered the Paeonians and Thracians, asserted a hegemony over

602:(ilarch) and appears to have been raised from a particular area of Macedon. Arrian, for instance, described squadrons from Bottiaea, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Anthemus. It is probable that Alexander took eight squadrons with him on his invasion of Asia totalling 1,800 men, leaving seven 1352:

army into, while the Macedonians formed its front face. Nevertheless, they performed a valuable function in facing down attempts by the Persian cavalry to surround the Macedonian army and helped deal with the breakthrough of some Persian horsemen who went on to attack the baggage.

251:. Philip improved on these military innovators by using both Epaminondas' deeper phalanx and Iphicrates' combination of a longer spear and a smaller and lighter shield. However, the Macedonian king also innovated; he introduced the use of a much longer spear, the two-handed 345:, he would be more widely known as a first-rate military innovator, tactician and strategist, and as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander would have been impossible without the army his father created. Considered semi-barbarous by some metropolitan Greeks, 722:. These cavalrymen would have been equipped very similarly to the Thessalians and Companions, but they deployed in a square formation eight deep and sixteen abreast. The Greek cavalry was not considered as effective or versatile as the Thessalian and Macedonian cavalry. 1150:

could not hope to match — on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more days. This was made possible thanks to the training Philip instilled in his army, which included regular forced marches.

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the apex, "like a flight of cranes". Philip II introduced the formation, probably in emulation of Thracian and Scythian cavalry, though the example of the rhomboid formation adopted by Macedon's southern neighbours, the Thessalians, must also have had some effect.

2018:(Ancient Greek: πέλτη) shield, from whence their name, peltast, derived. This was a light shield made of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian origin and was originally crescent-shaped, however, by the time of Macedonian greatness many depictions of 2103:. By Alexander’s time, torsion-powered artillery was in use. Torsion machines used skeins of sinew or hair rope, which were wound around a frame and twisted so as to power two bow arms; these could develop much greater force than earlier forms (such as the 1771:

is described as wearing a helmet with cheek pieces in the shape of ram's heads. Many examples of helmets from the period have crest or plume-holders attached, so that a high degree of martial finery could be achieved by the wearing of imposing headpieces.

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Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans, were also employed; Cretans were noted for the heavy, large-headed arrows they used. Light cavalry could use lighter types of lance, javelins and, in the case of Iranian horse archers, compact composite bows.

1826:. This was a defence made entirely of plate bronze consisting of a breast and backplate, usually with shoulder pieces, modelled in relief on the form a muscular male torso. This was often given pteruges to extend the area of the body covered. 259:, gave its wielder many advantages both offensively and defensively. For the first time in Greek warfare, cavalry became a decisive arm in battle. The Macedonian army perfected the co-ordination of different troop types in an early example of 444:

by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or even higher than the numbers stated).

1203:(elite skirmishers), the Companions and select units of phalangites. They were prominent in accounts of Alexander's siege assaults in close proximity to Alexander himself. The Hypaspists were of privileged Macedonian blood and their senior 2184:

the Macedonians in pitched battles which can be identified as being typical. These features were evident in the first major battle the army, newly trained up by Philip, fought in 358 BC and could still be discerned at Gaugamela in 331 BC.

1819:, strips of linen or leather, protected the upper arms and hips of the wearer. The linothorax could be reinforced with plate bronze or bronze scale elements. Defences of a similar appearance composed of quilted textile are also described. 677:'s final demise at the hands of the Romans. Its organization and weaponry were similar to the Companion Cavalry, though the earlier Thessalian way of fighting emphasised the use of javelins. The Thessalian cavalry was famed for its use of 804:, "pikemen" or "lancers", which leads to the conclusion that they sometimes were armed with an uncommonly long xyston (believed to be 14 ft long), though certainly not an infantry pike. In the primary sources, Arrian mentions that 1927: 1271:('bronze shields'), Malcolm Errington asserts that "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." Sekunda states that Alexander's pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite 293:

were employed by Phillip. By 338 BC, more than a half of the army for his planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire came from outside of Macedon's borders—from all over the Greek world and the nearby barbarian tribes, such as the

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each squadron, as reinforcements and amalgamations meant that the Companion cavalry grew in size. At this time, Alexander abandoned the regional organisation of the ilai, choosing their officers regardless of their origins.

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period, which followed the death of Alexander, also displayed a continuation of earlier Macedonian equipment, organisation and tactics. Towards the end of the period, however, there was a general decline in the use of the

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tactics', using a variety of specialised troops to fulfill specific battlefield roles in order to form a greater whole. Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to successfully adopt the

1199:, they acted as guard for the right flank of the phalanx and as a flexible link between the phalanx and the Companion cavalry. They were used for a variety of irregular missions by Alexander, often in conjunction with the 1860:); the precise nature of these defences is not known but it would be reasonable to conclude that they were lighter and perhaps afforded less protection than the thorax. However, it has been suggested that when the terms 1674:

Light troops were provided by a number of subject and allied peoples. Various Balkan peoples, such as Agrianes, Paeonians and Thracians, provided either light infantry or cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry

670:; his death induced the Thessalians to attempt to throw off Macedonian hegemony, but a short bloodless campaign by Alexander restored them to allegiance. The Thessalians were considered the finest cavalry of Greece. 626:, an officer of the Companions, saved Alexander the Great's life at the Granicus by cutting off an enemy horseman's arm with his sword. Companion cavalrymen would normally have worn armour and a helmet in battle. 239:

short time, this led to the development of one of what was among the world's finest military machines for the era. Tactical improvements included the latest developments in the deployment of the traditional Greek

840:, due to their skill in wielding long lances and their extensive battle experience, were considered more valuable in the role of shock cavalry, especially after the departure of the Thessalian cavalry. Four 3943: 1668:. The sources also indicate that the phalangites were on occasion armed with javelins. The sarissa would have been useless in siege warfare and other combat situations requiring a less cumbersome weapon. 6879: 1910:

Xenophon mentions a type of armour called "the hand" to protect the left, bridle, arm of heavy cavalrymen, though there is no supporting evidence for its widespread use. It may have resembled the later

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was accompanied by five additional individuals to the rear: a herald (to act as a messenger), a trumpeter (to sound out commands), an ensign (to hold the unit's standard), an additional officer (called

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were a martial people; they drank deeply of unwatered wine (the very mark of a barbarian) and no youth was considered to be fit to sit with the men at table until he had killed, on foot with a spear, a

1903:, which protected the lower leg. Greaves could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy cavalry, but they are not in great evidence in contemporary depictions. However, greaves are mentioned in the 1433:

mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek world. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful bows, firing arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They carried their arrows in a

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and Roman lancers. The shaft of the xyston was tapered allowing the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip, to be approximately two thirds of the length of the spear away from the point.

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At Ecbatana, the Thessalians with Alexander's army were disbanded and sent home. Some remained with the army as mercenaries, yet these too were sent home a year later when the army reached the

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took pains to keep them always under arms and either fighting or drilling. Manoeuvres and drills were made into competitive events, and the truculent Macedonians vied with each other to excel.

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Quintus Curtius [History of Alexander] with an English translation by John C. Rolfe (2 Vol., Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1971–76)

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javelins and some infantrymen were trained to ride horses. The deployment of differing types of armour and weapons was dependent solely on the requirements of a particular tactical situation.

689:. This formation was very efficient for manoeuvring, as it allowed the squadron to change direction at speed while still retaining cohesion. The numbers given for Alexander's invasion of the 309:

As a result of uneven manuscript survival, most of the primary historical sources for this period have been lost, and scholarship is thus largely reliant on the works of the Greek historians

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by the sources; it may have been used to describe any cavalry undertaking a scouting, skirmishing or screening mission, or it may have denoted a single unit, or indeed both. Apart from the

2141:

In conjunction with various forms of artillery, the Macedonians possessed the ability to build an effective array of siege engines. Prominent in a number of sieges, including the epic

1829:

A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and modelled on the form of the linothorax, was discovered in the Macedonian royal burial at Vergina, together with a plate iron

1058:), and a servant. This array of both audial and visual communication methods helped to make sure that even in the dust and din of battle orders could still be received and given. Six 1037:

who was in the front rank. Junior officers, one at the rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the ranks and maintain the cohesion of the formation, similar to modern-day

571:), were the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and were the offensive force that made the decisive attack in most of the battles of Alexander the Great. They were unmatched in the pre- 646:

A heavy cavalryman of Alexander the Great's army, possibly a Thessalian. He wears a cuirass (probably a linothorax) and a Boeotian helmet, and is equipped with a scabbarded

792:

from the Paeonian light cavalry, which suggests a fixed ethnic composition. This uncertainty is probably due to the lack of a definite understanding of the use of the term

3837:, Studies in the History of Art, Vol 10, Symposium Series I: Macedonia and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Times, pp. 86–111. National Gallery of Art. 2129:

could fire stones up to 80 kg (180 lb) in weight. Such machines could shower the defenders of a city with missiles and create a breach in the walls themselves.

2095:

The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to operate against fortifications owed much to the development of effective artillery. This had begun around 400 BC in

1580: 555:

Macedonian cavalryman (wearing a Thracian helmet and wielding a xyston lance) riding down a Persian footsoldier, fresco in the Kinch Tomb, 310–290 BC, Lefkadia

3977: 1101:. The length of these pikes was such that they had to be wielded with two hands in battle. The traditional Greek hoplite used his spear single-handed, as the large 673:

The Thessalian heavy cavalry accompanied Alexander during the first half of his Asian campaign and continued to be employed by the Macedonians as allies until

1732:", had a projecting peak above the eyes and usually had large cheek pieces which were often decorated with stylised beards in embossing. Late versions of the 1261:('silver shields'). The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin. However, in regards to both the 2209:

Following the fragmentation of the empire of Alexander, Macedon became an independent kingdom once again. The military forces of this successor state, the

1724:

Virtually all helmets in use in the Greek world of the period were constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent in contemporary images was in the form of a

1487:

straight sword. Both types of sword were used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry. Lion Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian capital Pella, late 4th century BC.

