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confirmed for both sexes even though only men have participated and the female body is often not considered in animal tests, even when "women diseases" are concerned. However, female and male bodies differ, all the way up to the cell level. The same diseases can have different symptoms in the sexes, calling for different treatment, and medicines can work completely differently, including different side effects. Since male symptoms are much more prominent, women are symptomatically under- and misdiagnosed, and have for example a 50% increased risk to die from a heart attack. Here, the male and known symptoms are chest-, and shoulder pain, the female symptoms are upper abdominal pain and nausea.
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exposure to gender neutral language) had male-biased imagery but the rest of the participants displayed no gender bias at all. In her third study, only males showed a masculine-bias (after exposure to gender neutral language) â females showed no gender bias. Hamilton asserted that this may be due to the fact that males have grown up being able to think more easily than females of "any person" as generic "he," since "he" applies to them. Further, of the two options for neutral language, neutral language that explicitly names women (e.g., "he or she") reduces androcentrism more effectively than neutral language that makes no mention of gender whatsoever (e.g., "human").
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146:, began to protest the under-representation of female artists. According to them, male artists and the male viewpoint continued to dominate the visual art world. In a 1989 poster (displayed on NYC buses) titled "Do women have to be naked to get into the Met. Museum?" they reported that less than 5% of the artists in the Modern Art sections of the Met Museum were women, but 85% of the nudes were female.
228:
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Three studies by Mykol
Hamilton show that there is not only a maleâââpeople bias but also a peopleâââmale bias. In other words, a masculine bias remains even when people are exposed to only gender neutral language (although the bias is lessened). In two of her studies, half of the participants (after
215:
Men are more severely impacted by androcentric thinking. However, the omnipresent ideology has substantial effects on the way of thinking of everyone within it. In a 2022 study, in which 3815 people were shown a selection of 256 images containing illusory faces (objects, in which humans see faces),
191:
Feminist anthropologist Sally Slocum argues that there has been a longstanding male bias in anthropological thought as evidenced by terminology used when referring to society, culture, and humankind. According to Slocum, "All too often the word 'man' is used in such an ambiguous fashion that it is
195:
Men's language will be judged as the 'norm' and anything that women do linguistically will be judged negatively against this. The speech of a socially subordinate group will be interpreted as linguistically inadequate against that used by socially dominant groups. It has been found that women use
119:
There is a gender health data gap and women are systematically discriminated against and misdiagnosed in medicine. Early medical research has been carried out nearly exclusively on male corpses. Women were considered "small men" and not investigated. To this day, clinical studies are frequently
110:
and restricted the number of female undergraduates they accepted. Due to the later access of women to university and academic life, the participation of women in fundamental research is marginal. The basic principles in sciences, even human sciences, are hence predominantly formed by men. Thus,
149:
Over 20 years later, women were still under-represented in the art world. In 2007, Jerry Saltz (journalist from the New York Times) criticized the Museum of Modern Art for undervaluing work by female artists. Of the 400 works of art he counted in the Museum of Modern Art, only 14 were by women
183:
Many studies have shown that male generic language is not interpreted as truly gender-inclusive. Psychological research has shown that, in comparison to unbiased terms such as "they" and "humankind", masculine terms lead to male-biased mental imagery in the mind of both the listener and the
170:
In literature, the use of masculine language to refer to men, women, intersex, and non-binary people may indicate a male or androcentric bias in society where men are seen as the 'norm', and women, intersex, and non-binary people are seen as the 'other'. Philosophy scholar
133:
award-winning books. There were nearly twice as many male main characters as female main characters, and male characters appeared in illustrations 53 percent more than female characters. Most of the plot-lines centered on the male characters and their experiences of life.
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79:, published in 1911. Because of this, androcentrism can be understood as a societal fixation on masculinity whereby all things originate. Under androcentrism, masculinity is normative and all things outside of masculinity are defined as
621:
Hamilton, Mykol C.; Anderson, David; Broaddus, Michelle; Young, Kate (December 2006). "Gender stereotyping and under-representation of female characters in 200 popular children's picture books: a twenty-first century update".
