Hellenistic armies - Knowledge (XXG)

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involved a lengthy exchange of javelins; close combat was avoided. The Macedonian Hetairoi (Companions; Companion Cavalry) may have been the first true, able shock cavalry, armed with long lances and heavy armor. Their tradition was carried on in the Hellenistic times and troops similarly armed were called doratophoroi or xystophoroi (both terms translated as lance bearers or plainly lancers). The term Hetairoi was reserved for units comprising men of aristocratic blood. These doratophoroi were primarily used against enemy cavalry; their use against densely deployed infantry was very limited. Their extreme version were the cataphracts of the Seleucid cavalry. The various Agemata (pl. of Agema), usually the elite bodyguards of the Hellenistic Kings, were similarly armed.

377: 1906:, both examples of how routing elephants could cost the battle. Instead, they were deployed on the wings, where they could keep the enemy cavalry at bay, protecting the infantry from a cavalry outflank. Against them, the enemy would use his own elephants, a necessity, since cavalry would never be able to conquer them. There, should they be defeated, they would have space to retreat without getting in the way of the infantry. Elephants would sometimes be accompanied by irregular infantry battalions, which would assist in the elephantomachia (elephant battle), while at the same time protecting their side from enemy infantry. 1852: 1989:, inflicting high casualties on the Roman side. Antiochus the Great is attested to have used it at Thermopylae, resting it in imposing positions over the prospected battlefield. Perseus of Macedon used artillery in the Third Macedonian War to defend the Elpeus river from Aemilius Paulus, who did indeed move away to seek another route around this defensive line. It was also used in fortified towns to harass enemy assailants. Its use in the battlefield does not seem to have been important, as mass use is not attested until much later, as Arrian clearly suggests in his 1699:

to another, it should just be heavily armored. According to the Greeks, we have to define it as any cavalry that was not considered "light", that is, which was not purely skirmishing. Another aspect of the cavalry of the ancient era we have to keep in mind is the unwillingness to use even the best trained and heaviest of cavalries against any dense mass of able infantry. This is evident in many ancient descriptions of battles. According to Arrian, when Alexander faced the Indian tribe of the Malli, he did not dare assault them with his, by now, veteran Heteroi or

1638:, stating that they were in use at least at the time of their compilation as well as the more common square and rectangular formations. Thus, we have to accept the probability that they were used throughout the Hellenistic era. Other formations attested and probably used were the Tarantenic circle, employed by the Tarentines proper and the Scythian formation, attested in use by the Scythian horse archers. Both were skirmishing formations and facilitated continuous harassment while at the same time providing the required mobility to avoid enemy charges. 1211:. Thirdly, changing their equipment and training would add to their fighting capability and efficiency, hence making the army more maneuverable. It has been suggested that the fact that these 5,000 men were marching at the head of the army was meant to show Antiochus IV's intention of reforming the entire Seleucid army along Roman lines, though whether or not this complete reform actually took place is unknown. The true extent of the adoption of Roman techniques is unknown; some have suggested that the infantry are in fact more likely to be 911: 1902:, elephants could throw a competent enemy battle line into confusion and win the day, as long as the enemy was not accustomed to battle against them. But, if used for a frontal assault, the danger of them panicking and charging into the lines of their own army was great. As Livy attested, elephants were more dangerous when scared than when controlled. The Hellenistic generals were well aware of this fact and thus did not deploy them before or among their battle line, as was the case in Hydaspes or in 1549: 826: 1235:

have been great. In Ptolemaic Egypt, Roman adventurers and veterans are found commonly serving under the Ptolemies. Romans are found in Ptolemaic service as early as 252-1 BCE. The Ptolemaic army was odd in that, out of all the Hellenistic armies, it was the only army where you could find Romans in Greek service. As Sekunda suggests 'such individuals would have spread knowledge of Roman military systems within the Ptolemaic military and political establishment'.

1316: 1258:, while Greek troops tended to use local variations of Javelins. Also similarity of equipment in regards to helmets and chainmail can be explained by Celtic influence experienced by both the Greeks and Romans at a similar time. In this sense, we can only assume that the Hellenistic kingdoms did reform and re-organize their troops in some regards along Roman lines, but these appear to be superficial at best and quite possibly the result of 1794:

javelins, which it hurled at the enemy, evading any attempt to engage in close combat. In the Hellenistic era, we have numerous references to Tarantine units, even in the armies of the eastern Macedonian empires, but unfortunately no definite account of their equipment or their tactical use. From the Greek tactical manuals we learn that Tarantines is the collective name of the lightly armored cavalry, which was equipped with

399:. The disparity between the manpower reserves available to Rome and to any other Hellenistic monarch had a profound influence on the way in which the opponents made war. Roman generals could more easily risk defeat in battle, while for Hellenistic generals, a defeat might cripple their manpower base for nearly a generation. Many states had to rely on mercenaries to bulk up their citizen forces: For example, the army of the 535: 5819: 503:, had an even more problematic situation. The basis of their militaries relied on Greeks, which were not common to the areas that they ruled over. In order to overcome this, these kingdoms set up military colonies, known as Klerouchoi, to settle mercenaries and others from Greece. The system would allow for the colonists to be given a plot of land and in return they would provide military service when needed. In 5829: 5839: 1327: 66: 1067: 25: 1571:(fully armored, a type of cavalry not to be confused with the Seleucid, Parthian or Byzantine cataphracts) and aphracts (unarmored). Cataphracts was a term commonly employed to describe fully armored cavalry of various weights, with or without shield (usually a thureos), usually armed with a lance. Unarmored cavalry was classified as lancers, javelineers and bowmen. Lancers ( 337: 1089: 1579:) charged the enemy in dense formations. Javelineers were also called Tarentines and attacked the enemy from afar. Afterwards, they would charge the enemy with lances or keep their distance, in which case they were called light cavalry and/or Tarentines proper. A further category of light cavalry was that of the mounted bowmen, which were collectively called 1043:, a type of shielded, skirmishing, light infantry. It has been suggested that these peltasts were a picked corps, much like Alexander's hypaspists, 'an infantry force...which fought beside the phalanx in battle, but at other times employed for ambushes, forced marches and special expeditions'. The Peltasts were assigned special missions, such as an ambush in 484:, Philip's successor, to be in a stronger position. Perseus had enough grain to last the army ten years - without drawing on harvests - enough money to hire 10,000 mercenaries for ten years, and field an army of 43,000 soldiers, a significant improvement compared to the situation of Philip V at Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE, who fielded an army of 25,500 men. 1802:, that first skirmishes with the enemy and then charges. Cavalry that avoided using the charge, preferring to remain at a distance and skirmish, was called Tarantines proper. From these texts, we can safely deduce that, during Hellenistic times, the term "Tarantines" no longer bore a geographical significance and was used purely as a tactical term. 168: 1429:

heavy cavalry of Philip II and Alexander went east and never came back. But, by the time of Philip V and Perseus, cavalry strength had slowly increased. Philip V had a cavalry force of 400 'Household' cavalry, called the Royal or Sacred Ile in a campaign in 219 BCE. This small number of native horse was then supplemented by mercenary cavalry.

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of the Greek world, cavalry maintained its traditional equipment of javelin and short lance. Apart from the cavalry types used by the Greeks, the Hellenistic kingdoms also used cavalry from subordinate and allied barbarian states, which varied in quality, armor and equipment. Mercenary cavalry troops were also employed, including

1606:. Antiochus III was able to field an extraordinary 6,000 men at Magnesia, the first testimony of cavalry gaining victory over the closed ordered ranks of a competent infantry, yet to no avail. The Seleucids also had moderate access to horse archers from their eastern borders, although they never fielded them in large numbers. The 1254:. Instead, there was a system of larger units that had no relation to Roman organization. In terms of equipment, most of these so-called 'Romanized' troops did not abandon their traditional spear for a sword, which the Hastati and Principles abandoned between the 3rd and 2nd Century BCE. Also the Romans used the 1698:

A modern conception, there is no mentioning of a "heavy cavalry" in the Greek military manuals. Unfortunately, even today, we don't have a concrete notion of what "heavy cavalry" should be. According to one school of thought, it is any cavalry capable of shock action against the enemy line, according

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also deployed heavy armored lancers, never cataphracts, probably because of the high temperatures prevalent in their empire. In Macedonia, armored lancers were also deployed, after the tradition of Alexander's Hetairoi, yet their capability could not compare to that of their predecessors. In the rest

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in 166 BCE, the Argyraspides are counted as being only 5,000 strong. However, Bar-Kochva is of the opinion that the 5,000 men dressed and armed in the 'Roman' style counts for the other half of the corps. This is because the men of the 'Roman Contingent' are described as being in their prime of life.