551: 5577: 2053:

despite easily conquering her surrounding territory. For the task of breaching the walled fortifications of cities, Philip II hired engineers such as

1007: 1299:' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. 2191:

was intended to free Macedon of the threat from Illyria and recover some western areas of Macedon from Illyrian control. The Illyrians, led by King

1805:

Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from a repertoire found throughout the Greek-speaking world. The most common form of armour was the

417:

and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry. Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained

2246: 1788: 1671:

Hypaspists and allied and mercenary Greek heavy infantry were equipped as classic hoplites and would have employed the hoplite spear and a sword.

1550:

of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by

3947: 1025:. This formation typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a frontage of thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each file of 16 men, a 180: 3882: 3821: 1644:. It lists the fines imposed upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament or produce it upon demand. Offensive weapons were a pike ( 884:

ancestral wedge formations and were armed with javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the Thracians fielded four ilai and were about 500 strong.

4965: 223:

in the east. Initially of little account in the Greek world, it was widely regarded as a second-rate power before being made formidable by

919:

A drawing of a Macedonian phalanx. The shields depicted are smaller and lighter than those employed in a traditional hoplite phalanx, the

3970: 1747:

The Thracian helmet was worn by Macedonian cavalry in King Philip's day, but his son Alexander is said to have preferred the open-faced

1620:, but pictorial representations would suggest that all three sword types were used by cavalry and infantry without obvious distinction. 1017:

These foot-soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or square formations, of which the smallest tactical unit was the 256 men strong

385:), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries. The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of 5587: 5277: 4970: 4904: 2180:. This offered cavalry far greater manoeuvrability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world. 499:) and Philip was laying the foundations of an invasion of the Persian Empire, an invasion that his son would successfully undertake. 4975: 4950: 3856: 3796: 3763: 3731: 3686: 1195:

arm of the Macedonian infantry. The word 'hypaspists' translates into English as 'shield-bearers'. During a pitched battle, such as

1588:

soldier with a grounded spear. He wears three items of clothing, which, in combination, are considered typical of Macedonians: The

1228:(shorter and less unwieldy than the sarissa) and a large round shield. As well as this, they would have carried a sword, either a 275:

were all deployed in battle; each troop type being used to its own particular advantage and creating a synergy of mutual support.

6874: 6784: 5533: 4960: 4955: 1999:

of the King's personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger dimensions, the traditional Greek hoplite shield often called the

1896:. It is recorded that Alexander ordered the burning of old armours, which suggests that the armour in question was non-metallic. 211:

possessed one of the greatest armies in the ancient world. It is reputed for the speed and efficiency with which it emerged from

1113:

The phalangite was equipped with a shield, often called the 'Telamon shield', which was smaller and less deeply convex than the

5427: 5287: 5282: 4559: 6811: 5452: 3963: 3919: 1597: 1333: 1280: 784:, who were raised from the Thetes, the lowest census class of Athenian citizens. Sekunda, however, gives them an origin from 6363: 1784:

Hellenistic muscle cuirass and a helmet derived from the Thracian/Phrygian type, combined with elements of the Boeotian type

1132:

phalanx required flat open places for its effective deployment, as broken country would hinder and break up its formation.

6806: 5856: 5372: 5292: 4990: 4700: 1904: 1641: 1119: 875: 543:

Alexander the Great as a cavalryman. He wears a helmet in the form of the lion-scalp of Herakles. Detail of the so-called

634:

positioned), and typically carried out the decisive manoeuvre/assault of the battle under Alexander's direct leadership.

6779: 5308: 4762: 3548: 1455: 527: 5834: 5442: 5318: 4980: 4934: 4889: 4665: 4354: 2241: 2084: 1965: 1932: 938: 495:. All the states of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, Epirus and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon ( 208: 184: 79: 6373: 3870: 855:

under Aretes were responsible for finally routing the Persian left wing cavalry, winning the battle in this sector.

594:), each 200 men strong, except for the Royal Squadron, which numbered 300. The Royal Squadron was also known as the 6495: 6368: 5501: 5496: 5472: 5382: 4899: 3997: 3081:, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 113 (1993), pp. 122–147, The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies 1740:, it had a nasal protection and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more simple, helmets of the conical 'konos' or ' 1604:

Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a secondary weapon. The straight-bladed shortsword known as the

6853: 6796: 5752: 5555: 5540: 5462: 5397: 4866: 4717: 4612: 4086: 4020: 3580: 2210: 2204: 1763:

The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great wearing an elaborate helmet in the form of the lion scalp of

31: 923:

is twice as long as the hoplite spear and fully enclosed helmets weren't as widespread as this drawing suggests.

5550: 5513: 5447: 5113: 5000: 1539:, troops serving Alexander the Great were also armoured in the hoplite fashion. However, Errington argues that 492: 447: 3531:. However, this figure fluctuated during the campaign; Alexander commanded at least 47,000 troops during the 6833: 5957: 5757: 5742: 5545: 5528: 5508: 5477: 5377: 5313: 4929: 4914: 4884: 4845: 4574: 4076: 3788: 2228: 2100: 484: 1491:

Philip II's phalangite infantry were equipped with a 'proto-Telamon shield' that already diverged from the

440:

and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.

6791: 5794: 5565: 5523: 5457: 5422: 4874: 4858: 4554: 4495: 4344: 4339: 3809:, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 113, No. 3, pp. 423–437, Archaeological Institute of America. 3726:. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley, Los Angeles, & Oxford: University of California Press. 3568: 3544: 2142: 1975: 1500: 386: 6843: 6072: 6062: 6052: 6037: 5727: 5467: 5437: 5392: 5387: 5018: 4985: 4787: 4692: 4678: 4334: 4205: 4169: 3610: 1536: 1171: 813: 544: 318: 1801:

The king wears a xiphos sword. Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (A Roman copy of a Hellenistic painting).

1796: 1010:

for citizen soldiery, Philip II transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of farmers into a

425:, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory. An early 4th-century BC stone-carved 361:, it was a backward state on the fringes of the Greek world and was beset by its traditional enemies: 6315: 6309: 6295: 5779: 5737: 5709: 5594: 5407: 4637: 4433: 2054: 2031: 961: 338: 224: 63: 373:. The basic structure of the army inherited by Philip II was the division of the companion cavalry ( 6446: 6416: 5804: 5699: 5694: 5131: 4446: 4359: 4329: 4283: 4046: 3564: 3532: 1716: 1692: 1284: 1252: 965: 346: 342: 278: 228: 68: 6839: 3935: 2153: 1394:, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as 6663: 6560: 6466: 6110: 6027: 5915: 5417: 5241: 4757: 4737: 4594: 4465: 4349: 4144: 4071: 3556: 3500: 3492: 2214: 1136: 957: 910: 751: 197: 1780: 734:(literal trans. "those who run ahead"), secured the wings of the army during battle and went on 3655:

The Macedonian Empire: The Era of Warfare Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 B.C.

1623:

Each Companion cavalryman was equipped with a 3 m (9.8 ft) double-ended spear with a

1217:

commanded by a chiliarch, with the regiment as a whole under the command of an archihypaspist.

6738: 6325: 5874: 5722: 5674: 5518: 5487: 5432: 5349: 5226: 5098: 4919: 4752: 4705: 4645: 4519: 4501: 4477: 4459: 4369: 4364: 4015: 3915: 3878: 3852: 3817: 3792: 3759: 3727: 3682: 3528: 2678: 2042: 1960: 1912: 1768: 1737: 1733: 1585: 1471: 1395: 1378: 1046: 1011: 864: 702:, the Thessalians withstood the attack of Persian cavalry forces, though greatly outnumbered. 678: 667: 623: 561: 522: 496: 406: 398: 232: 170: 2231:

tactics contributed to the defeat and partition of Macedon in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.

1972:, 5) as being eight palms wide (equivalent to 62 cm (24 in)) and "not too hollow". 6668: 6200: 6165: 5982: 5839: 5717: 5604: 5599: 4924: 4879: 4710: 4617: 4233: 4066: 4051: 4041: 3770: 3552: 3524: 3484: 2167: 2096: 2062: 1744:', without cheek pieces, were also employed. These helmets were worn by the heavy infantry. 1551: 1296: 1154: 942: 642: 488: 453: 310: 120: 6708: 3751:, Autumn, 1989, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 217–224, Classical Association of Canada 1728:, that is it had a high and forward-projecting apex, this type of helmet, also known as a " 1312: 539: 17: 6683: 6441: 6229: 6042: 5784: 5650: 5582: 4909: 4507: 4489: 4397: 4374: 4248: 4159: 4119: 4056: 3784: 3560: 2058: 2035: 1947: 1792:

Vergina royal Macedonian tomb, left gold-decorated plate iron gorget, right bronze greaves

1748: 1729: 1709: 1523: 1167: 686: 462: 458: 402: 329: 3473:"Macedonians and Mutiny: Discipline and Indiscipline in the Army of Philip and Alexander" 6565: 6505: 6500: 6456: 6237: 6185: 6175: 6155: 6145: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5364: 5344: 4732: 4542: 4531: 4525: 4513: 4313: 4288: 4200: 4061: 3986: 3588: 2682: 2011:, if any, is less clear; the heavy cavalry of Alexander's time did not employ shields. 1823: 1608:(ξίφος) is depicted in works of art, and two types of single-edged cutting swords, the 1460: 1459:(i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic 1429: 1391: 1288: 1237: 985: 972: 735: 690: 394: 286: 212: 140: 100: 2681:

troops must have become clear to Philip at the latest during his time as a hostage in

1517:), yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armour such as 1220:

In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in the style of a traditional Greek

6868: 6801: 6718: 6693: 6383: 6305: 5987: 5930: 5829: 5819: 5789: 5771: 5645: 4797: 4579: 4471: 4427: 4389: 4228: 4149: 3774: 3584: 3504: 2223: 2162: 2073: 1852: 1514: 1419: 1098: 767: 575: 272: 268: 264: 260: 252: 220: 216: 152: 132: 915: 6618: 6570: 6436: 6290: 6160: 5799: 5635: 5141: 5103: 4802: 3628:. Loeb classical library (in Latin and English). Hathi Trust Digital Library. 1946. 2105: 2089: 2065: 1907:

and a pair of greaves, one shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina Tomb.