175:
argues that the use of male generic language marginalizes women, intersex, and non-binary people in society. In recent years, some writers have started to use more gender-inclusive language (for instance, using the pronouns
128:
Research by Dr. David
Anderson and Dr. Mykol Hamilton has documented the under-representation of female characters in a sample of 200 books that included top-selling children's books from 2001 and a seven-year sample of
101:
Until the 19th century, women were effectively barred from higher education in
Western countries. For over 300 years, Harvard admitted only white men from prominent families. Many universities, such as for example the
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more hedges and qualifiers than men. Feminine speech has been viewed as more tentative and has been deemed powerless speech. This is based on the view that masculine speech is the standard.
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On the
Internet, many avatars are gender-neutral (such as an image of a smiley face). However, when an avatar is human and discernibly gendered, it usually appears to be a man.
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3247:
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DeLoache, Judy S.; Cassidy, Deborah J.; Carpenter, C. Jan (August 1987). "The three bears are all boys: Mothers' gender labeling of neutral picture book characters".
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in a scientific debate. Perkins Gilman described androcentric practices in society and the resulting problems they created in her investigation on
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and using gender-inclusive words like humankind, person, partner, spouse, businessperson, firefighter, chairperson, and police officer).
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Depictions of skeletons typically have male anatomy rather than female, even when the character of the skeleton is meant to be female.
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Khosroshahi, Fatemeh (December 1989). "Penguins don't care, but women do: A social identity analysis of a
Whorfian problem".
59:. However, it has also been described as a movement centered on, emphasizing, or dominated by males or masculine interests.
150:(3.5%). Saltz also found a significant under-representation of female artists in the six other art institutions he studied.
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impossible to decide whether it refers to males or just the human species in general, including both males and females."
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2015:
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Bojarska, Katarzyna (March 2013). "Responding to lexical stimuli with gender associations: a cognitiveâcultural model".
456:
303:
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2020:
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Hamilton, Mykol C. (November 1991). "Masculine bias in the attribution of personhood: people = male, male = people".
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727:"Data: Gender Studies. Is MoMA the worst offender? We tallied how women fare in six other art-world institutions"
86:
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Discovering reality: feminist perspectives on epistemology, metaphysics, methodology, and philosophy of science
979:
Bailey, April H.; LaFrance, Marianne (June 2017). "Who counts as human? Antecedents to androcentric behavior".
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Wolfram, W. and
Schilling-Estes, N. (1998) American English: Dialect and Variation. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
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1099:"Anonymously male: Social media avatar icons are implicitly male and resistant to change"
85:. According to Perkins Gilman, masculine patterns of life and masculine mindsets claimed
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1145:
Wardle, Susan G.; Paranjape, Sanika; Taubert, Jessica; Baker, Chris I. (February 2022).
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Mooney, A., & Evans, B. (2019). Language, Power, and
Society: An Introduction.
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science is biased, and its objectivity and universality has to be questioned.
35:
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Hamilton, Mykol C. (December 1988). "Using masculine generics: Does generic
726:
695:
27:
1198:
543:
26:, áŒÎœÎźÏ, "man, male") is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing a
559:"The gender health gap: why women's bodies shouldn't be a medical mystery"
3819:
3649:
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1400:
56:
1147:"Illusory faces are more likely to be perceived as male than female"
1279:. Dordrecht, Holland Boston Hingham, Massachusetts: Kluwer Boston.
3289:
2132:
1853:
1593:
1552:
1413:
2051:
3901:
3730:
1660:
1418:
2055:
1349:
854:
Sex bias in language: effects on the reader/hearer's cognitions
1801:
1408:
408:
1327:
Whose science? Whose knowledge?: thinking from women's lives
336:"Implicit androcentrism: Men are human, women are gendered"
34:, culture, and history, thereby culturally marginalizing
55:
Androcentrism has been described as a pervasive form of
1021:
McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L., eds. (11 July 2011).
457:"A History of Women in Higher Education | BestColleges"
696:"Where are All the Women? On MoMA's Identity Politics"
142:
In 1985, a group of female artists from New York, the
852:
Hamilton, Mykol C.; Henley, Nancy M. (August 1982).
373:, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 94â101,
3713:
3590:
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2120:
2089:
1983:
1913:
1877:
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1741:
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1531:
1399:
1388:
1324:
1298:
1253:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp.
1220:
3865:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
598:Kurt W. Alt, Silke Strohmenger, Ingelore Welpe:
431:The man-made world: or, Our androcentric culture
77:The Man-Made World; or, Our Androcentric Culture
3525:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
1151:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1023:Anthropological theory: an introductory history
3007:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
1331:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
1103:Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace
761:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online)
308:. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2067:
1361:
1097:Bailey, April H.; LaFrance, Marianne (2016).