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The primary drawback of the phalanx was its vulnerability to attacks from the rear and flanks. This is the reason why it depended on the units on its flanks to at least hold off the enemy until he would naturally break from the phalanx's irresistible pressure. It also had a tendency to fracture, when

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Camels are attested in use in the Seleucid army at the battle of Magnesia, but their small number (500) suggests they were not a regular addition. According to Xenophon, their scent scared off horses, but this effect must not have been especially notable or more writers would have commented on this.

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were rarely used during the Hellenistic era. Their value against any opponent or commander of notable skill was very low as was already proven by the Ten Thousand (the Greek mercenaries with whom Xenophon served) at Cunaxa and Alexander in Arbela. Their use is considered more harmful than beneficial

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Both man and horse were entirely encased in armour—in the form of scale or banded segments sewn onto a fabric. Riders' faces were covered in seamless metal helmets. The weight carried by the horse was excessive, and prolonged charges were out of the question. Instead, cataphracts trotted to within a

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became well known for its cavalry and, by the end of the 3rd century, they were considered the best in Greece. Despite this fact, cavalry remained only a small proportion of its total military force. We can deduce this from the 400 cavalry accompanying 3,000 foot on campaign in 218 BCE. All we know

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in 222 BCE. These units are mentioned by classical writers when describing the Antigonid army in battle. Although these units most probably ceased to exist after the battle of Pydna in 168 BCE, as the Antigonid kingdom had been crushed by Rome. These names were not only limited to the Antigonid (or

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were never again attempted, but, as long as the phalanx remained on relatively level terrain and its flanks were kept secure, it was not conquered by any other formation. Although it has been argued that the role of the phalanx on the battlefield was to act as an anchor for the entire army, holding

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describes in his 'Tactica' a new institution, the Syntagma, which had a standard-bearer, other staff and was composed of two smaller units led by Hekatontarchs. The Phalangarkhia, also described by Asclepiodotus, was about the size of a Roman Legion in strength. The potential Roman influence would

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Initially, the Hellenistic armies were very similar to those commanded by Alexander the Great, but during the era of the Epigonoi (Ἐπίγονοι, "Successors") the differences became obvious, with the Diadochi growing to favor large masses of soldiers rather than smaller, well-trained ones, and weight

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and projectiles (arrows or javelins) to unload on the enemy. The rider (mahout) sat across the neck and guided the elephant into battle. Armour too, was sometimes wrapped around the elephants to protect them and increase the natural defense offered by the thickness of their hides. The size of the

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Thus, most cavalry types of the Hellenistic armies can be considered heavy, regardless of their armor, as long as they are equipped with lances and act in dense formations. Traditional Greek cavalry was usually employed to cover a retreat or pursue a retreating enemy. A cavalry engagement usually

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countered the Roman legions by using a mixed phalanx formation of pikemen, spearmen and elephants, an array that proved successful in all battles against them, regardless of his "more than average" losses. A most competent tactician indeed, his decisions were influenced by the composition of his

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Artillery was also used in the Hellenistic era, albeit rarely and without much effect. Catapults and other heavy artillery had a short range, which meant they would have to be up close to the enemy to make an impact. However, this made them vulnerable, indeed 'the difficulty of getting catapults

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kingdom of Macedon's cavalry only constituted a small fraction of the army. Duncan Head estimates this fraction as 5-10% of the total strength of the Antigonid armies. This may well be due to over-campaigning, high casualties or even because many of the Macedonian noblemen who formed much of the

364:'s Macedonian full strength contingents. However, the size of the armies participating in different campaigns could vary extremely, from a few thousand to over 70,000 soldiers. Of these armies, outside Greece, only a fraction would have been of Greek origin, the rest being allied contingents and 1793:

Originally the cavalry of the army of the Greek city of Tarantas (Tarentum) in Magna Graecia, it was renowned for its peculiar battle tactics. It was the only cavalry of the Graeco-Roman world to employ pure, advanced skirmishing tactics. It was unarmored and normally equipped with a shield and

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The phalanx would be formed in the center, charging the enemy in pursuit of a swift victory. Its flanks would be protected by units of infantry, which ideally would be more trustworthy in case of disorder. Cavalry and elephants would be arrayed on the wings to counter those of the enemy. Light

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at Sellasia in 222 BCE. Pyrrhus and Antigonus both placed units of lighter troops in between the units of their phalanx. This was after Pyrrhus had 'observed the formation of the Roman legions and noticed how mobile they were and how unwieldy were his own forces... He therefore adapted his own

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of Sparta, who attempted to address it by his radical reforms. Cleomenes III launched a coup against his rivals at home and used their demise to push forward a reform to increase Spartan manpower. In 227 BCE, Cleomenes cancelled all debts, pooled and divided the large estates and increased the

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was notorious for the incredible size of the siege machines employed in his exploits, especially against the city of Rhodes. Yet, most sieges employed more traditional methods, relying on speed, surprise and traitors rather than lengthy preparations and a comprehensive barrage. Livius is very

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persisted from the late 4th century to the mid-first century BCE, they grew to rely more and more on an increasingly heavier and longer-speared phalanx to ensure victory. Complementary arms of the later Hellenistic armies were neglected, fell into disuse, or became the province of unreliable

1219:, troops armed with an oval shield of the Celtic type, a thrusting spear and javelins. The Thureophoroi and Thorakitai pre-date any major Roman military influence and while similarly equipped and fought in a similar manner, had actually evolved independently from the Roman legions. 1737:

reasonable distance before charging, exerting energy only during the decisive engagement. Once in combat, the cataphract and his steed enjoyed superb protection from attacks thanks to their armour. However, stamina, endurance and heat were always concerns in extended combat.

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because of several factors. Firstly, Antiochus IV 'had spent part of his early life in Rome and had acquired rather an excessive admiration for Rome's power and methods'. Secondly, to re-train the army in this manner would allow it to perform better in the Seleucid empire's

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Historians and students of the field alike have often compared the Hellenistic-era phalanx with the Roman legion, in an attempt to ascertain which of the formations was truly better. Detractors of the former point out that in many engagements between the two - such as at

1147:, they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing a mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps. Numerous armies used this form of troop, for example the 817:' own effort to explain why the Macedonian sarissa was eventually conquered by the Roman gladius. In the end, such a juxtaposition can be misleading, since both infantry formations had clear advantages and disadvantages that were historically oftentimes exploited. 713:

projecting horizontally to face the enemy, with the remaining ranks angling theirs in a serried fashion, often leaning against their fellows' backs. If front-rankers were killed, those behind would lower their spears and step forward to maintain a solid frontline.

1827:, with disastrous results for his own army. Appian suggests that wounding the horses drawing a war chariot can cast the formation in disorder, because an out-of-control chariot forces other chariots to engage in evading maneuvers to avoid being hit by its 1733:, he came into contact with Cataphracts and copied them. Most of the Seleucid heavy cavalry after this period were armed in this manner, despite keeping their original unit names. The Cataphract generally only served in the eastern Hellenistic armies. 1917:

posted his elephants in a long line between the battlefield and the victorious cavalry of Demetrius, effectively keeping him away and gaining victory. This incident might be the best attestation to the unwillingness of horses to approach an elephant.

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in the Greek tactical manuals, yet they could have a frightening effect on badly trained, inexperienced opponents, such as Asiatic tribal armies. The idea that the Romans had no previous experience in fighting chariots might be the reason why

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the enemy in place, pushing him back, exerting a heavy toll on enemy morale, while the cavalry struck the enemy flanks and delivered the fatal blow to cripple their opponents, in most battles it was used as the main weapon to achieve victory.

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would later be able to use this weakness against the phalanx as their more mobile maniples could withstand the pressure of the phalanx longer than more traditional formations, thus earning valuable time for their wings to outflank it, as at

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of lower status known by 'ethnic' names; the Thessalians, Thracians, Mysians and Persians. These probably were not actual cavalry troops from those ethnic groups, but more like the Tarantine cavalry mercenaries who did not need to be from

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The cavalry organization differed in the various Hellenistic states. Different variants of tactical formations were used to organize the state's cavalry, although there are cross-overs and similarities between different kingdoms. The

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War elephants were considered unreliable by Greek military writers and thinkers, but played an important role in many battles of the Hellenistic era, especially in the east. As was proven many times before, as well as in the wars of

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Although, throughout the Hellenistic era, more importance was usually given to the role of the infantry than to cavalry, most major battles of the era were gained because of good or bad cavalry performance. Antigonus was defeated at

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may not have been as small as one would suppose, stating "There may well have been many more Yavanas...than we should suppose; we may have to reckon with a considerable number of men, adventurers or mercenaries from the west."

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Numerous individual units of the phalanx infantry are attested in use during the Hellenistic period. Some of the old Alexandrian unit names were kept and units were named after Alexander's. An example of this are the

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in 197 BCE. With such a small population, and such drastic losses in battle, the Antigonid king had to think radically as to how to improve his nation's performance in the next war. In between the Second and Third

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would have been largely useless in single combat, but a compact, forward-facing infantry formation employing it would have been almost impossible to challenge. The first five ranks of the phalanx would have their

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equipment and the conscription methods used turned the phalanx from a maneuverable formation into a bulky, slow-moving steam roller, whose charge no enemy was able to withstand. Maneuvers like the fake retreat of

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was re-organized to contain a permanent corps of mercenaries that numbered 8,000 foot soldiers and 500 on horseback, compared with the corps of picked Achaean troops, which numbered only 3,000 foot and 500 horse.