1741: 1725: 1697: 1661: 1292: 1267: 1257: 1225: 1078:

under a phalangiarch. On his Asian campaign, Alexander, had a phalanx of 6 veteran

695: 611: 532: 434: 112: 3721: 321:, all of whom lived centuries later than the events they describe in their works. 3908: 3778: 3623: 1991:

From pictorial sources, it is probable that the Hypaspists, elite members of the

836:

then assumed a purely battlefield role as shock cavalry. It is possible that the

6638: 6530: 6510: 6343: 6338: 5846: 5824: 5814: 5809: 5732: 5689: 5236: 5146: 5136: 5023: 5013: 4777: 4154: 4129: 3747:

Hammond, N.G.L (1998) "Arms and the King: The Insignia of Alexander the Great",

3171:

Ashley, pp. 34–35 (light cavalry weaponry), 45 (javelins), 47–48 (bows/archery).

1939: 1540: 1528: 1403: 989: 977: 381: 244: 136: 1323: 6575: 6545: 6540: 6525: 6411: 6378: 6047: 6017: 5684: 5412: 5246: 5088: 5083: 5073: 5058: 5043: 5033: 5008: 4384: 4139: 4094: 3702:: Electrum Vol. 19, Wydawnictwo. Published by Jagiellonian University, Cracow. 3660: 2188: 2121: 1916: 1811: 1704: 1634: 1624: 1204: 1200: 1184: 1163: 1158:

Ancient depiction of a Macedonian infantryman (right). He is equipped with an

969: 933: 706: 659: 475: 248: 116: 51: 1045:

theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far-right file. According to

6550: 6476: 6461: 6431: 6426: 6358: 6282: 6267: 6252: 6195: 6095: 5747: 5679: 5251: 5231: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5156: 5151: 5121: 5068: 5028: 4807: 4673: 4627: 4607: 4414: 4238: 4109: 2192: 2069: 1876:

may refer specifically to the bronze muscle cuirass. Within the phalanx the

1846: 1556: 1440: 1383: 1196: 1124: 763: 699: 390: 370: 366: 362: 351: 303: 299: 295: 148: 124: 1135:

The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one

6600: 6590: 6580: 6555: 6421: 6353: 6333: 6300: 6262: 6205: 6120: 6105: 5962: 5952: 5869: 5864: 5261: 5256: 5216: 5211: 5186: 5166: 5093: 5048: 5038: 4894: 4792: 4727: 4655: 4263: 3842:

An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action

2218: 2115: 2110: 1992: 1956: 1943: 1816: 1764: 1752: 1676: 1649: 1617: 1613: 1496: 1374: 1140: 1033: 954: 893: 820:. It would appear that the same unit of cavalry was known by both names. 480: 418: 375: 282: 144: 1844:). Other forms of armour are mentioned in original sources, such as the 6743: 6733: 6688: 6678: 6673: 6658: 6648: 6633: 6628: 6515: 6403: 6393: 6272: 6247: 6242: 6215: 6210: 6190: 6180: 6170: 6135: 6125: 6115: 6067: 6057: 6032: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5967: 5620: 5402: 5063: 5053: 4812: 4782: 4772: 4767: 4747: 4742: 4622: 4569: 4483: 4278: 4268: 4258: 4253: 4243: 3877:. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. 2177: 2172: 2008: 1756: 1736:

were still in use; this helmet was a lightened form developed from the

1657: 1645: 1593: 1547: 1544: 1532: 1518: 1509: 1387: 1365: 1221: 994: 946: 920: 674: 572: 430: 358: 290: 256: 240: 104: 3527:, this was the size of the field army for Alexander's conquest of the 3496: 3472: 2113:

were used by the Macedonians: a smaller bolt-shooting type called the

2109:) reliant on the elastic properties of a bow-stave. Two forms of such 1899:

Archaeological remains exist for only one type of limb armour: bronze

610:

The individual Companion cavalry squadrons were usually deployed in a

405:, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the 46: 6713: 6643: 6623: 6585: 6451: 6257: 6150: 6087: 6077: 6022: 5640: 5625: 5221: 5206: 5181: 5176: 5161: 4822: 4817: 4584: 4564: 4308: 4298: 4293: 4164: 4124: 4114: 4099: 2050: 2046: 1984: 1935: 1900: 1830: 1653: 1629: 1605: 1589: 1565: 1561: 1504: 1483: 1434: 1425: 1399: 1241: 1229: 1027: 805: 785: 663: 655: 619: 426: 422: 414: 410: 333:

Philip II of Macedon - Roman medallion depicting the Macedonian king.

314: 108: 2213:, retained many features of the armies of Philip and Alexander. The 1680:

leverage increased the power of the throw and the range achievable.

1503:. His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and 780:

as being raised from Macedonians, which would parallel the Athenian

3488: 1979:

The lefthand figure shows the armband and grip on the inside of an

1240:, it appears that they wore little more than a helmet and a cloak ( 6723: 6698: 6595: 6535: 6520: 6388: 6348: 6100: 6012: 6007: 5977: 5972: 5947: 5630: 5171: 5126: 5078: 4650: 4602: 4303: 4273: 4220: 4195: 4134: 4104: 2152: 1974: 1795: 1787: 1779: 1715: 1703: 1691: 1609: 1477: 1470: 1364: 1233: 1209: 1192: 1153: 1143: 1000: 953:

Suitable men from the Macedonian peasantry were recruited into an

874: 747: 641: 550: 538: 526: 474:

control of the gold-rich mines of Mount Pangaeus, and the city of

446: 128: 89: 3955: 2161:

The Macedonian army was one of the first military forces to use '

738:

missions. There is some ambiguity concerning the use of the term

6728: 6703: 6653: 6140: 6130: 3828:

Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity,

1147: 1086:

was created. Antipater, as regent in Macedonia, was left with 8

1038: 1006:

Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and issuing of

317:, in addition to the incomplete writings of the Roman historian 263:

tactics—the heavy infantry phalanx, skirmish infantry, archers,

6768: 5910: 5339: 4843: 4190: 4010: 3959: 1720:

Boeotian bronze helmet, the front of the helmet is to the right

389:, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of 566: 2014:

Light infantry javelineers would have used a version of the

535:

showing a Macedonian cavalryman armed with two long javelins

1369:

Agrianian peltast - modern reconstruction by Johnny Shumate

772:

Scholarship is divided as to the ethnic composition of the

1332:

An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of

3756:

Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 B.C. A Historical Biography

1481:

cutting sword, the hunter on the left holds a scabbarded

285:

cavalry) and a wide range of mercenaries from across the

3807:

Four Hellenistic Funerary Stelae from Gephyra, Macedonia

1082:, numbering 9,000 men. Between Susa and India a seventh 598:– "that which leads". Each squadron was commanded by an 54:

in light equipment (modern reconstruction by J. Shumate)

3849:

Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1

3783:

Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford & New York:

2976: 2974: 1836:

All of the above forms of armour could be described as

34:, which evolved from the one discussed in this article. 6880:

Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world

1872:

occur together, as in the Amphipolis regulation, then

215:

to conquer large swathes of territory stretching from

3835:

Macedonian Arms and Tactics under Alexander the Great

3672:

The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World

2743: 2741: 2739: 1448:

The use of Asiatic soldiers under Alexander the Great

618:

The primary weapon of the Macedonian cavalry was the

3439: 3437: 3397: 3395: 3393: 1640:

The armament of the phalangites is described in the

1162:

shield, so probably is a Hypaspist. He also wears a

879:

Javelin-armed Thracian horseman - hunting wild boar.