1017:Woman the gatherer: male bias in anthropology
8:
2026:Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures
821:increase male bias in the user's imagery?".
608:September 2005, Jahrg. 63, H. 3, S. 257â269.
325:
323:
216:90% of the objects were identified as male.
3223:List of people killed for being transgender
1305:. Ithaca London: Cornell University Press.
1025:. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 399â407.
616:
614:
2074:
2060:
2052:
1738:
1396:
1368:
1354:
1346:
420:
418:
1188:
1170:
1114:
789:Journal of Language and Social Psychology
533:
340:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
89:while female patterns were considered as
71:was introduced as an analytic concept by
2341:Social determinants of health in poverty
582:Anita Thomas, Alexandra Kautzky-Willer:
858:Paper presented at a conference of the
502:"Uncovering the gender health data gap"
283:
557:Learmonth, Imogen (9 September 2020).
330:Bailey, April H.; LaFrance, Marianne;
1275:; Hintikka, Merrill B., eds. (1983).
601:Geschlecht und Gender in der Medizin.
30:point of view at the center of one's
7:
3989:
3029:Capital punishment for homosexuality
2346:Social determinants of mental health
1227:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
451:
449:
42:, while the practice of placing the
3149:Genital modification and mutilation
371:Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology
16:Centering a masculine point of view
921:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991.tb00415.x
860:American Psychological Association
481:Frances Lannon (30 October 2008).
14:
1223:Reflections on gender and science
1132:"Skeletons and Gender Perception"
755:"Feminist philosophy of language"
3988:
3979:
3978:
3628:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
3465:Law for Protection of the Nation
3365:White genocide conspiracy theory
1941:Attraction to transgender people
1301:The science question in feminism
1130:Hughes, Katie (19 August 2019).
226:
3470:MSM blood donation restrictions
3218:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
1066:"Default avatars: a collection"
46:point of view at the center is
3483:(as religious or racial quota)
1243:Uncovering gynocentric science
1:
3897:Second-generation gender bias
3613:Constitutional colorblindness
2336:Social determinants of health
2031:Social construction of gender
908:Psychology of Women Quarterly
2016:Sex as a biological variable
379:10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_16
3808:Medical model of disability
3660:Hate speech laws by country
606:Anthropologischer Anzeiger.
38:. The related adjective is
4061:
3917:Social model of disability
2391:Discrimination against men
1931:Androphilia and gynephilia
1247:Tuana, Nancy, ed. (1989).
1073:| Sociological Images
661:Guerilla Girls poster 1989
352:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.103980
163:
157:
106:, consciously practiced a
3974:
3270:Opposition to immigration
2183:Race / Ethnicity
1064:Wade, Lisa (4 May 2009).
995:10.1007/s11199-016-0648-4
958:10.1017/S0047404500013889
638:10.1007/s11199-006-9128-6
518:10.1590/0102-311xen065423
506:Cadernos de SaĂșde PĂșblica
500:Lego, Vanessa di (2023).
426:Perkins Gilman, Charlotte
3265:Occupational segregation
3034:Compulsory sterilization
1479:Non-binary / genderqueer
1241:Ginzberg, Ruth (1989), "
1015:Slocum, Sally (2012) , "
802:10.1177/0261927X12463008
369:, in Teo, Thomas (ed.),
73:Charlotte Perkins Gilman
3793:Internalized oppression
3655:Fighting Discrimination
3645:Fat acceptance movement
3603:Anti-discrimination law
3243:Native American mascots
2041:Transgender archaeology
1172:10.1073/pnas.2117413119
1077:University of Minnesota
753:Saul, Jennifer (2004).
365:Hibbs, Carolyn (2014),
305:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
166:Gender-neutral language
3912:Social identity threat
3885:Reverse discrimination
3875:Racial color blindness
3355:Violence against women
3335:Sex-selective abortion
2036:Split attraction model
2021:Sexâgender distinction
487:Times Higher Education
434:. New York: Charlton.