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reliefs show cavalry similarly armed and equipped as Seleucid cataphracts, indicating an adoption. Yet these were probably equipped from trophies taken from the Seleucids, which would suggest limited numbers.

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In the Hellenistic period, development in science was incredibly noteworthy and that could not but reflect on siegecraft: Archimedes developed machines that terrified the Roman assailants of Syracuse; while

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victories as evidence to the contrary. Finally, one might note that these were not conflicts that solely featured Republican Roman Legionaries engaged against Hellenistic phalangites. The Roman victories of

1015:, the Spartan army was reformed in 228 BCE. Until then, the Spartans had merely kept the traditional hoplite spear. Cleomenes created a 4,000-strong phalanx and then formed another phalanx with 2,000 freed 2880:

Sabin, Philip & van Wees, Hans & Whitby, Michael (eds.) (2007) The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Volume 1, Greece, The Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome, Cambridge University

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Reforms in the late Seleucid and Ptolemaic armies re-organised them and tried to add some Roman aspects to formations. This, however, would not be out of place as some Roman style tactics were used by

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Warry, John Gibson, (1995), Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome, University of Oklahoma Press.

558: 601:. Throughout the age of the Diadochi and the Epigonoi, the phalanx, as the line of the pikemen was commonly referred to by ancient authors, remained the backbone of armies as diverse as those of 1277:, in which Sertorius sent a military mission to reorganize Mithridates' army along Roman lines. These 'Roman' troops fought alongside the Pontic phalanx. 'Legions' of this sort are described by 1269:, we are told that the Pontic army had troops armed in the Roman fashion and by 86 BCE Mithridates had created an army of 120,000 such troops. This was after an alliance between Mithridates and 2362:

Iranian Identity and Seleucid Allegiance; Vahbarz, the Frataraka and Early Arsacid Coinage, in: K. Erickson (ed.), The Seleukid Empire, 281-222 BC. War within the Family, Swansea, 2018, 173-196

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were introduced to the Hellenistic world by the Seleucids in the late 3rd century BC and are attested to have also been used, probably as a lighter version and for a very limited time, by the

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Much is made of Polybius' description of 5,000 Seleucid infantryman in 166 BCE armed in the 'Roman' fashion at a parade at Daphne. 'Romanized' troops are also mentioned in battle against the

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It was customary for the Hellenistic warlords to name individual units of phalangites according to the color of their shields. Thus, the phalanx of the Hellenistic armies used terms such as

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The writings of historians, from Arrian to Appian, detail numerous tribes, nations, and ethnic groups—Dahae, Mysians, Scythians, etc.—from whom Hellenistic rulers recruited such warriors.

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and so on. The Machmioi Epilektoi, or 'Picked Machimoi', first saw service at the battle of Raphia and from then on were featured in more important positions within the Ptolemaic army.

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The phalangite's shield - long misconstrued thanks to its description as a "buckler" by several writers - was a 2-foot (0.61 m)-diameter affair and less concave than the hoplite's

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infantry would be deployed in front of the phalanx in an effort to throw the enemy line into confusion. Then they would run to the wings to assist in the cavalry and elephant battles.

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were able to fight both in a phalanx formation, armed with long spears, or in more loose, irregular formations to be used against enemy light infantry or to occupy difficult terrain.

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ranged from simple, open-faced affairs to stylized Thracian models (complete with mask-like cheek protectors that often imitated a human face). Historians argue about how common body

855:('silver shields'), who were originally a unit of Alexander's most fearsome and disciplined veterans. However, they were disbanded not long after having surrendered their commander 625:) ranged from professional warriors, drilled in tactics, weapon use and formation, typically of Greek origin; to trained, non-Greek villagers, as was the case in the army of 1395:, in the late 3rd century, having already reformed the foot soldiers into a Macedonian-style phalanx, also reformed the cavalry. The Achaean cavalry was organised into 1058:. These peltasts were equipped with a lighter armor, a longer spear, and a smaller shield. It could be that the peltasts described by Polybius were similarly equipped. 2431: 2966: 654:

Equipment varied over the years, and was also dependent on the geographical region, the preference/wealth of the ruler, and the assets of the individual soldier.

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was also peculiar, in reality being more of an assault against a static enemy, a fact that enabled Antigonus to effectively launch a series of separate attacks.

472:, Philip V embarked on a major reform and re-organization of the kingdom. Expansion could secure "the great reservoir of available man-power" that lay north in 700:, a massive spear that ranged from 16 feet (mid-late 4th century BC) to as much as 22 feet (near the nadir of the phalanx's development). First made famous by 411:

To take another example, by the mid-third century BCE, the Spartan citizen population had decreased to a tiny fraction of what it had been at the time of the

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pike possible. Metallic greaves were also worn to cover the shins of the soldiers as they stood their ground, especially by the front and rear-most ranks.

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Anglim, Simon et al., (2003), Fighting Techniques of the Ancient World (3000 B.C. to 500 A.D.): Equipment, Combat Skills, and Tactics, Thomas Dunne Books.

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However, there are numerous aspects of the Roman army that were not carried into the Ptolemaic and Seleucid ones. For example, the differentiation of the

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descriptive regarding the harassing manner of military campaigns, a complicated game of continuous attacks, movement of forces and constant patrols.

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No cavalry formation is unfortunately mentioned in the existent descriptions of cavalry battles, but all ancient Greek tactical manuals, including

764:. Yet, regardless of the many Roman victories against the Hellenistic Kingdoms, the legion never won against a phalanx by frontal assault. Even at 987:. The majority of the Seleucid phalanx was probably formed by the two corps that are mentioned in the Daphne Parade of 166 BCE, namely the 10,000 1718:

were heavily armed and armoured cavalrymen. The Cataphract (Kataphraktoi) were first introduced into the Hellenistic military tradition with the

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to buy their freedom for five minae and therefore he "acquired 500 talents, some of which he used to arm 2,000 men in the Macedonian fashion as

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forces, whereas the Hellenistic armies in the west were continuously involved in wars, which soon exhausted local manpower, paving the way for

687:. It was secured by both a shoulder harness and a forearm brace, allowing the off-hand to release the hand grip and make wielding the enormous 1023:

reformed the army of the Achaean League into the Macedonian phalanx in 208–207 BCE and we are told that, by the end of the 3rd century, the

3954: 1250:, or the integration of light-armed troops into the infantry structure. Hence, because of this, there was no Hellenistic equivalent to the 1472:

in the 3rd century, of which the 4th and 5th are known to have been in existence in the 2nd century BC. Other than these, there were four

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around 240 BCE had failed after a reaction by those opposed to the reforms. The problem of the lack of man-at-arms was then taken up by

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Hansen, Esther V., The Attalids of Pergamon, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press; London: Cornell University Press Ltd (1971)

2700: 2639: 2459: 2390: 1646:, because his victorious cavalry failed to return from the pursuit before the 400 enemy elephants effectively blocked its way back. 222: 204: 149: 52: 5773: 4522: 3949: 3944: 130: 2940:

Picture of a Thracian Peltast with one javelin in his throwing hand and four javelins in his Pelte hand as additional ammunition

4416: 4276: 4271: 3548: 1832: 792:- the legion was the clear victor, and hence represented a superior system. Opposing schools of thought, however, point to the 102: 760:, or for the phalanx to lose its cohesion due to prolonged movement forward or advancement through unfavorable terrain, as at 356:

were capable of deploying some of the largest armies of their day, and could easily outmatch the numerical strength of either

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was valued over maneuverability. The limited availability of Greek conscripts in the east led to an increasing dependence on

87: 5352: 1496:. Other than the usual auxiliary, citizen and militia cavalry units, the main elite cavalry units of the Seleucids were the 813:, as well as assorted heavy and light infantry. Such a comparison was also attempted in the ancient days, as is attested by 2939: 1567:

Hellenistic cavalry is much more diverse than the Greek cavalry of earlier eras. Greek tactical manuals categorize them as

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Stelae from Hermopolis show a Ptolemaic unit having a standard-bearer and other staff attached. This unit was like a Roman

5795: 4845: 4361: 4281: 3979: 3689: 2934: 2220: 109: 5768: 4297: 3751: 2752: 1851: 1352: 958:('white-shields') to denote formations within their phalanxes, the two latter being important in the composition of the 643: 244: 2408:"KINGS OF PERSIS, Orbozos. 3rd Century BC. Silver Drachm. One of just two known specimens. From The Sunrise Collection" 5863: 4823: 4431: 4307: 3969: 3923: 3878: 3654: 3343: 2235: 1970: 1942:, where the beasts of Antiochus easily routed their African counterparts, yet the King failed to claim victory, since 1840: 1627: 1588: 1231: 570: 476:. Philip then transported segments of the populations of the coastal cities to the northern frontiers and moved those 248: 5362: 2858: 678:), that may or may not have been reinforced/decorated with metal scales to metallic (typically bronze) breastplates. 895:

and his ministers reformed the army in order to keep up manpower by allowing the native Egyptian warrior class, the

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Sabin & van Wees & Whitby (eds.) (2007), The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Volume 1, p. 336

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Most cavalry units of the Hellenistic era were moderately armored and would be armed with javelins or/and lances.