776:

of the Macedonian army. Most authorities regard the

6609: 6486: 6475: 6402: 6324: 6281: 6228: 6086: 5938: 5929: 5855: 5770: 5708: 5663: 5613: 5564: 5486: 5363: 5301: 5270: 5112: 4999: 4943: 4865: 4691: 4664: 4636: 4593: 4541: 4383: 4322: 4219: 4085: 4034: 2339: 2337: 1888:, the officers. It has also been proposed that the 666:, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of the 176: 166: 158: 96: 85: 75: 59: 39: 3907: 2643: 2641: 984:Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at 2562: 2560: 2558: 1560:along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a 1535:instead of lighter peltasts. As evidenced by the 1279:. However, in discussing the discrepancies among 3861:Sekunda N. and McBride, A. (illustrator) (1986) 3814:Macedonian Warrior Alexander's elite infantryman 3617:Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica 2539: 2537: 2535: 2217:of the other Macedonian successor-states of the 1700:) of a type worn by some Macedonian infantrymen. 1093:Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a 796:by the primary sources, referred to above. The 681:, said to have been developed by the Thessalian 3873:. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). 3700:The Greek World in the 4th and 3rd Centuries BC 2677:, pp. 238, 247: "the crucial necessity of 2119:and a larger stone-throwing machine called the 1596:(cloak) and krepides (boots), from the tomb of 1495:style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a 3665:A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander. 2874: 2396: 2394: 988:, where he studied under the renowned general 27:Army of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia 3971: 3940:Philip, Demosthenes and the Fall of the Polis 3936:Twilight of the Polis and the rise of Macedon 3742:Cavalry Operations in the Ancient Greek World 2435: 2433: 650:straight-bladed sword. Alexander Sarcophagus. 8: 3670:Campbell, B. and Lawrence, A. (ed.s) (2013) 2711: 2709: 2613: 2611: 960:, called the phalanx. It was developed by 931:Painted depiction of a soldier wearing the 6765: 6483: 5935: 5926: 5907: 5667: 5570: 5360: 5336: 4853: 4840: 4547: 4216: 4187: 4031: 4007: 3978: 3964: 3956: 2694:The Campaigns of Alexander, Arrian, VII.10 409:(431–404 BC), at times siding with either 36: 3044: 2956: 2922: 2850: 2826: 2795:Campbell and Lawrence (ed.s), pp. 164–165 2747: 2674: 2367: 2328: 2316: 2288: 1822:Less common, due to its expense, was the 1128:, a form of defence of uncertain nature. 981:, which translates as 'Foot Companions'. 2083: 1926: 1664:/δόρυ), which was much shorter than the 1579: 926: 914: 863:These light cavalry were recruited from 848:operated with Alexander's army in Asia. 328: 3805:Hatzopoulos, M.B. and Juhel, P. (2009) 3516: 3401: 3056: 3040: 3010: 2980: 2952: 2862: 2838: 2822: 2584: 2355: 2343: 2319:, pp. 238–239 for further details. 2312: 2300: 2284: 2259: 2247:Military tactics of Alexander the Great 2176:(i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of the 1564:as a secondary weapon along with their 1090:of younger, less-experienced recruits. 401:in 479 BC. Macedonian cavalry, wearing 1475:The hunter on the right is wielding a 758:Prodromoi/Sarissophoroi (cavalry unit) 181:Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II 3949:Introduction to Ancient Greek History 3910:The Seventy Great Battles of All Time 3707:Philip II and Macedonian Imperialism. 3079:Aspects of Ancient Macedonian Costume 2242:List of Macedonian military personnel 1003:describing a close-packed formation. 654:Following the defeat of Lycophron of 7: 6379:Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus 3893:Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare 3780:A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C. 3612:, translated by E.J. Chinnock (1893) 2786:Campbell and Lawrence (ed.s), p. 165 1915:armour used by Roman gladiators and 1499:tomb, dated perhaps to the reign of 788:. Arrian usually differentiates the 255:. The Macedonian pike, known as the 3716:, Pen & Sword Military, London. 3636:(Historical Library) Vol. XV–XVIII. 1751:for his cavalry, as recommended by 1656:) as well as the traditional Greek 586:were divided into squadrons called 3758:, University of California Press. 3047:, p. 238 for further details. 2022:show them as being oval or round. 1139:for every ten men. This gave it a 25: 3615:Arrian, trans Hammond, M. (2013) 2187:The battle fought in 358 BC near 1424:Philip II was also able to field 1213:foot bodyguard of Alexander III. 507:Troop types and unit organisation 357:When Philip took over control of 6848: 6838: 6829: 6828: 3875:A Companion to Ancient Macedonia 3812:Heckel, W. and Jones, R. (2006) 1942:', a royal symbol. Excavated at 1850:and a type of "half-armour" the 1322: 1311: 975:. These infantrymen were called 685:(head of the Thessalian League) 45: 6849: 3914:. London: Thames & Hudson. 3714:The Army of Alexander the Great 2088:A modern reconstruction of the 2061:, who were capable of building 892:In 329 BC, Alexander, while in 816:says that Aretes commanded the 800:, are sometimes referred to as 3744:, University of Oklahoma Press 3461:Connolly, pp. 140–142, 205–207 2596:Arrian, trans. Hammond, p. 267 1598:Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki 1334:Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki 1122:that the phalangites wore the 429:from Pella shows a Macedonian 235:in just over a decade's time. 1: 4450: 4437: 4418: 4401: 3306:Hatzopoulos and Juhel, p. 113 3043:, pp. 449–450; see also 2315:, pp. 448–449; see also 1905:Military Decree of Amphipolis 1642:Military Decree of Amphipolis 1373:The peltasts raised from the 1120:Military Decree of Amphipolis 281:and other Greeks (especially 5578:Funeral and burial practices 4763:Military of Mycenaean Greece 3942:). Yale University courses, 2170:of its enemies, such as the 2157:Macedonian battle formation. 1959:noted that the phalangites ( 1712:. It lacks its cheek pieces. 1592:cap, the Macedonian type of 1531:in 341 BC described them as 1066:of 1,500 men commanded by a 964:, and later used by his son 949:, Greece, 4th/3rd century BC 379:) from the foot companions ( 30:Not to be confused with the 3906:Black, Jeremy, ed. (2005). 3709:Princeton University Press. 3681:Macdonald Phoebus, London. 3650:, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 2331:, pp. 238–239, 243–244 1983:shield; painted Corinthian 1012:well-trained fighting force 999:passage in the writings of 730:Light cavalry, such as the 397:fighting the Greeks at the 341:had not been the father of 185:Wars of Alexander the Great 18:Ancient Macedonian military 6896: 5502:Greek Revival architecture 3851:, ABC-CLIO, Santa-Barbara 3674:, Oxford University Press. 3648:Ancient Greek Horsemanship 3619:, Oxford University Press. 3471:Carney, Elizabeth (1996). 3077:Saatsoglou-Paliadeli, C., 2875:Hammond & Walbank 2001 2202: 2029: 1755:. The royal burial in the 1417: 1224:with a thrusting spear or 908: 761: 567: 559:The Companion cavalry, or 520: 227:, whose son and successor 29: 6824: 6775: 6764: 5925: 5906: 5670: 5573: 5359: 5335: 4910:Attalid kings of Pergamon 4856: 4852: 4839: 4718:Antigonid Macedonian army 4550: 4215: 4186: 4030: 4006: 3993: 3720:Errington, R. M. (1990). 3581:Antigonid Macedonian army 2211:Antigonid Macedonian army 2205:Antigonid Macedonian army 1892:might refer to a form of 1696:A simple conical helmet ( 1554:, while pikemen wore the 487:and defeated and humbled 483:, destroyed the power of 190: 44: 32:Antigonid Macedonian army 3698:Dabrowa, E (ed.) (2014) 2049:were never able to take 1336:, Greece, 4th century BC 1275:and 9,000 of which were 6875:Ancient Macedonian army 3869:Sekunda, N. V. (2010). 3789:Oxford University Press 3691:Cummings, L.V., (2004) 3679:Greece and Rome at War. 2133:and form a bridgehead. 1207:(χιλιαρχία) formed the 1070:, a variable number of 1041:. The commander of the 968:in his conquest of the 40:Ancient Macedonian army 4944:Artists & scholars 4859:List of ancient Greeks 4496:Second Athenian League 4345:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 4170:Ancient Greek colonies 3830:Yale University Press. 3723:A History of Macedonia 3646:Anderson, J.K, (1961) 3569:Battle of the Hydaspes 3545:Battle of Crocus Field 3413:Connolly, pp. 279–282. 3288:Hammond (1998), p. 222 3189:Anderson, pp. 147–148. 2886:Conolly, p. 70, p. 313 2427:Arrian I.2, I.12, II.9 2158: 2143:Siege of Tyre (332 BC) 2092: 1988: 1951: 1931:An image depicting an 1802: 1793: 1785: 1721: 1713: 1701: 1648:), and a short sword ( 1627:wood shaft called the 1601: 1501:Amyntas III of Macedon 1488: 1428:, including mercenary 1370: 1175: 1097:, which was a type of 950: 924: 880: 844:, each 150 strong, of 812:; in the same context 651: 556: 548: 536: 466: 433:infantryman wearing a 387:Alexander I of Macedon 334: 6063:Sybaris on the Traeis 4788:Sacred Band of Thebes 4528:(c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD) 4042:Cycladic civilization 3871:"The Macedonian Army" 3705:Ellis, J. R. (1986), 3634:Bibliotheca historica 3431:Connolly, pp. 280–286 2203:Further information: 2156: 2087: 2041:instance, during the 2030:Further information: 1978: 1930: 1799: 1791: 1783: 1767:. Alexander's cousin 1719: 1707: 1695: 1583: 1543:were not worn by the 1537:Alexander Sarcophagus 1474: 1402:or were simply hired 1368: 1172:Alexander Sarcophagus 1157: 1031:, was commanded by a 930: 918: 909:Further information: 878: 645: 554: 547:, excavated at Sidon. 