4035:Philosophy of science
3880:Religious intolerance
3840:Political correctness
3670:Intersex human rights
3618:Cultural assimilation
3300:Religious persecution
3064:Disability hate crime
2011:Queer heterosexuality
158:Further information:
154:Generic male language
4040:Feminism and society
4025:Feminist terminology
3285:Political repression
2286:Anti-left handedness
2276:Anti-intellectualism
1991:Anti-gender movement
1966:Romantic orientation
1250:Feminism and science
725:(17 November 2007).
694:(18 November 2007).
461:www.bestcolleges.com
200:Generic male symbols
104:University of Oxford
4020:Feminist philosophy
4015:Social epistemology
3788:Historical eugenics
3325:Segregation academy
3305:Religious terrorism
3094:Enemy of the people
3002:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
2523:Jehovah's Witnesses
2416:Perpetual foreigner
1743:Sexual orientations
1474:Masculine of center
1163:2022PNAS..11917413W
945:Language in Society
672:on 25 November 2013
409:"Androcentrism.com"
300:Stuart Jones, Henry
3700:Social integration
3695:Self-determination
3685:Racial integration
3633:Diversity training
3623:Cultural pluralism
3598:Affirmative action
3498:Racial segregation
3408:Crime of apartheid
3310:Religious violence
2815:Indigenous people
2210:Sexual orientation
1864:Same gender loving
1775:Alternative labels
1116:10.5817/CP2016-4-8
989:(11â12): 682â693.
882:10.1007/BF00287623
837:10.1007/BF00288993
831:(11â12): 785â799.
759:plato.stanford.edu
632:(11â12): 757â765.
4002:
4001:
3870:Racism by country
3798:Intersectionality
3783:Heteronormativity
3582:Voter suppression
3330:Sexual harassment
3129:Forced conversion
3049:Cultural genocide
2714:African Americans
2533:postâCold War era
2518:Eastern Orthodoxy
2271:Anti-drug addicts
2266:Anti-homelessness
2193:Scientific racism
2049:
2048:
1996:Gender assignment
1979:
1978:
1724:
1723:
1464:Gender neutrality
1071:The Society Pages
388:978-1-4614-5582-0
292:Liddell, Henry G.
4052:
3992:
3991:
3982:
3981:
3922:Social privilege
3907:Social exclusion
3835:Police brutality
3756:Multiculturalism
3726:Amatonormativity
3557:Social exclusion
3393:Age of candidacy
3193:Homeless dumping
3099:Ethnic cleansing
2076:
2069:
2062:
2053:
1839:Non-heterosexual
1739:
1397:
1370:
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1046:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1013:
1007:
1006:
976:
970:
969:
939:
933:
932:
902:
896:
893:
876:(3â4): 163â178.
857:
848:
813:
777:
771:
770:
768:
766:
750:
744:
743:
741:
739:
719:
713:
712:
710:
708:
688:
682:
681:
679:
677:
668:. Archived from
656:
650:
649:
618:
609:
596:
590:
580:
574:
573:
571:
569:
554:
548:
547:
537:
497:
491:
490:
478:
472:
471:
469:
467:
453:
444:
443:
422:
413:
412:
405:
399:
398:
397:
395:
362:
356:
355:
332:Dovidio, John F.