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of Macedon used artillery, in conjunction with defensive field works, in his defence of the Aous Valley in the

996: 980: 910: 876: 806: 704:, it allowed Macedonian infantry to "outrange" the opposition's existing spear formations by several feet. The 664:

would have been among phalangites, especially those in the middle ranks, but when it was worn it ranged from a

98: 1536:

would escort the king under direct command. Amongst these units were the various grades of 'Kings Friends' or

507:, for example, soldiers and officers were given rewards "In exchange for military service, whenever needed." 5822: 4946: 4746: 4731: 4534: 4517: 4497: 4466: 4366: 4302: 3918: 3903: 3873: 3834: 3711: 3563: 3065: 2240: 2061: 1820: 1722: 1655: 1223: 1036: 872: 809:, Cynoscephalae and Pydna were won by armies that included thousands of non-Roman (often Hellenic) cavalry, 753: 508: 464: 44: 1047:

or the storming of Cephallenia, as shock troops. The elite of the Peltast corps were known as the 'Agema'.

5780: 4783: 4554: 4512: 4446: 4411: 3863: 3847: 3543: 3484: 3333: 3328: 2632:

The History of Rome, Book III: From the union of Italy to the subjugation of Carthage and the Greek states

2073: 2043: 1931: 1274: 1266: 1251: 880: 879:(190 BCE). Chosen from across the kingdom, they constituted a corps of roughly 10,000 men. By the time of 496: 5832: 5061: 5051: 5041: 5026: 4716: 4456: 4426: 4381: 4376: 4007: 3974: 3776: 3681: 3667: 3323: 3194: 3158: 1986: 1750:

or sword was made available as a secondary weapon. The mace and cataphract ideas were combined into the

892: 1921:

War elephants were typically fitted with a tower on their back that housed several soldiers armed with

2835:(1976), The Seleucid Army: Organisation and Tactics in the Great Campaigns, Cambridge University Press 1965:

quickly into, and out of, action might make them more of a liability than an asset in fluid warfare'.

5304: 5298: 5284: 4768: 4726: 4698: 4583: 4396: 3626: 3422: 2871: 2173: 1259: 1208: 995:. Little else is known specifically about them, although they may have been present at the battle of 701: 639: 594: 357: 1666:, the Macedonian lancers suddenly left the battlefield allowing the Romans to surround and massacre 5435: 5405: 4793: 4688: 4683: 4120: 3435: 3348: 3318: 3272: 3035: 1982: 1938:

gives a valuable account of an elephant battle between these two species in his description of the

1764: 1647: 1603: 1548: 1179: 967: 801: 647: 606: 598: 460: 361: 293: 5828: 825: 780:

mercenaries and subject peoples. Sound and creative tactics became increasingly rare as a result.

5652: 5549: 5455: 5099: 5016: 4904: 4406: 4230: 3746: 3583: 3454: 3338: 3133: 3060: 2838: 2832: 2245: 2225: 2210: 2024: 1679: 1671: 1667: 971: 934:(Strat. 7.40), in which Vahbarz (Oborzos) is said to have killed 3000 Seleucid military settlers. 899:, into the phalanx. Up until that point the Machimoi had only performed auxiliary duties such as 757: 626: 500: 481: 412: 321: 240: 2857:, Rev. Canon Roberts (translator), Ernest Rhys (Ed.); (1905) London: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. 739:, for example. Any sword-fighting in the vicinity of the phalanx's front was complicated by the 123: 2929: 2841:(1989), Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle against the Seleucids, Cambridge University Press 5727: 5314: 4863: 4711: 4663: 4507: 4476: 4421: 4338: 4215: 4087: 3908: 3741: 3694: 3634: 3508: 3490: 3466: 3448: 3358: 3353: 3004: 2913: 2875: 2696: 2635: 2455: 2449: 2425: 2386: 2380: 2334: 2215: 2132: 2120: 2100: 2078: 2015: 1895: 1635: 1607: 1584: 1512:

were the standing elite cavalry unit of the Seleucid army, serving both in peace and war. The

1270: 1175: 1097: 1004: 837: 582: 562: 504: 488: 297: 289: 5657: 5189: 5154: 4971: 4828: 4706: 4593: 4588: 3913: 3868: 3699: 3606: 3222: 3055: 3040: 3030: 2230: 2193: 1939: 1914: 1871: 1651: 1051: 630: 574: 539: 480:

south. This, combined with economic and political moves, re-built Macedonia and allowed for

404: 317: 5697: 1315: 1139:

were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword, and, if needed, javelins. While the

5672: 5430: 5218: 5031: 4773: 4639: 4571: 3898: 3496: 3478: 3386: 3363: 3237: 3148: 3108: 3045: 2255: 2250: 2205: 2188: 1910: 1828: 1747: 1687: 1663: 1659: 1485: 1433: 1376: 1347: 1200: 963: 864: 793: 761: 547: 543: 492: 469: 453: 309: 285: 281: 274: 1183:

formation to the Roman model, deploying light mobile detachments alongside the phalanx'.

1135:

shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The

432:' (resident foreigners). Before long, he increased the citizen body further by allowing 5554: 5494: 5489: 5445: 5226: 5174: 5164: 5144: 5134: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4353: 4333: 3721: 3531: 3520: 3514: 3502: 3302: 3277: 3189: 3050: 2975: 2884:

Sekunda, N. (1994) Seleucid and Ptolemaic Reformed Armies 168-145 BC. 2 Vols., Montvert

2445: 2300: 2083: 2056: 1978: 1927: 1903: 1886: 1703:, but he followed the customary cavalry tactics of attacks and retreats (perispasmoi). 1388: 1148: 1110: 875:. Fighting in phalanx formation, the Argyraspides were present at Raphia (217 BCE) and 551: 534: 400: 305: 256: 747:

led across broken terrain for extended periods in close-ordered battle formation. The

5857: 5790: 5707: 5682: 5372: 5294: 4976: 4919: 4818: 4808: 4778: 4760: 4634: 3786: 3568: 3460: 3416: 3378: 3217: 3138: 2896: 2088: 2020: 2014:

Deviations from the norm existed when the circumstances called for a different plan.

1278: 1012: 614: 602: 420: 1088: 5607: 5559: 5425: 5279: 5149: 4788: 4624: 4130: 4092: 3791: 2304: 1631: 1553: 1212: 1195: 1119: 1101: 1093: 948: 851: 748: 365: 1678:' cavalry that turned the tide and effectively ensured victory for the Romans. In 1630:

Techne Taktike written in the 1st century BC, clearly and in detail describe the

1207:, which were of high importance to Seleucid rulers from Antiochus III through to 5627: 5519: 5499: 5332: 5327: 4835: 4813: 4803: 4798: 4721: 4678: 4225: 4135: 4125: 4012: 4002: 3766: 3143: 3118: 2183: 2178: 2115: 1974: 1715: 1683: 1392: 1290: 1184: 1152: 1020: 954: 566: 437: 345: 65: 1326: 1293:. If anything, these forces, as described by N. Sekunda, are nothing more than 1187:

too used this tactic at Mantinea in 207 BCE, making his phalanx more flexible.

1066: 511:

even suggests that the Greek (known to the Indians as "Yavanas") population in

5564: 5534: 5529: 5514: 5400: 5367: 5036: 5006: 4673: 4401: 4235: 4077: 4072: 4062: 4047: 4032: 4022: 3997: 3373: 3128: 3083: 2844:

Connolly, Peter, (2006), Greece and Rome at War, Greenhill Books, 2nd edition.