545:Alexander Sarcophagus 542: 530: 450: 332: 245:Epaminondas of Thebes 5588:mythological figures 5309:Ancient Greek tribes 4434:Peloponnesian League 3895:, Continuum, London. 3833:Markle, M.M. (1982) 3826:Lendon, J.E. (2006) 3740:Gaebel, R.E, (2004) 3677:Connolly, P. (1981) 3653:Ashley, J.R. (2004) 3315:Matthew, pp. 119–120 3297:Connolly, pp. 79–80. 3270:Connolly, pp. 58–59. 3261:Connolly, pp. 54–58. 3252:Matthew, pp. 114–116 3216:Connolly, pp. 72–73. 2934:Connolly, pp. 48–49. 2484:Arrian, Book 6 Ch. 8 2466:Gaebel, pp. 162–164. 2400:Connolly, pp. 68–69. 2266:Connolly, pp. 64–70. 2055:Polyidus of Thessaly 2032:Polyidus of Thessaly 463:Hellenistic painting 461:; a Roman copy of a 339:Philip II of Macedon 249:Iphicrates of Athens 64:Philip II of Macedon 5700:Tunnel of Eupalinos 5695:Theatre of Dionysus 5319:Ancient Macedonians 4935:Tyrants of Syracuse 4447:Amphictyonic League 4047:Minoan civilization 3891:Sidnell, P. (2006) 3863:The Ancient Greeks. 3847:Sandler, S. (2002) 3840:Matthew, C. (2015) 3712:English, S. (2011) 3693:Alexander the Great 3565:Battle of Gaugamela 3549:Battle of Chaeronea 3533:Battle of Gaugamela 3477:Classical Philology 3452:Connolly, pp. 80–81 3162:Connolly, pp. 48–49 3144:Markle, pp. 99, 102 2768:Ellis, J. R., p. 27 2529:Lendon, pp. 98–101. 2418:Markle, pp. 104–105 2137:Other siege engines 1285:Alexander the Great 1253:Battle of Gaugamela 966:Alexander the Great 905:The Foot Companions 713:Other Greek cavalry 679:rhomboid formations 393:as subjects of the 343:Alexander the Great 279:Ancient Macedonians 229:Alexander the Great 97:Active regions 69:Alexander the Great 6374:Menestheus's Limin 6028:Pandosia (Lucania) 5916:Greek colonisation 5278:Athenian statesmen 5039:Diogenes of Sinope 4900:Kings of Macedonia 4890:Kings of Commagene 4758:Macedonian phalanx 4738:Hellenistic armies 4486:(c. 424–c. 395 BC) 4350:Indo-Greek Kingdom 4072:Hellenistic Greece 3865:Osprey Publishing. 3754:Green, P. (1992), 3632:Diodorus Siculus, 3557:Battle of Granicus 3135:Ashley, pp. 35–36. 3022:Green, pp. 333-336 3001:English, pp. 50–51 2983:, pp. 458–459 2959:, pp. 241–242 2943:Sidnell, pp. 57–59 2925:, pp. 241–242 2913:Ashley, pp. 45–46. 2865:, pp. 455–457 2841:, pp. 455–456 2777:Ashley, pp. 39–40. 2724:Ashley, pp. 37–38. 2605:Ashley. pp. 32–33. 2493:Sidnell, pp. 96–98 2448:Ashley, pp. 30–31. 2388:Bury, pp. 685–687. 2370:, pp. 239–240 2358:, pp. 448–449 2303:, pp. 447–448 2291:, pp. 243–244 2215:Hellenistic armies 2159: 2093: 1989: 1952: 1933:ancient Macedonian 1884:were reserved for 1803: 1794: 1786: 1722: 1714: 1702: 1602: 1586:ancient Macedonian 1489: 1371: 1283:about the size of 1281:ancient historians 1251:emerged after the 1176: 1146:that contemporary 1008:standard equipment 951: 925: 911:Macedonian phalanx 881: 851:At Gaugamela, the 752:Battle of Hydaspes 750:(prominent at the 652: 638:Thessalian cavalry 557: 549: 537: 467: 335: 209:Kingdom of Macedon 198:Hellenistic armies 80:Kingdom of Macedon 6862: 6861: 6820: 6819: 6760: 6759: 6756: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6326:Iberian Peninsula 6258:Lipara/Meligounis 6224: 6223: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5875:Cypriot syllabary 5766: 5765: 5675:Athenian Treasury 5659: 5658: 5331: 5330: 5327: 5326: 4920:Ptolemaic dynasty 4880:Archons of Athens 4835: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4706:Athenian military 4687: 4686: 4520:League of Corinth 4502:Thessalian League 4478:Chalcidian League 4460:Acarnanian League 4370:Ptolemaic Kingdom 4182: 4181: 4178: 4177: 3884:978-1-4051-7936-2 3822:978-1-84176-950-9 3771:Hammond, N. G. L. 3529:Achaemenid Empire 3443:Green, pp. 24–25. 3422:Cummings, p. 291. 3387:Lendon, pp. 95–97 3369:Markle, pp. 97–98 3333:Anderson, p. 148. 2552:Ashley, pp. 33–35 2409:Ashley, pp. 5, 30 2043:Peloponnesian War 1769:Pyrrhus of Epirus 1738:Corinthian helmet 1734:Chalcidian helmet 1552:military officers 939:Tomb of Judgement 668:Thessalian League 523:Companion cavalry 517:Companion cavalry 497:League of Corinth 407:Peloponnesian War 403:muscled cuirasses 399:Battle of Plataea 243:made by men like 233:Achaemenid Empire 205: 204: 194:Succeeded by 16:(Redirected from 6887: 6852: 6851: 6842: 6832: 6831: 6766: 6484: 5983:Heraclea Lucania 5936: 5927: 5908: 5668: 5600:Twelve Olympians 5571: 5361: 5337: 4925:Seleucid dynasty 4905:Kings of Paionia 4854: 4841: 4711:Scythian archers 4618:Graphe paranomon 4548: 4455: 4452: 4442: 4439: 4423: 4420: 4410: 4406: 4403: 4217: 4188: 4067:Classical Greece 4052:Mycenaean Greece 4032: 4008: 3980: 3973: 3966: 3957: 3925: 3913: 3888: 3844:, Pen and Sword. 3802: 3737: 3629: 3592: 3578: 3572: 3553:Battle of Thebes 3542: 3536: 3535:, as an example. 3525:Diodorus Siculus 3521: 3509: 3508: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3432: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3367: 3361: 3358: 3352: 3349: 3343: 3342:Connolly, p. 79. 3340: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3307: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3289: 3286: 3280: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3259: 3253: 3250: 3244: 3243:Connolly, p. 58. 3241: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3225:Connolly, p. 63. 3223: 3217: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3190: 3187: 3181: 3180:Connolly, p. 70. 3178: 3172: 3169: 3163: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3145: 3142: 3136: 3133: 3127: 3124: 3118: 3115: 3109: 3106: 3100: 3099:Connolly, p. 77. 3097: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3075: 3069: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3038: 3032: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2969: 2968:Connolly, p. 45. 2966: 2960: 2950: 2944: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2896: 2893: 2887: 2884: 2878: 2877:, pp. 22–23 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2820: 2814: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2796: 2793: 2787: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2769: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2704: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2657: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2636: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2606: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2575:Sidnell. p. 118. 2573: 2567: 2564: 2553: 2550: 2544: 2541: 2530: 2527: 2521: 2518: 2512: 2509: 2503: 2502:Connolly, p. 73. 2500: 2494: 2491: 2485: 2482: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2449: 2446: 2440: 2439:Connolly, p. 71. 2437: 2428: 2425: 2419: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2389: 2386: 2380: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2292: 2282: 2276: 2273: 2267: 2264: 2168:military tactics 2063:state of the art 1995:, including the 1938:displaying the ' 1347:), bronze-faced 1326: 1315: 1297:Diodorus Siculus 871:Thracian cavalry 859:Paeonian cavalry 570: 569: 503:speed of march. 454:Alexander Mosaic 311:Diodorus Siculus 177:Battles and wars 49: 37: 21: 6895: 6894: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6816: 6771: 6748: 6611: 6605: 6488: 6479: 6471: 6442:Melaina Korkyra 6398: 6320: 6277: 6230:Aeolian Islands 6220: 6082: 5940: 5921: 5920: 5894: 5851: 5762: 5704: 5655: 5609: 5560: 5482: 5473:Wedding customs 5355: 5354: 5323: 5314:Thracian Greeks 5297: 5288:Olympic victors 5266: 5108: 4995: 4939: 4930:Kings of Sparta 4915:Kings of Pontus 4885:Kings of Athens 4861: 4848: 4827: 4723:Army of Macedon 4683: 4660: 4632: 4589: 4537: 4510:(370–c. 230 BC) 4508:Arcadian League 4492:(c. 400–188 BC) 4490:Aetolian League 4484:Boeotian League 4466:Hellenic League 4453: 4440: 4430:(c. 650–404 BC) 4421: 4415:Italiote League 4408: 4404: 4398:Doric Hexapolis 4388: 4379: 4375:Seleucid Empire 4318: 4211: 4210: 4174: 4081: 4057:Greek Dark Ages 4026: 4025: 4002: 3989: 3984: 3932: 3922: 3905: 3902: 3900:Further reading 3885: 3868: 3799: 3785:Clarendon Press 3769: 3734: 3719: 3643: 3622: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3579: 3575: 3561:Battle of Issus 3543: 3539: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3512: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3400: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3378:Dabrowa, p. 145 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3360:Connolly. p. 72 3359: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324:Connolly, p. 80 3323: 3319: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279:Matthew, p. 121 3278: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3234:Matthew, p. 116 3233: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153:Connolly, p. 63 3152: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3108:Gaebel, p. 164. 3107: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3055: 3051: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2979: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2955:, p. 451; 2951: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2904:Sandler, p. 313 2903: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2845: 2837: 2833: 2825:, p. 455; 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2746: 2737: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2707: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2647:Matthew, p. 119 2646: 2639: 2635:Elis, pp. 52–56 2634: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2609: 2604: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2533: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2379:Lendon, p. 129. 