327:
318:
317:
288:
236:
231:
230:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4005:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3970:
3845:Polyculturalism
3741:Civil liberties
3709:
3690:Reappropriation
3591:Countermeasures
3586:
3515:Racial steering
3481:Numerus clausus
3385:
3379:
3104:Ethnic conflict
3039:Corrective rape
2990:
2632:
2479:
2371:HIV/AIDS stigma
2229:
2178:Mental disorder
2116:
2085:
2080:
2050:
2045:
1975:
1926:Analloeroticism
1909:
1905:Heterosociality
1873:
1770:
1733:
1731:
1720:
1535:
1527:
1469:Gender variance
1459:Gender fluidity
1391:
1384:
1374:
1339:
1321:Harding, Sandra
1319:
1313:
1295:Harding, Sandra
1293:
1287:
1273:Harding, Sandra
1271:
1265:
1246:
1235:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1206:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1081:
1079:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1020:
1014:
1010:
978:
977:
973:
941:
940:
936:
904:
903:
899:
865:
851:
816:
785:
778:
774:
764:
762:
752:
751:
747:
737:
735:
721:
720:
716:
706:
704:
690:
689:
685:
675:
673:
666:Guerrilla Girls
658:
657:
653:
620:
619:
612:
597:
593:
581:
577:
567:
565:
556:
555:
551:
499:
498:
494:
480:
479:
475:
465:
463:
455:
454:
447:
424:
423:
416:
407:
406:
402:
393:
391:
389:
367:"Androcentrism"
364:
363:
359:
329:
328:
321:
290:
289:
285:
280:
232:
225:
222:
213:
202:
168:
162:
156:
144:Guerrilla Girls
140:
126:
117:
108:numerus clausus
99:
65:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4058:
4056:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4007:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3986:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3969:
3968:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3893:
3892:
3890:Reverse racism
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3860:Prisoner abuse
3857:
3852:
3850:Power distance
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3768:Ethnic penalty
3765:
3764:
3763:
3761:Neurodiversity
3758:
3748:
3746:Dehumanization
3743:
3738:
3736:Cisnormativity
3733:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3715:
3714:Related topics
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3572:State religion
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3508:Nuremberg Laws
3505:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3450:Ghetto benches
3447:
3445:Gerrymandering
3442:
3437:
3432:
3430:Gender pay gap
3427:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3389:
3387:
3384:Discriminatory
3381:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3213:Lavender scare
3210:
3208:Kill Haole Day
3205:
3203:Indian rolling
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3089:Eliminationism
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:Cancel culture
3021:
3016:
3011:
3010:
3009:
2998:
2996:
2995:Manifestations
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2891:Middle Eastern
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2628:Zoroastrianism
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2555:Untouchability
2552:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2489:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2381:Leprosy stigma
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2086:
2083:Discrimination
2081:
2079:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2056:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1956:Plurisexuality
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1885:Sociosexuality
1881:
1879:
1878:Social aspects
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1824:Heteroflexible
1821:
1820:
1819:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1706:Vakasalewalewa
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1539:
1537:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1498:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1394:
1386:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1337:
1317:
1311:
1291:
1285:
1269:
1263:
1239:
1233:
1217:Keller, Evelyn
1211:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1137:
1122:
1089:
1056:
1047:
1038:
1031:
1008:
971:
952:(4): 505â525.
934:
915:(3): 393â402.
897:
895:
894:
863:
862:, Los Angeles.
849:
814:
772:
745:
714:
683:
651:
610:
591:
585:Gender Medizin
575:
549:
492:
473:
445:
414:
400:
387:
357:
319:
282:
281:
279:
276:
275:
274:
269:
267:Phallocentrism
264:
259:
254:
252:Male supremacy
249:
244:
238:
237:
234:Society portal
221:
218:
212:
209:
201:
198:
184:communicator.
155:
152:
139:
136:
125:
122:
116:
113:
98:
95:
64:
61:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4057:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
3995:
3987:
3985:
3977:
3976:
3973:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3944:Social stigma
3942:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3567:State atheism
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3503:Jim Crow laws
3501:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3488:One-drop rule
3486:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3403:Blood quantum
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3350:Victimisation
3348:
3346:
3345:Trans bashing
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3315:Religious war
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3295:Racialization
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3166:Glass ceiling
3164:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3109:Ethnic hatred
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3044:Counter-jihad
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2829:United States
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2693:
2692:United States
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2613:Protestantism
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2528:LDS or Mormon
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2490:
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2458:Transmisogyny
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2281:Anti-intersex
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2256:Anti-albinism
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2097:Institutional
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2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
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1989:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1969:
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1964:
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1961:Postgenderism
1959:
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1951:Monosexuality
1949:
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1927:
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1921:Allosexuality
1919:
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1900:Homosociality
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1890:Antisexuality
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1563:Bugis genders
1561:
1559:
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1533:Third genders
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1454:Gender bender
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1444:Cross-dresser
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1338:9780801497469
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1312:9780335153596
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1286:9789027714961
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1264:9780253205254
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1234:9780300032918
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1032:9780078034886
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563:Thred Website
560:
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337:
334:(July 2020).