2797:

The Opening Campaigns and the Battle of Aoi Stena in the Second Macedonian War

2110: 1966: 1880: 1824: 1760:, who were armoured, both man and beast, in chainmail, and armed with a mace. 1756: 1675: 1599: 1568: 1216: 1125: 1072: 1055: 904: 674: 634: 622: 449: 313: 2874:(translator); London, New York. Macmillan (1889); Reprint Bloomington (1962). 1524:

conquest of Media they were probably recruited from Macedonian settlers. The

239:

is a term that refers to the various armies of the successor kingdoms to the

5539: 5465: 5450: 5420: 5415: 5347: 5271: 5256: 5241: 5184: 5084: 4736: 4668: 4240: 4220: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4145: 4140: 4110: 4057: 4017: 3796: 3662: 3616: 3596: 3403: 3227: 3098: 2930:

Polybius famous analogy between the Hellenistic phalanx and the Roman legion

2566:

F.W. Walbank (1967), A Historical Commentary on Polybius, Volume III, p. 286

2144: 1616: 1612: 1580: 1425: 1282: 1243: 1227: 1191: 1044: 984: 931: 477: 445: 425: 415:(Cleomenes' army could only field about 5,000 men). The inchoate reforms of 336: 270: 891:

In the Ptolemaic army the Graeco-Macedonian troops formed the phalanx. But

772:

for the Romans to finally outflank the phalanx and claim a costly victory.

5589: 5579: 5569: 5544: 5410: 5342: 5322: 5289: 5251: 5194: 5109: 5094: 4951: 4941: 4858: 4853: 4250: 4245: 4205: 4200: 4175: 4155: 4082: 4037: 4027: 3883: 3781: 3716: 3644: 3252: 2863: 2539:"Thorakitai and Thureophoroi Military Formation in Amospia | World Anvil" 1935: 1899: 1768: 1751: 1719: 1700: 1504: 976: 896: 814: 810: 797: 776: 735: 610: 444:

in 222 BCE and the attendant great loss of manpower forced a reliance on

441: 396: 388: 353: 252: 1054:

to describe the Iphicratean hoplite, introduced by the Athenian general

5732: 5722: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5647: 5637: 5622: 5617: 5504: 5392: 5382: 5261: 5236: 5231: 5204: 5199: 5179: 5169: 5159: 5124: 5114: 5104: 5056: 5046: 5021: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4956: 4609: 4391: 4052: 4042: 3801: 3771: 3761: 3756: 3736: 3731: 3611: 3558: 3472: 3267: 3257: 3247: 3242: 3232: 2156: 2105: 1947: 1943: 1922: 1856: 1815: 1795: 1730: 1726: 1620: 1521: 1478: 1286: 1247: 1239: 1230:). The title of Hekatontarch appeared around 150 BCE. As well as this, 1131: 1106: 1081: 1040: 1024: 927: 915: 900: 856: 769: 696: 665: 618: 590: 578: 416: 5702: 5632: 5612: 5574: 5440: 5246: 5139: 5076: 5066: 5011: 4629: 4614: 4210: 4195: 4170: 4165: 4150: 3811: 3806: 3573: 3553: 3297: 3287: 3282: 3153: 3113: 3103: 3088: 2620:

N. Sekunda (2001), Hellenistic Infantry Reform in the 160's BC, p. 61

2161: 1742: 1592: 1397: 1294: 1204: 1109:

shield). It is a characteristic example of the "romanization" of the

1016: 943: 923: 919: 884: 723: 661: 657: 473: 433: 341: 325: 301: 2611:

N. Sekunda (2001) Hellenistic Infantry Reform in the 160's BC, p. 60

2360: 1226:, being composed of two smaller units led by a Hekatontarch (i.e. a 1540:, who made up other elite cavalry units similar to the Companions. 863:. The name, however, was kept alive and formed into a corps of the 5712: 5687: 5584: 5524: 5509: 5377: 5337: 5089: 5001: 4996: 4966: 4961: 4936: 4619: 4160: 4115: 4067: 3639: 3591: 3292: 3262: 3209: 3184: 3123: 3093: 1850: 1836: 1799: 1643: 1547: 1517: 1498: 1255: 1087: 1065: 1008: 909: 785: 765: 743:

projecting from the 2nd-5th ranks around the 1st rank combatants.

729: 683: 669: 557: 533: 512: 429: 375: 335: 2944: 983:, "The Great", having a corps of 'Chalkaspides' against Sulla at 721:

was impractical, a variety of swords were employed - the classic

5717: 5692: 5642: 5129: 5119: 2850: 1077: 868: 589:

The Hellenistic armies based their strength on the pike-bearing

5757: 4899: 4328: 3832: 3179: 2999: 2948: 2887:

Sekunda, N. (2001) Hellenistic Infantry Reform in the 160's BC,

1926:

tower would be proportionate to the size of the elephants, the

1725:'s anabasis in the east from 212-205 BC. With his campaigns in 2935:

Interesting review of the Hellenistic armies' arms and armours

2307:(1988), A History of Macedonia, Volume III, 336-167 BC, p. 356 2291:

G.T. Griffith (1935), The Mercenaries of the Hellenistic World

161: 59: 18: 1969:

of Sparta learnt this the hard way when his artillery at the

260: 717:

In the event of close combat, or in circumstances where the

1686:'s cavalry that conquered Oida, earning the admiration of 1372:

who commanded the League's Tarantine skirmishing cavalry.

1335:

An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of

2584:

W.W. Tarn (1980), The Greeks in Bactria and India, p. 184

2346:

W.W. Tarn (1980), The Greeks in Bactria and India, p. 251

930:(Oborzos). This possibly refers to the events related by 2693:

Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359 BC to 146 BC

2557:

Petros Garoufalias (1979), Pyrrhus King of Epirus, p. 91

1909:

A peculiar use of the elephants is attested during the

1281:

in his campaigns against Juba in Numidia and alongside

463:

of Macedon greatly, especially after his defeat at the

1674:, the cataphracts routed the Roman legions but it was 821:

Onomatology and development of the Hellenistic phalanx

2382:

The Seleukid Empire 281-222 BC: War Within the Family

1865:, following his campaigns in the Indian subcontinent. 914:

A Persian ruler slaying an armoured, possibly Greek,

2019:

army, which included many untrustworthy troops from

5598: 5475: 5464: 5391: 5313: 5270: 5217: 5075: 4927: 4918: 4844: 4759: 4697: 4652: 4602: 4553: 4475: 4352: 4290: 4259: 4101: 3988: 3932: 3854: 3680: 3653: 3625: 3582: 3530: 3372: 3311: 3208: 3074: 3023: 2890:

Tarn, W.W. (1930) Hellenistic military developments

1763:Besides the Seleucids it is possible that also the 768:, it took the strange withdrawal of the Macedonian 90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1583:. These are broad categories, as attested by both 1027:did the same, thereby creating the 'Peltophoroi'. 2893:Tarn, W.W. (1980) The Greeks in Bactria and India 2775:Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development 1855:"Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in 1401:, files of eight men, who were then grouped into 2501:F.W. Walbank (1940), Philip V of Macedon, p. 290 2325:F.W. Walbank (1940), Philip V of Macedon, p. 256 1468:fall into two categories. There were five known 871:describes them as a Royal Cohort in the army of 395:Lack of manpower was a serious concern for many 2663:Peter Green (1990), Alexander to Actium, p. 653 2451:Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire 1662:cavalry played a key role in the battle and at 251:was split between his successors, known as the 2528:Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XV.44 1528:would escort the king into battle or both the 2960: 1950:forced his center into a disorderly retreat. 1262:, with both cultures influencing each other. 694:The primary weapon of the phalangite was the 569:-era military armor, arms, and gear from the 550:, 3rd quarter of the 4th century BC; marble, 8: 2430:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1194:. These reforms were probably undertaken by 613:formation, characterized by dense ranks and 2912:, Blackwell Publishers (December 1, 1995). 2337:(2005), War in the Hellenistic World, p. 85 1380:of specific organisation is a reference to 1178:in his campaigns against the Romans and by 538:Stele with two Hellenistic soldiers of the 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5754: 5472: 4924: 4915: 4896: 4656: 4559: 4349: 4325: 3842: 3829: 3536: 3205: 3176: 3020: 2996: 2967: 2953: 2945: 448:soldiers, who were the basis of power for 2454:. Harvard University Press. p. 207. 1746:-like spear. For close-quarter combat, a 1520:and their neighbours, although after the 1384:, small squadrons of uncertain strength. 1070:Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier ( 223:Learn how and when to remove this message 205:Learn how and when to remove this message 150:Learn how and when to remove this message 2316:F.W. Walbank (1940), Philip V of Macedon 1595:'s categorization is also very similar. 1405:, double files of 16, then grouped into 824: 2266: 1129:, were developed. They used the Celtic 646:or the oblique advance of Alexander at 633:. Certain reforms in the weight of the 2423: 1170:Roman influence on Hellenistic warfare 1019:to counter the Antigonid Leukaspides. 280:The major Hellenistic states were the 2374: 2372: 2282:F.W. Walbank (1933), Aratos of Sicyon 1740:The standard cataphract weapon was a 7: 5368:Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus 2354: 2352: 424:citizen body by enfranchising 5,000 88:adding citations to reliable sources 2724:Asclepiodotus, Techne Taktike, 7.11 1930:being considerably larger than the 1488:'s cavalry were placed in units of 1436:, the cavalry forces were led by a 1039:, Polybius describes a unit called 1096:, dated 2nd century BC, showing a 1050:The term peltast was also used by 177:tone or style may not reflect the 16:Armies of the Hellenistic kingdoms 14: 2672:Caesar, De Bello Afrrico 48,55,59 34:This article has multiple issues. 5837: 5827: 5818: 5817: 2681:Caesar, De Bello Alexandrino, 34 1325: 1314: 187:guide to writing better articles 166: 64: 23: 5838: 2406:shop, VCoins, the online coin. 1973:in 207 BC was quickly taken by 946:: Χρυσάσπιδες 'gold-shields'), 585:, Greece, dated 2nd century BC. 75:needs additional citations for 42:or discuss these issues on the 2742:Frontinus, Stratagems, II.3.17 2359:Engels, David (January 2018). 1350:'s cavalry was commanded by a 1337:Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki 292:. Smaller states included the 1: 3439: 3426: 3407: 3390: 2474:Plutarch, Life of Sulla, 16.7 1870:: Alexander being crowned by 1859: 1557: 1117:New troop types, such as the 1003:are mentioned in the army of 830: 381: 4567:Funeral and burial practices 3752:Military of Mycenaean Greece 2817:Xenophon, Cyropaedia, Ζ.1.27 1754:-introduced and Roman-named 1391:was supposedly inefficient. 621:). Their soldiers (known as 520:Typical units and formations 487:The eastern kingdoms of the 459:The extreme losses affected 245:death of Alexander the Great 1879:: Alexander attacking king 1492:and then into divisions of 1356:and each cavalry squadron ( 1062:Thureophoroi and Thorakitai 571:Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles 368:from the local population. 5880: 4491:Greek Revival architecture 2654:Plutarch, Life of Luc. 7.4 2037:Hellenistic fortifications 2034: 1957: 1767:adopted some cataphracts. 1035:In his description of the 970:as Bronze Shields for the 440:". However, the defeat at 340:Hellenistic soldiers in a 288:, and Macedonia under the 261: 243:, emerging soon after the 5813: 5764: 5753: 4914: 4895: 4659: 4562: 4348: 4324: 3899:Attalid kings of Pergamon 3845: 3841: 3828: 3707:Antigonid Macedonian army 3539: 3204: 3175: 3019: 2995: 2982: 2630:Mommsen, Theodor (1903). 2602:Beston, 2002, pp. 388–389 2067:Antigonid Macedonian army 1991:"Array against the Alans" 1960:Greek and Roman artillery 1339:, Greece, 4th century BC. 975:Achaean) phalanx though. 842:Nile mosaic of Palestrina 380:Greek soldier in combat, 2764:Polybius, Histories V.84 2385:. ISD LLC. p. 175. 981:Mithridates VI of Pontus 2795:N.G.L. Hammond (1965), 2634:. The History of Rome. 2379:Erickson, Kyle (2018). 2241:Battle of Cynoscephalae 2074:Greco-Bactrian military 2062:Ancient Macedonian army 1934:used by the Ptolemies. 1932:North African elephants 1835:also used them against 1723:Antiochus III the Great 1656:Battle of Cynoscephalae 1516:was recruited from the 1037:Battle of Cynoscephalae 1030: 952:('bronze-shields') and 873:Antiochus III the Great 840:, Egypt; detail of the 577:(modern-day Lefkadia), 465:Battle of Cynoscephalae 181:used on Knowledge (XXG) 3933:Artists & scholars 3848:List of ancient Greeks 3485:Second Athenian League 3334:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 3159:Ancient Greek colonies 1890: 1823:used them against the 1564: 1114: 1105:soldier (wielding the 1085: 966:armed the citizens of 935: 922:of 3rd-2nd century BC 881:Antiochus IV Epiphanes 861:Antigonus the One-Eyed 845: 586: 555: 392: 372:Manpower and the state 349: 185:See Knowledge (XXG)'s 5052:Sybaris on the Traeis 3777:Sacred Band of Thebes 3517:(c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD) 3031:Cycladic civilization 2773:E.W. Marsden (1969), 2691:Head, Duncan (2016). 2044:Demetrius Poliorcetes 2035:Further information: 1987:Second Macedonian War 1854: 1843:, again to no avail. 1551: 1464:, a file of 10 men). 1091: 1069: 913: 893:Ptolemy IV Philopator 829:Hellenistic soldiers 828: 609:. The phalanx was an 561: 537: 379: 348:from Ashkelon, Israel 339: 247:in 323 BCE, when the 4577:mythological figures 4298:Ancient Greek tribes 3423:Peloponnesian League 2872:Evelyn S. Shuckburgh 2593:Sekunda, 2001, p. 98 2221:Battle of Beneventum 2174:Wars of the Diadochi 1508:("Companions"). The 1306:Cavalry organisation 1260:convergent evolution 1143:were similar to the 1080:armor and bearing a 1031:Antigonid 'peltasts' 1007:on his campaigns in 775:As the reign of the 525:Hellenistic infantry 99:"Hellenistic armies" 84:improve this article 4689:Tunnel of Eupalinos 4684:Theatre of Dionysus 4308:Ancient Macedonians 3924:Tyrants of Syracuse 3436:Amphictyonic League 3036:Minoan civilization 2901:Philip V of Macedon 2839:Bar-Kochva, Bezalel 2833:Bar-Kochva, Bezalel 2483:Sekunda, 2001, p.91 2095:Units and formation 2057:Achaean League army 1841:battle of Chaeronea 1781:Light horse archers 1765:Kingdom of Pergamon 1623:from North Africa. 1604:Kingdom of Pergamon 1481:to be called thus. 1387:The cavalry of the 1301:Hellenistic cavalry 1180:Antigonus III Doson 599:Alexander the Great 501:Indo Greek kingdoms 294:Kingdom of Pergamum 5864:Hellenistic armies 5363:Menestheus's Limin 5017:Pandosia (Lucania) 4905:Greek colonisation 4267:Athenian statesmen 4028:Diogenes of Sinope 3889:Kings of Macedonia 3879:Kings of Commagene 3747:Macedonian phalanx 3727:Hellenistic armies 3475:(c. 424–c. 395 BC) 3339:Indo-Greek Kingdom 3061:Hellenistic Greece 2246:Battle of Magnesia 2236:Battle of Mantinea 2226:Battle of Sellasia 2211:Battle of Heraclea 2025:battle of Sellasia 1971:battle of Mantinea 1891: 1636:rhombus formations 1565: 1448:were divided into 1440:, who commanded a 1368:. They also had a 1115: 1086: 936: 846: 627:Ptolemy Philopator 587: 563:Ancient Macedonian 556: 456:, his successors. 