2378: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2287:, p. 447; 2283: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2237: 2207: 2201: 2151: 2139: 2082: 2059:Diades of Pella 2038: 2036:Diades of Pella 2028: 1948:North Macedonia 1925: 1778: 1749:Boeotian helmet 1730:Thracian helmet 1710:Thracian helmet 1690: 1578: 1524:Third Philippic 1469: 1467:Arms and armour 1450: 1422: 1416: 1363: 1358: 1340: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1305: 1255:in 331 BC: the 1247:A new term for 1181: 1168:Thracian helmet 913: 907: 902: 890: 873: 861: 770: 762:Main articles: 760: 728: 715: 687:Jason of Pherae 640: 525: 519: 514: 509: 459:Battle of Issus 347:the Macedonians 327: 219:in the west to 201: 200: 196: 171:Hellenic League 67: 55: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6893: 6891: 6883: 6882: 6877: 6867: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6856: 6846: 6836: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6815: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6769: 6762: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6615: 6613: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6492: 6490: 6481: 6473: 6472: 6470: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6408: 6406: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6330: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6318: 6313: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6287: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6234: 6232: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6176:Megara Hyblaea 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6156:Hybla Gereatis 6153: 6148: 6146:Heraclea Minoa 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6092: 6090: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5944: 5942: 5933: 5923: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5890:Attic numerals 5887: 5885:Greek numerals 5882: 5880:Greek alphabet 5877: 5872: 5867: 5861: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5776: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5714: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5661: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5534:Musical system 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5493: 5491: 5484: 5483: 5481: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5369: 5367: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5118: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5005: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4966:Mathematicians 4963: 4958: 4953: 4947: 4945: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4875:Kings of Argos 4871: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4850: 4849: 4844: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4828: 4826: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4733:Cretan archers 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4703: 4697: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4670: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4642: 4640: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4599: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4535: 4532:Achaean League 4529: 4526:Euboean League 4523: 4517: 4514:Epirote League 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4462:(c. 500–31 BC) 4457: 4444: 4431: 4425: 4412: 4394: 4392: 4390:Confederations 4381: 4380: 4378: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4316: 4314:Lissus (Crete) 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4192: 4191: 4184: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4091: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4062:Archaic Greece 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4038: 4036: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4004: 4003: 4001: 4000: 3994: 3991: 3990: 3987:Ancient Greece 3985: 3983: 3982: 3975: 3968: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3931: 3930:External links 3928: 3927: 3926: 3920: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3889: 3883: 3866: 3859: 3845: 3838: 3831: 3824: 3810: 3803: 3797: 3775:Walbank, F. W. 3767: 3752: 3745: 3738: 3732: 3717: 3710: 3703: 3696: 3695:. Grove Press. 3689: 3675: 3668: 3658: 3651: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3630: 3620: 3613: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3593: 3589:Ptolemaic army 3573: 3537: 3515: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3489:10.1086/367490 3463: 3454: 3445: 3433: 3424: 3415: 3406: 3389: 3380: 3371: 3362: 3353: 3344: 3335: 3326: 3317: 3308: 3299: 3290: 3281: 3272: 3263: 3254: 3245: 3236: 3227: 3218: 3209: 3200: 3191: 3182: 3173: 3164: 3155: 3146: 3137: 3128: 3126:Sidnell, p. 83 3119: 3117:Markle, p. 106 3110: 3101: 3092: 3090:Markle, p. 101 3083: 3070: 3068:Markle, p. 100 3061: 3049: 3045:Errington 1990 3033: 3024: 3015: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2970: 2961: 2957:Errington 1990 2945: 2936: 2927: 2923:Errington 1990 2915: 2906: 2897: 2888: 2879: 2867: 2855: 2851:Errington 1990 2843: 2831: 2827:Errington 1990 2815: 2813:Ashley, p. 40. 2806: 2797: 2788: 2779: 2770: 2761: 2752: 2748:Errington 1990 2735: 2726: 2717: 2715:Ashley, p. 39. 2705: 2703:Ashley, p. 172 2696: 2687: 2675:Errington 1990 2667: 2665:Lendon, p. 11. 2658: 2649: 2637: 2628: 2626:Ashley. p. 35. 2619: 2617:Ashley. p. 34. 2607: 2598: 2589: 2577: 2568: 2566:Gaebel, p. 178 2554: 2545: 2543:Ashley. p. 32. 2531: 2522: 2520:English, p. 62 2513: 2511:Ashley. p. 31. 2504: 2495: 2486: 2477: 2475:Sidnell, p. 84 2468: 2459: 2457:Lendon, p. 98. 2450: 2441: 2429: 2420: 2411: 2402: 2390: 2381: 2372: 2368:Errington 1990 2360: 2348: 2333: 2329:Errington 1990 2321: 2317:Errington 1990 2305: 2293: 2289:Errington 1990 2277: 2268: 2258: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2200: 2197: 2150: 2149:Battle tactics 2147: 2138: 2135: 2125:. The largest 2081: 2078: 2027: 2024: 1924: 1921: 1824:muscle cuirass 1777: 1774: 1689: 1686: 1577: 1574: 1468: 1465: 1449: 1446: 1430:Cretan archers 1415: 1412: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1356:Light infantry 1354: 1331: 1330: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1304: 1303:Greek hoplites 1301: 1289:N.G.L. Hammond 1238:Persian Empire 1180: 1177: 1166:cuirass and a 973:Persian Empire 906: 903: 901: 900:Heavy infantry 898: 889: 886: 872: 869: 860: 857: 808:commanded the 759: 756: 736:reconnaissance 727: 724: 714: 711: 691:Persian Empire 639: 636: 521:Main article: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 395:Persian Empire 326: 323: 231:conquered the 203: 202: 192: 191: 188: 187: 178: 174: 173: 168: 164: 163: 162:32,000+ (avg.) 160: 156: 155: 98: 94: 93: 87: 83: 82: 77: 73: 72: 61: 57: 56: 50: 42: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6892: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6855: 6847: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6835: 6827: 6826: 6823: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6782: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6767: 6763: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6608: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6485: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6401: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6354:Hemeroscopion 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6317: 6314: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6089: 6085: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5931:Magna Graecia 5928: 5924: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5848: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5805:Arcadocypriot 5803: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5769: 5759: 5758:Zeus, Olympia 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5743:Hera, Olympia 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5666: 5662: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5646:Mount Olympus 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614:Sacred places 5612: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5503: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5438:Olympic Games 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5428:Homosexuality 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5300: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4838: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4798:Seleucid army 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4533: 4530: 4527: 4524: 4521: 4518: 4515: 4512: 4509: 4506: 4503: 4500: 4497: 4494: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4482: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4472:Delian League 4470: 4467: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4448: 4445: 4435: 4432: 4429: 4428:Ionian League 4426: 4416: 4413: 4409: 560 BC 4399: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4150:Magna Graecia 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3988: 3981: 3976: 3974: 3969: 3967: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3912: 3911: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3858: 3857:1-576-07344-0 3854: 3850: 3846: 3843: 3839: 3836: 3832: 3829: 3825: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3798:0-19-814815-1 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3765: 3764:0-520-07166-2 3761: 3757: 3753: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3733:0-520-06319-8 3729: 3725: 3724: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3688: 3687:1-85367-303-X 3684: 3680: 3676: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3662: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3626: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3585:Seleucid army 3582: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3523:According to 3520: 3517: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3464: 3458: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3419: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3404:, p. 451 3403: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3375: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3351:Markle, p. 92 3348: 3345: 3339: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3312: 3309: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3285: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3264: 3258: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3207:Markle, p. 90 3204: 3201: 3198:Heckel, p. 61 3195: 3192: 3186: 3183: 3177: 3174: 3168: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3132: 3129: 3123: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3059:, p. 450 3058: 3053: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3034: 3031:Ashley, p. 49 3028: 3025: 3019: 3016: 3013:, p. 453 3012: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2992:Ashley, p. 48 2989: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2975: 2971: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2946: 2940: 2937: 2931: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2901: 2898: 2895:Green, p. 290 2892: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2856: 2853:, p. 245 2852: 2847: 2844: 2840: 2835: 2832: 2829:, p. 245 2828: 2824: 2819: 2816: 2810: 2807: 2804:Heckel, p. 41 2801: 2798: 2792: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2774: 2771: 2765: 2762: 2759:Markle, p. 99 2756: 2753: 2750:, p. 241 2749: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2733:Markle, p. 94 2730: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2700: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2659: 2653: 2650: 2644: 2642: 2638: 2632: 2629: 2623: 2620: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2602: 2599: 2593: 2590: 2587:, p. 454 2586: 2581: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2481: 2478: 2472: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2445: 2442: 2436: 2434: 2430: 2424: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2385: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2349: 2346:, p. 449 2345: 2340: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2278: 2275:Bury, p. 684. 2272: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2253: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2225: 2224:combined arms 2220: 2216: 2212: 2206: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2163:combined arms 2155: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2086: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2072:firing large 2071: 2067: 2066:siege engines 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2037: 2033: 2026:Siege warfare 2025: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1966:Asclepiodotus 1962: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1914: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1882:hemithorakion 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1866:hemithorakion 1863: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1853:hemithorakion 1849: 1848: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1827: 1825: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1798: 1790: 1782: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1718: 1711: 1706: 1699: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1584:Fresco of an 1582: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1511: 1507:, as well as 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1442: 1436: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1420:Cretan archer 1413: 1411: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1367: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1346: 1335: 1325: 1314: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1029: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1002: 997: 996: 991: 987: 982: 980: 979: 974: 971: 967: 963: 959: 956: 948: 944: 940: 936: 935: 929: 922: 917: 912: 904: 899: 897: 895: 888:Horse archers 887: 885: 877: 870: 868: 866: 858: 856: 854: 849: 847: 843: 839: 835: 830: 829:sarissophoroi 826: 821: 819: 818:sarissophoroi 815: 811: 807: 803: 802:sarissophoroi 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 769: 768:Sarissophoroi 765: 757: 755: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 726:Light cavalry 725: 723: 721: 712: 710: 708: 703: 701: 697: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 671: 669: 665: 661: 657: 649: 644: 637: 635: 631: 627: 625: 621: 616: 613: 608: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 580: 577: 576:Ancient world 574: 564: 563: 553: 546: 541: 534: 529: 524: 516: 512:Heavy cavalry 511: 506: 504: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 477: 471: 464: 460: 456: 455: 449: 445: 441: 439: 437: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 383: 378: 377: 372: 368: 364: 360: 355: 353: 348: 344: 340: 331: 324: 322: 320: 316: 312: 307: 305: 301: 297: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 274: 273:siege engines 270: 269:heavy cavalry 266: 265:light cavalry 262: 261:combined arms 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 199: 195: 189: 186: 182: 179: 175: 172: 169: 165: 161: 157: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 99: 95: 91: 88: 84: 81: 78: 74: 70: 65: 62: 58: 53: 48: 43: 38: 33: 19: 6649:Dionysopolis 6619:Abonoteichos 6571:Pantikapaion 6161:Hybla Heraea 5497:Architecture 5453:Prostitution 5142:Aristophanes 5001:Philosophers 4971:Philosophers 4803:Spartan army 4722: 4534:(280–146 BC) 4522:(338–322 BC) 4516:(370–168 BC) 4504:(374–196 BC) 4498:(378–355 BC) 4480:(430–348 BC) 4474:(478–404 BC) 4468:(499–449 BC) 4155:Peloponnesus 4077:Roman Greece 3948: 3939: 3909: 3892: 3874: 3862: 3848: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3813: 3806: 3779: 3755: 3748: 3741: 3722: 3713: 3706: 3699: 3692: 3678: 3671: 3664: 3654: 3647: 3633: 3624: 3616: 3576: 3540: 3519: 3483:(1): 19–44. 3480: 3476: 3466: 3457: 3448: 3427: 3418: 3409: 3402:Sekunda 2010 3383: 3374: 3365: 3356: 3347: 3338: 3329: 3320: 3311: 3302: 3293: 3284: 3275: 3266: 3257: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3221: 3212: 3203: 3194: 3185: 3176: 3167: 3158: 3149: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3113: 3104: 3095: 3086: 3078: 3073: 3064: 3057:Sekunda 2010 3052: 3041:Sekunda 2010 3036: 3027: 3018: 3011:Sekunda 2010 3006: 2997: 2988: 2981:Sekunda 2010 2964: 2953:Sekunda 2010 2948: 2939: 2930: 2918: 2909: 2900: 2891: 2882: 2870: 2863:Sekunda 2010 2858: 2846: 2839:Sekunda 2010 2834: 2823:Sekunda 2010 2818: 2809: 2800: 2791: 2782: 2773: 2764: 2755: 2729: 2720: 2699: 2690: 2670: 2661: 2652: 2631: 2622: 2601: 2592: 2585:Sekunda 2010 2580: 2571: 2548: 2525: 2516: 2507: 2498: 2489: 2480: 2471: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2423: 2414: 2405: 2384: 2375: 2363: 2356:Sekunda 2010 2351: 2344:Sekunda 2010 2324: 2313:Sekunda 2010 2308: 2301:Sekunda 2010 2296: 2285:Sekunda 2010 2280: 2271: 2262: 2208: 2186: 2182: 2171: 2160: 2140: 2131: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2106:gastraphetes 2104: 2094: 2090:gastraphetes 2039: 2019: 2015: 2013: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1990: 1980: 1969: 1955:the shield. 