397:Hellenistic rulers 393: 350: 332:Numerical strength 241:Hellenistic period 237:Hellenistic armies 5851: 5850: 5809: 5808: 5749: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5741: 5740: 5315:Iberian Peninsula 5247:Lipara/Meligounis 5213: 5212: 4891: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4864:Cypriot syllabary 4755: 4754: 4664:Athenian Treasury 4648: 4647: 4320: 4319: 4316: 4315: 3909:Ptolemaic dynasty 3869:Archons of Athens 3824: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3695:Athenian military 3676: 3675: 3509:League of Corinth 3491:Thessalian League 3467:Chalcidian League 3449:Acarnanian League 3359:Ptolemaic Kingdom 3171: 3170: 3167: 3166: 2808:Appian, Syriaca 7 2733:Appian, Syriaca 6 2335:Angelos Chaniotis 2216:Battle of Asculum 2133:Aelianus Tacticus 2101:Companion cavalry 1896:Pyrrhus of Epirus 1789:Tarantine cavalry 1203:beyond the river 1201:eastern satrapies 1176:Pyrrhus of Epirus 1151:'s armies before 1005:Pyrrhus of Epirus 972:Sellasia campaign 960:Antigonid phalanx 838:Ptolemaic Kingdom 702:Philip of Macedon 583:Central Macedonia 290:Antigonid dynasty 249:Macedonian empire 233: 232: 225: 215: 214: 207: 179:encyclopedic tone 160: 159: 152: 134: 57: 5871: 5841: 5840: 5831: 5821: 5820: 5755: 5473: 4972:Heraclea Lucania 4925: 4916: 4897: 4657: 4589:Twelve Olympians 4560: 4350: 4326: 3914:Seleucid dynasty 3894:Kings of Paionia 3843: 3830: 3700:Scythian archers 3607:Graphe paranomon 3537: 3444: 3441: 3431: 3428: 3412: 3409: 3399: 3395: 3392: 3206: 3177: 3056:Classical Greece 3041:Mycenaean Greece 3021: 2997: 2969: 2962: 2955: 2946: 2818: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2800: 2793: 2787: 2786:Polybius XI.12.4 2784: 2778: 2771: 2765: 2762: 2756: 2749: 2743: 2740: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2573: 2567: 2564: 2558: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2545: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2520: 2517: 2511: 2508: 2502: 2499: 2493: 2490: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2429: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2403: 2397: 2396: 2376: 2367: 2366: 2356: 2347: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2323: 2317: 2314: 2308: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2283: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2231:Battle of Raphia 2194:Mithridatic Wars 1940:battle of Raphia 1915:Seleucus Nicator 1883:on his elephant. 1864: 1861: 1650:was defeated at 1562: 1559: 1556:riding a horse, 1538:Basilikoi Philoi 1364:) was led by an 1329: 1318: 1052:Diodorus Siculus 835: 832: 629:, the victor of 593:, the legacy of 540:Bosporan Kingdom 405:Aratus of Sicyon 386: 383: 264: 263: 228: 221: 210: 203: 199: 196: 190: 189:for suggestions. 170: 169: 162: 155: 148: 144: 141: 135: 133: 92: 68: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 5879: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5847: 5805: 5760: 5737: 5600: 5594: 5477: 5468: 5460: 5431:Melaina Korkyra 5387: 5309: 5266: 5219:Aeolian Islands 5209: 5071: 4929: 4910: 4909: 4883: 4840: 4751: 4693: 4644: 4598: 4549: 4471: 4462:Wedding customs 4344: 4343: 4312: 4303:Thracian Greeks 4286: 4277:Olympic victors 4255: 4097: 3984: 3928: 3919:Kings of Sparta 3904:Kings of Pontus 3874:Kings of Athens 3850: 3837: 3816: 3712:Army of Macedon 3672: 3649: 3621: 3578: 3526: 3499:(370–c. 230 BC) 3497:Arcadian League 3481:(c. 400–188 BC) 3479:Aetolian League 3473:Boeotian League 3455:Hellenic League 3442: 3429: 3419:(c. 650–404 BC) 3410: 3404:Italiote League 3397: 3393: 3387:Doric Hexapolis 3377: 3368: 3364:Seleucid Empire 3307: 3200: 3199: 3163: 3070: 3046:Greek Dark Ages 3015: 3014: 2991: 2978: 2973: 2926: 2855:History of Rome 2826: 2824:Further reading 2821: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2753:Ab Urbe Condita 2750: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2715:Arrian, Tactica 2714: 2710: 2703: 2695:. p. 237. 2690: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2642: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2574: 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470:Macedonian Wars 384: 374: 334: 310:Aetolian League 286:Ptolemaic Egypt 282:Seleucid Empire 277:in the region. 275:Roman supremacy 229: 218: 217: 216: 211: 200: 194: 191: 184: 175:This article's 171: 167: 156: 145: 139: 136: 93: 91: 81: 69: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5877: 5875: 5867: 5866: 5856: 5855: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5845: 5835: 5825: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5776: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5758: 5751: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5604: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5481: 5479: 5470: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5397: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 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3446: 3433: 3420: 3414: 3401: 3383: 3381: 3379:Confederations 3370: 3369: 3367: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3305: 3303:Lissus (Crete) 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3202: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3173: 3172: 3169: 3168: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3080: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3051:Archaic Greece 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3027: 3025: 3017: 3016: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2993: 2992: 2990: 2989: 2983: 2980: 2979: 2976:Ancient Greece 2974: 2972: 2971: 2964: 2957: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2924:External links 2922: 2921: 2920: 2908:Wilkes, John, 2906: 2903: 2897:Walbank, F. W. 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2878: 2861: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2819: 2810: 2801: 2788: 2779: 2766: 2757: 2744: 2735: 2726: 2717: 2708: 2701: 2683: 2674: 2665: 2656: 2647: 2640: 2622: 2613: 2604: 2595: 2586: 2577: 2568: 2559: 2550: 2530: 2521: 2519:Polybius V.4.9 2512: 2510:Livy XXXI.36.1 2503: 2494: 2485: 2476: 2467: 2460: 2437: 2412:www.vcoins.com 2398: 2391: 2368: 2348: 2339: 2327: 2318: 2309: 2301:N.G.L. Hammond 2293: 2284: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2201: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2159: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2135: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2084:Ptolemaic army 2081: 2076: 2071: 2070: 2069: 2059: 2052: 2049: 2032: 2029: 2007: 2004: 1998: 1995: 1958:Main article: 1955: 1952: 1887:British Museum 1848: 1845: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1790: 1787: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1712: 1709: 1695: 1692: 1670:' phalanx. At 1628:Asclepiodotus' 1563:(coin detail). 1545: 1542: 1456:and then into 1389:Achaean League 1370:tarantinarchos 1334: 1333: 1324: 1323: 1322: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1289:whilst in the 1273:, an enemy of 1267:Mithridates VI 1171: 1168: 1149:Achaean League 1111:Ptolemaic army 1063: 1060: 1032: 1029: 997:Beth-Zachariah 991:and the 5,000 822: 819: 552:Pushkin Museum 546:(Yubileynoe), 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 401:Achaean League 387:(Depiction of 373: 370: 333: 330: 328:, and others. 306:Achaean League 231: 230: 213: 212: 174: 172: 165: 158: 157: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5876: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5844: 5836: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5824: 5816: 5815: 5812: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5756: 5752: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 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3501: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3461:Delian League 3459: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3437: 3434: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3417:Ionian League 3415: 3405: 3402: 3398: 560 BC 3388: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3139:Magna Graecia 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2950: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2918:0-631-19807-5 2915: 2911: 2910:The Illyrians 2907: 2904: 2902: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2814: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2792: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2767: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2739: 2736: 2730: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2712: 2709: 2704: 2702:9781326256562 2698: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2678: 2675: 2669: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2643: 2641:0-415-14953-3 2637: 2633: 2626: 2623: 2617: 2614: 2608: 2605: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2554: 2551: 2540: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2516: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2498: 2495: 2489: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2463: 2461:9780674976931 2457: 2453: 2452: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2427: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2394: 2392:9781910589953 2388: 2384: 2383: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2363: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2328: 2322: 2319: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2279: 2276: 2270: 2267: 2261: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2200:Major battles 2199: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2089:Seleucid army 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2038: 2031:Siege warfare 2030: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2021:Magna Graecia 2017: 2012: 2006:Battle arrays 2005: 2003: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1888: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1863: 322 BC 1858: 1853: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1821:Antiochus III 1817: 1810: 1806:Special units 1805: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1788: 1786: 1780: 1776:Light cavalry 