1953: 1909: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1835: 1828: 1821: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1762: 1746: 1726:Phrygian cap 1723: 1682: 1673: 1670: 1665: 1639: 1628: 1622: 1603: 1570: 1555: 1541:breastplates 1522: 1521:, since the 1508: 1492: 1490: 1482: 1476: 1454: 1451: 1441:chiliarchies 1439: 1423: 1408: 1386:fighting as 1372: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1293:F.W. Walbank 1276: 1272: 1268:chalkaspides 1266: 1263:argyraspides 1262: 1258:argyraspides 1256: 1248: 1246: 1219: 1215: 1208: 1188: 1182: 1159: 1134: 1130: 1123: 1114: 1112: 1106: 1102: 1094: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1042: 1032: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1016: 1005: 993: 983: 976: 952: 932: 891: 882: 862: 852: 850: 845: 841: 837: 833: 828: 824: 822: 817: 809: 801: 797: 793: 789: 781: 777: 773: 771: 743: 739: 731: 729: 719: 716: 704: 682: 672: 653: 647: 632: 628: 617: 609: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 581: 560: 558: 533:Perdikkas II 501: 472: 468: 457:showing the 452: 442: 435: 380: 374: 356: 336: 308: 277: 237: 206: 193: 113:Danube Delta 86:Headquarters 71:(336–323 BC) 66:(359–336 BC) 6797:Place names 6709:Salmydessus 6531:Kalos Limen 6511:Chersonesus 6501:Borysthenes 6206:Tauromenion 6018:Metapontion 5780:Proto-Greek 5733:Erechtheion 5728:Athena Nike 5690:Philippeion 5519:Mathematics 5490:and science 5373:Agriculture 5237:Stesichorus 5147:Bacchylides 5137:Archilochus 5024:Antisthenes 5014:Anaximander 4986:Seven Sages 4976:Playwrights 4956:Geographers 4951:Astronomers 4778:Pezhetairos 4405: 1100 4385:Federations 4284:Megalopolis 4221:City states 4196:City states 2656:Elis, p. 56 2101:Dionysius I 1940:Vergina Sun 1858:ἡμιθωράκιον 1840:(plural of 1776:Body armour 1529:Demosthenes 1404:mercenaries 1277:pezhetairoi 1273:hypaspistai 1249:hypaspistai 1191:) were the 1189:Hypaspistai 990:Epaminondas 978:Pezhetairoi 937:, from the 590:(singular: 465:, c. 100 BC 382:pezhetairoi 137:Mesopotamia 6869:Categories 6699:Polemonion 6576:Phanagoria 6546:Kimmerikon 6541:Kerkinitis 6526:Hermonassa 6516:Dioscurias 6412:Aspalathos 6359:Kalathousa 6334:Akra Leuke 6263:Phoenicusa 6048:Scylletium 6033:Poseidonia 5953:Brentesion 5840:Pamphylian 5835:Macedonian 5753:Samothrace 5738:Hephaestus 5685:Long Walls 5664:Structures 5605:Underworld 5551:Technology 5514:Literature 5448:Philosophy 5413:Euergetism 5302:By culture 5247:Thucydides 5089:Pythagoras 5084:Protagoras 5074:Parmenides 5059:Heraclitus 5044:Empedocles 5034:Democritus 5019:Anaximenes 5009:Anaxagoras 4961:Historians 4454: 595 4441: 550 4422: 800 4407: – c. 4335:Cappadocia 4140:Ionian Sea 4130:Hellespont 4095:Aegean Sea 3944:Lecture 24 3921:0500251258 3816:, Osprey. 3661:Bury, J.B. 3657:McFarland. 3599:References 2189:Lake Ohrid 2127:lithoboloi 2122:lithobolos 1987:c. 560 BC. 1917:cataphract 1894:linothorax 1812:linothorax 1742:Pilos type 1456:hipparchia 1418:See also: 1390:throwers, 1205:chiliarchy 1201:Agrianians 1185:Hypaspists 1179:Hypaspists 1164:linothorax 1060:syntagmata 970:Achaemenid 934:linothorax 707:Oxus River 660:Onomarchos 476:Amphipolis 302:, and the 283:Thessalian 117:Asia Minor 76:Allegiance 6785:in Epirus 6734:Trapezous 6679:Mesambria 6664:Eupatoria 6634:Apollonia 6629:Anchialos 6591:Theodosia 6561:Nymphaion 6551:Myrmekion 6521:Gorgippia 6477:Black Sea 6462:Tragurion 6447:Nymphaion 6432:Epidauros 6427:Epidamnos 6417:Apollonia 6394:Zacynthos 6316:Ptolemais 6310:Apollonia 6283:Cyrenaica 6273:Therassía 6268:Strongyle 6248:Ereikousa 6171:Leontinoi 6111:Apollonia 5988:Hipponion 5785:Mycenaean 5748:Parthenon 5680:Lion Gate 5583:Mythology 5546:Sculpture 5509:Astronomy 5443:Pederasty 5418:Festivals 5403:Education 5283:Lawgivers 5252:Timocreon 5232:Sophocles 5227:Simonides 5202:Philocles 5197:Panyassis 5192:Mimnermus 5157:Herodotus 5152:Euripides 5122:Aeschylus 5069:Leucippus 5029:Aristotle 4808:Strategos 4674:Synedrion 4628:Ostracism 4608:Areopagus 4560:Free city 4355:Macedonia 4239:Byzantion 4145:Macedonia 4110:Cyrenaica 4087:Geography 4021:Geography 3663:, (1913) 3641:Secondary 3505:162280391 2229:manipular 2178:Scythians 2080:Artillery 2070:artillery 1919:cavalry. 1890:kotthybos 1886:hegemones 1862:kotthybos 1847:kotthybos 1635:Sarmatian 1600:, Greece. 1557:kotthybos 1519:cuirasses 1384:Illyrians 1287:'s army, 1197:Gaugamela 1125:kotthybos 1074:formed a 1068:strategos 1062:formed a 962:Philip II 958:formation 853:prodromoi 846:prodromoi 838:prodromoi 834:prodromoi 825:prodromoi 810:prodromoi 798:prodromoi 794:prodromoi 790:prodromoi 782:prodromoi 778:prodromoi 774:prodromoi 764:Prodromoi 744:prodromoi 740:prodromoi 732:prodromoi 700:Gaugamela 419:shepherds 391:Herodotus 371:Thracians 367:Paeonians 363:Illyrians 352:wild boar 304:Thracians 300:Paeonians 296:Illyrians 225:Philip II 149:Bactriana 125:Phoenicia 52:Hypaspist 6834:Category 6812:Theatres 6739:Tripolis 6674:Kerasous 6669:Heraclea 6601:Tyritake 6556:Nikonion 6467:Thronion 6389:Salauris 6344:Emporion 6301:Berenice 6291:Balagrae 6243:Euonymos 6216:Tyndaris 6201:Syracuse 6196:Selinous 6166:Kamarina 6121:Casmenae 6106:Akrillai 6023:Neápolis 5958:Caulonia 5939:Mainland 5870:Linear B 5865:Linear A 5795:Dialects 5772:Language 5566:Religion 5524:Medicine 5458:Religion 5423:Folklore 5408:Emporium 5383:Clothing 5378:Calendar 5262:Xenophon 5257:Tyrtaeus 5242:Theognis 5217:Polybius 5212:Plutarch 5187:Menander 5167:Hipponax 5094:Socrates 5049:Epicurus 4895:Diadochi 4793:Sciritae 4753:Hetairoi 4728:Ballista 4693:Military 4656:Gerousia 4646:Ekklesia 4613:Ecclesia 4595:Athenian 4543:Politics 4456:–279 BC) 4443:–366 BC) 4424:–389 BC) 4360:Pergamon 4330:Bithynia 4323:Kingdoms 4264:Pergamon 4206:Military 4201:Politics 3998:Timeline 3777:(2001). 3609:Arrian, 2679:drilling 2235:See also 2219:Diadochi 2193:Bardylis 2116:oxybeles 2111:ballista 2097:Syracuse 2047:Spartans 1993:infantry 1957:Plutarch 1838:thorakes 1817:Pteruges 1765:Herakles 1753:Xenophon 1677:peltasts 1650:machaira 1618:Xenophon 1614:machaira 1533:hoplites 1497:Katerini 1461:Persians 1392:slingers 1379:Paeonian 1375:Agrianes 1361:Peltasts 1141:marching 1051:syntagma 1043:syntagma 1034:lochagos 1019:syntagma 955:infantry 894:Sogdiana 600:ilarchēs 584:hetairoi 562:Hetairoi 531:Coin of 481:Thessaly 376:hetairoi 289:and the 145:Sogdiana 92:, Greece 6854:Outline 6807:Temples 6744:Zaliche 6724:Thèrmae 6714:Sesamus 6684:Odessos 6659:Cytorus 6654:Cotyora 6404:Illyria 6369:Mainake 6364:Kypsela 6253:Hycesia 6211:Thermae 6191:Segesta 6181:Messana 6136:Helorus 6116:Calacte 6096:Akragas 6058:Sybaris 6043:Rhegion 5998:Krimisa 5948:Alision 5857:Writing 5830:Locrian 5820:Epirote 5790:Homeric 5723:Artemis 5710:Temples 5651:Olympia 5621:Eleusis 5556:Theatre 5541:Pottery 5468:Warfare 5463:Slavery 5398:Economy 5393:Cuisine 5388:Coinage 5365:Society 5350:Culture 5345:Society 5293:Tyrants 5132:Alcaeus 5114:Authors 5064:Hypatia 5054:Gorgias 4991:Writers 4813:Toxotai 4783:Sarissa 4773:Peltast 4768:Phalanx 4748:Hoplite 4743:Hippeis 4666:Macedon 4638:Spartan 4623:Heliaia 4570:Proxeny 4279:Larissa 4274:Kerkyra 4269:Eretria 4259:Miletus 4254:Ephesus 4249:Corinth 4244:Chalcis 4165:Taurica 4035:Periods 4016:History 3787:of the 3749:Phoenix 3667:London. 3604:Primary 2199:Decline 2173:embolon 2009:cavalry 1970:Tactica 1961:phalanx 1923:Shields 1901:greaves 1757:Vergina 1688:Helmets 1666:sarissa 1660:spear ( 1658:hoplite 1646:sarissa 1594:chlamys 1576:Weapons 1566:shields 1548:pikemen 1545:phalanx 1510:sarissa 1505:greaves 1426:archers 1414:Archers 1388:javelin 1343:spear ( 1295:choose 1222:hoplite 1137:servant 1107:Argolic 1095:sarissa 1076:phalanx 1056:ouragos 995:sarissa 947:Imathia 921:sarissa 865:Paeonia 814:Curtius 675:Macedon 624:Cleitus 573:stirrup 568:Ἑταῖροι 431:hoplite 423:farmers 359:Macedon 325:Origins 319:Curtius 291:Balkans 257:sarissa 241:phalanx 105:Illyria 60:Leaders 6844:Portal 6792:People 6780:Cities 6719:Sinope 6704:Rhizos 6694:Phasis 6644:Bathus 6639:Athina 6624:Amisos 6586:Tanais 6581:Pityus 6506:Charax 6457:Pharos 6452:Orikon 6349:Helike 6339:Alonis 6306:Cyrene 6238:Didyme 6151:Himera 6126:Catana 6088:Sicily 6078:Thurii 6073:Terina 6038:Pixous 5993:Hydrus 5968:Croton 5800:Aeolic 5718:Aphaea 5641:Dodona 5626:Delphi 5595:Temple 5271:Others 5222:Sappho 5207:Pindar 5182:Lucian 5177:Ibycus 5162:Hesiod 5099:Thales 4867:Rulers 4846:People 4823:Xyston 4818:Xiphos 4679:Koinon 4585:Tyrant 4575:Stasis 4565:Koinon 4365:Pontus 4340:Epirus 4309:Sparta 4299:Rhodes 4294:Megara 4289:Thebes 4234:Athens 4160:Pontus 4125:Epirus 4115:Cyprus 4100:Aeolis 3918: 3881: 3855: 3820: 3795: 3762: 3730: 3685: 3571:, etc. 3503: 3497:270675 3495: 2683:Thebes 2099:under 2051:Athens 2045:, the 2020:peltai 1985:krater 1981:Argive 1936:shield 1913:manica 1878:thorax 1874:thorax 1870:thorax 1842:thorax 1831:gorget 1807:spolas 1654:xiphos 1630:xyston 1625:cornel 1606:xiphos 1590:kausia 1562:dagger 1493:Argive 1484:xiphos 1435:quiver 1400:treaty 1398:via a 1396:allies 1349:Argive 1242:exomis 1230:xiphos 1160:Argive 1148:armies 1103:Argive 1088:taxeis 1080:taxeis 1072:taxeis 1047:Aelian 1028:lochos 1023:speira 986:Thebes 806:Aretes 786:Thrace 664:Phocis 656:Pherae 648:xiphos 620:xyston 493:Thebes 489:Athens 485:Phocis 438:helmet 427:relief 415:Sparta 411:Athens 315:Arrian 298:, the 287:Aegean 271:, and 213:Greece 167:Allies 141:Persia 109:Thrace 101:Greece 6802:Stoae 6770:Lists 6689:Oinòe 6612:coast 6610:South 6596:Tyras 6566:Olbia 6536:Kepoi 6489:coast 6487:North 6480:basin 6422:Aulon 6384:Rhode 6296:Barca 6186:Naxos 6141:Henna 6101:Akrai 6068:Taras 6053:Siris 6013:Medma 6008:Locri 5973:Cumae 5963:Chone 5941:Italy 5847:Koine 5825:Ionic 5815:Doric 5810:Attic 5631:Delos 5529:Music 5172:Homer 5127:Aesop 5079:Plato 4981:Poets 4651:Ephor 4603:Agora 4580:Tagus 4555:Boule 4304:Samos 4229:Argos 4135:Ionia 4120:Doris 4105:Crete 3501:S2CID 3493:JSTOR 2254:Notes 2074:bolts 2016:pelte 2005:ἀσπίς 2001:aspis 1997:Agema 1944:Bonče 1698:pilos 1610:kopis 1515:pikes 1478:kopis 1234:kopis 1232:or a 1210:Agema 1193:elite 1144:speed 1115:Agive 1084:taxis 1064:taxis 1001:Homer 943:Mieza 748:Dahae 696:Issus 683:Tagos 612:wedge 596:Agema 436:pilos 221:India 217:Egypt 153:India 133:Egypt 129:Judea 121:Syria 90:Pella 6729:Tium 6496:Akra 6437:Issa 6131:Gela 6003:Laüs 5978:Elea 5636:Dion 5488:Arts 5478:Wine 5104:Zeno 4701:Wars 3916:ISBN 3879:ISBN 3853:ISBN 3818:ISBN 3793:ISBN 3760:ISBN 3728:ISBN 3683:ISBN 2068:and 2057:and 2034:and 1880:and 1868:and 1662:doru 1612:and 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