1775: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1744: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1694:Heavy cavalry 1693: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1589:Asclepiodotus 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1561: 100 BC 1555: 1550: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354: 1349: 1338: 1328: 1317: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1279:Julius Caesar 1276: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1233: 1232:Asclepiodotus 1229: 1225: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1133: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1121: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1090: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1074: 1068: 1061: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1013:Cleomenes III 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 956: 951: 950: 945: 941: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 912: 908: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 853: 843: 839: 834: 100 BC 827: 820: 818: 816: 812: 808: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 781: 778: 773: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 754:Cynoscephalae 750: 744: 742: 738: 737: 732: 731: 726: 725: 720: 715: 712: 707: 703: 699: 698: 692: 690: 686: 685: 679: 677: 676: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 652: 649: 645: 641: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 603:Antiochos III 600: 596: 592: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 565:paintings of 564: 560: 553: 549: 545: 541: 536: 529: 524: 519: 517: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 485: 483: 479: 475: 471: 466: 462: 457: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 422: 421:Cleomenes III 418: 414: 409: 406: 402: 398: 390: 385: 300 BC 378: 371: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 347: 343: 338: 331: 329: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 278: 276: 272: 266: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 227: 224: 209: 206: 198: 188: 182: 180: 173: 164: 163: 154: 151: 143: 132: 129: 125: 122: 118: 115: 111: 108: 104: 101: – 100: 96: 95:Find sources: 89: 85: 79: 78: 73:This article 71: 67: 62: 61: 56: 54: 47: 46: 41: 40: 35: 30: 21: 20: 5638:Dionysopolis 5608:Abonoteichos 5560:Pantikapaion 5150:Hybla Heraea 4486:Architecture 4442:Prostitution 4131:Aristophanes 3990:Philosophers 3960:Philosophers 3792:Spartan army 3726: 3523:(280–146 BC) 3511:(338–322 BC) 3505:(370–168 BC) 3493:(374–196 BC) 3487:(378–355 BC) 3469:(430–348 BC) 3463:(478–404 BC) 3457:(499–449 BC) 3144:Peloponnesus 3066:Roman Greece 2909: 2900: 2867: 2854: 2813: 2804: 2796: 2791: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2760: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2720: 2711: 2692: 2686: 2677: 2668: 2659: 2650: 2631: 2625: 2616: 2607: 2598: 2589: 2580: 2575:I Macc. 6.35 2571: 2562: 2553: 2542:. Retrieved 2533: 2524: 2515: 2506: 2497: 2488: 2479: 2470: 2450: 2440: 2415:. Retrieved 2411: 2401: 2381: 2361: 2342: 2330: 2321: 2312: 2305:F.W. Walbank 2296: 2287: 2278: 2269: 2040: 2013: 2009: 2000: 1990: 1963: 1920: 1908: 1892: 1876: 1867: 1816:War chariots 1814: 1792: 1784: 1762: 1755: 1741: 1739: 1735: 1714: 1705: 1697: 1640: 1625: 1597: 1577:doratophoroi 1576: 1572: 1566: 1554:Hippostratos 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1513: 1509: 1503: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1483: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1452:, then into 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1396: 1386: 1381: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1351: 1344: 1264: 1237: 1221: 1213:Thureophoroi 1209:Demetrius II 1196:Antiochus IV 1189: 1173: 1163: 1160:Thureophoroi 1159: 1157: 1145:Thureophoroi 1144: 1140: 1137:Thureophoroi 1136: 1130: 1124: 1120:Thureophoroi 1118: 1116: 1102:thureophoros 1100: 1094:Dioskourides 1071: 1049: 1034: 1000: 999:in 162 BCE. 993:Chalkaspides 992: 989:Chrysaspides 988: 979:tells us of 953: 949:Chalkaspides 947: 940:Chrysaspides 939: 937: 890: 883:' parade at 852:Argyraspides 850: 847: 790:Cynosephalae 782: 774: 745: 740: 734: 728: 722: 718: 716: 710: 705: 695: 693: 688: 682: 680: 673: 668:of hardened 656: 653: 588: 486: 458: 413:Persian Wars 410: 394: 351: 279: 267: 236: 234: 219: 201: 192: 176: 146: 140:January 2016 137: 127: 120: 113: 106: 94: 82:Please help 77:verification 74: 50: 43: 37: 36:Please help 33: 5786:Place names 5698:Salmydessus 5520:Kalos Limen 5500:Chersonesus 5490:Borysthenes 5195:Tauromenion 5007:Metapontion 4769:Proto-Greek 4722:Erechtheion 4717:Athena Nike 4679:Philippeion 4508:Mathematics 4479:and science 4362:Agriculture 4226:Stesichorus 4136:Bacchylides 4126:Archilochus 4013:Antisthenes 4003:Anaximander 3975:Seven Sages 3965:Playwrights 3945:Geographers 3940:Astronomers 3767:Pezhetairos 3394: 1100 3374:Federations 3273:Megalopolis 3210:City states 3185:City states 2799:, pp. 39–54 2492:I.Macc.6.39 2184:Syrian Wars 2179:Pyrrhic War 2116:Pezhetairoi 2079:Pontic army 1997:Dromedaries 1975:Philopoemen 1716:Cataphracts 1711:Cataphracts 1701:Thessalians 1684:Philopoemen 1619:, and even 1600:Cataphracts 1573:xystophoroi 1569:cataphracts 1474:hipparchiai 1470:hipparchiai 1466:Hipparchiai 1446:hipparchiai 1417:of 128 and 1415:hipparchiai 1393:Philopoemen 1291:Middle East 1185:Philopoemen 1153:Philopoemen 1092:A stele of 1021:Philopoemen 1001:Leukaspides 968:Megalopolis 955:Leukaspides 905:skirmishing 802:Mithridatic 623:phalangites 573:in ancient 567:Hellenistic 530:The Phalanx 438:phalangites 346:sarcophagus 314:city states 5688:Polemonion 5565:Phanagoria 5535:Kimmerikon 5530:Kerkinitis 5515:Hermonassa 5505:Dioscurias 5401:Aspalathos 5348:Kalathousa 5323:Akra Leuke 5252:Phoenicusa 5037:Scylletium 5022:Poseidonia 4942:Brentesion 4829:Pamphylian 4824:Macedonian 4742:Samothrace 4727:Hephaestus 4674:Long Walls 4653:Structures 4594:Underworld 4540:Technology 4503:Literature 4437:Philosophy 4402:Euergetism 4291:By culture 4236:Thucydides 4078:Pythagoras 4073:Protagoras 4063:Parmenides 4048:Heraclitus 4033:Empedocles 4023:Democritus 4008:Anaximenes 3998:Anaxagoras 3950:Historians 3443: 595 3430: 550 3411: 800 3396: – c. 3324:Cappadocia 3129:Ionian Sea 3119:Hellespont 3084:Aegean Sea 2544:2024-06-11 2417:2022-01-14 2262:References 2168:Major wars 2111:Pantodapoi 2051:Militaries 1981:infantry. 1967:Machanidas 1825:Roman army 1757:Clibanarii 1442:hipparchia 1438:hipparchos 1419:syntagmata 1353:Hipparchos 1297:-legions. 1217:Thorakitai 1164:Thorakitai 1141:Thorakitai 1126:Thorakitai 1076:) wearing 1073:thorakitai 1056:Iphicrates 985:Chaeroneia 798:Hannibalic 675:linothorax 640:Phillip II 635:phalangite 450:Machanidas 366:conscripts 358:Phillip II 312:, and the 110:newspapers 39:improve it 5774:in Epirus 5723:Trapezous 5668:Mesambria 5653:Eupatoria 5623:Apollonia 5618:Anchialos 5580:Theodosia 5550:Nymphaion 5540:Myrmekion 5510:Gorgippia 5466:Black Sea 5451:Tragurion 5436:Nymphaion 5421:Epidauros 5416:Epidamnos 5406:Apollonia 5383:Zacynthos 5305:Ptolemais 5299:Apollonia 5272:Cyrenaica 5262:Therassía 5257:Strongyle 5237:Ereikousa 5160:Leontinoi 5100:Apollonia 4977:Hipponion 4774:Mycenaean 4737:Parthenon 4669:Lion Gate 4572:Mythology 4535:Sculpture 4498:Astronomy 4432:Pederasty 4407:Festivals 4392:Education 4272:Lawgivers 4241:Timocreon 4221:Sophocles 4216:Simonides 4191:Philocles 4186:Panyassis 4181:Mimnermus 4146:Herodotus 4141:Euripides 4111:Aeschylus 4058:Leucippus 4018:Aristotle 3797:Strategos 3663:Synedrion 3617:Ostracism 3597:Areopagus 3549:Free city 3344:Macedonia 3228:Byzantion 3134:Macedonia 3099:Cyrenaica 3076:Geography 3010:Geography 2868:Histories 2145:Chiliarch 1954:Artillery 1847:Elephants 1833:Archelaus 1769:Pergamese 1682:, it was 1648:Antiochus 1617:Armenians 1613:Thracians 1608:Ptolemies 1581:Scythians 1426:Antigonid 1403:dilochiai 1283:Deiotarus 1271:Sertorius 1244:Principes 1228:Centurion 1192:Maccabees 1158:Both the 1098:Ptolemaic 1025:Boeotians 932:Polyainos 811:elephants 644:Chaeronea 595:Philip II 509:W.W. Tarn 489:Ptolemaic 478:Thracians 446:mercenary 426:Perioikoi 362:Alexander 271:mercenary 195:June 2017 45:talk page 5858:Category 5823:Category 5801:Theatres 5728:Tripolis 5663:Kerasous 5658:Heraclea 5590:Tyritake 5545:Nikonion 5456:Thronion 5378:Salauris 5333:Emporion 5290:Berenice 5280:Balagrae 5232:Euonymos 5205:Tyndaris 5190:Syracuse 5185:Selinous 5155:Kamarina 5110:Casmenae 5095:Akrillai 5012:Neápolis 4947:Caulonia 4928:Mainland 4859:Linear B 4854:Linear A 4784:Dialects 4761:Language 4555:Religion 4513:Medicine 4447:Religion 4412:Folklore 4397:Emporium 4372:Clothing 4367:Calendar 4251:Xenophon 4246:Tyrtaeus 4231:Theognis 4206:Polybius 4201:Plutarch 4176:Menander 4156:Hipponax 4083:Socrates 4038:Epicurus 3884:Diadochi 3782:Sciritae 3742:Hetairoi 3717:Ballista 3682:Military 3645:Gerousia 3635:Ekklesia 3602:Ecclesia 3584:Athenian 3532:Politics 3445:–279 BC) 3432:–366 BC) 3413:–389 BC) 3349:Pergamon 3319:Bithynia 3312:Kingdoms 3253:Pergamon 3195:Military 3190:Politics 2987:Timeline 2864:Polybius 2777:, p. 164 2448:(2018). 2426:cite web 1983:Philip V 1936:Polybius 1923:sarissae 1913:, where 1900:Hannibal 1885:Silver. 1811:Chariots 1796:javelins 1752:Sassanid 1720:Seleucid 1680:Sellasia 1672:Magnesia 1660:Aetolian 1634:and the 1530:Hetairoi 1526:Hetairoi 1522:Parthian 1510:Hetairoi 1505:Hetairoi 1502:and the 1421:of 256. 1366:ilarchos 1162:and the 1123:and the 1045:Lycestis 1041:peltasts 1011:. 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