333:
326:
324:
320:
315:
311:
307:
306:
301:
297:
296:Scott, Robert
293:
287:
284:
277:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
242:Honorary male
240:
239:
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229:
224:
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217:
210:
208:
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199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
179:
174:
173:Jennifer Saul
167:
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137:
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123:
121:
114:
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109:
105:
96:
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74:
70:
69:androcentrism
62:
60:
58:
53:
51:
50:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
24:Ancient Greek
21:
20:Androcentrism
3778:Gender-blind
3665:Human rights
3493:Racial quota
3480:
3460:Jewish quota
3440:Gerontocracy
3435:Gender roles
3413:Disabilities
3398:Blood purity
3370:Wife selling
3360:White flight
3340:Slut-shaming
3320:Scapegoating
3238:Murder music
2911:Palestinians
2724:South Africa
2709:Black people
2687:South Africa
2508:Christianity
2498:BahĂĄÊŒĂ Faith
2426:Sectarianism
2366:Heterosexism
2331:Ephebiphobia
2296:Antisemitism
2291:Anti-Masonry
2158:Hair texture
2001:Gender roles
1946:Kinsey scale
1936:Aromanticism
1812:Gray asexual
1761:Heterosexual
1686:Sworn virgin
1656:Mukhannathun
1558:Binabinaaine
1326:
1300:
1276:
1249:
1222:
1154:
1150:
1140:
1125:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1080:. Retrieved
1069:
1059:
1050:
1041:
1022:
1011:
986:
980:
974:
949:
943:
937:
912:
906:
900:
873:
867:
853:
828:
822:
818:
796:(1): 46â61.
793:
787:
779:
775:
763:. Retrieved
758:
748:
736:. Retrieved
730:
723:Saltz, Jerry
717:
705:. Retrieved
699:
692:Saltz, Jerry
686:
674:. Retrieved
670:the original
660:
654:
629:
623:
605:
599:
594:
583:
578:
566:. Retrieved
562:
552:
509:
505:
495:
486:
483:"Her Oxford"
476:
464:. Retrieved
460:
430:
403:
392:, retrieved
370:
360:
343:
339:
304:
286:
247:Male as norm
214:
206:
203:
194:
190:
186:
182:
169:
160:Male as norm
148:
141:
127:
118:
100:
87:universality
80:
76:
68:
66:
54:
47:
40:androcentric
39:
19:
18:
3680:Nonviolence
3675:LGBT rights
3640:Empowerment
3608:Anti-racism
3530:Segregation
3475:No kid zone
3275:Persecution
3188:Hate speech
3139:Gay bashing
3114:Ethnic joke
3069:Dog whistle
3014:Blood libel
2704:Azerbaijani
2608:Neopaganism
2601:Persecution
2567:Persecution
2550:Persecution
2513:Catholicism
2448:Transphobia
2431:Supremacism
2386:Lesbophobia
2301:Aporophobia
2261:Anti-autism
2112:Taste-based
2107:Statistical
1859:Questioning
1732:orientation
1651:Mudoko dako
1611:Femminiello
1523:Transsexual
1501:Trans woman
1484:Transgender
272:Trophy wife
49:gynocentric
4030:Patriarchy
4009:Categories
3954:Stereotype
3949:Speciesism
3830:Oppression
3825:Oikophobia
3721:Allophilia
3705:Toleration
3562:Sodomy law
3455:Internment
3375:Witch-hunt
3253:Blackhawks
3183:Hate group
3171:Hate crime
3144:Gendercide
3134:Freak show
3124:Excellence
3084:Employment
3054:Defamation
2986:Vietnamese
2981:Venezuelan
2871:Lithuanian
2540:Falun Gong
2475:Xenophobia
2470:Vegaphobia
2453:Non-binary
2411:Pedophobia
2376:Homophobia
2188:Skin color
2148:Disability
2121:Attributes
2102:Structural
1895:Asociality
1849:Polysexual
1817:Demisexual
1787:Bi-curious
1766:Homosexual
1734:identities
1701:Two-spirit
1606:Fakafifine
1601:Fa'afafine
1543:Androgynos
1392:identities
1383:identities
1210:Literature
568:23 January
466:23 January
394:23 January
346:: 103980.
278:References
262:Patriarchy
257:Manosphere
164:See also:
124:Literature
36:femininity
32:world view
3927:Christian
3855:Prejudice
3803:Masculism
3751:Diversity
3545:religious
3520:Redlining
3119:Ethnocide
3079:Education
2971:Ukrainian
2906:Pakistani
2896:Mongolian
2819:Australia
2801:Hungarian
2756:Colombian
2736:Bulgarian
2618:Rastafari
2572:Ahmadiyya
2485:Religious
2463:Trans men
2421:Pregnancy
2356:Gayphobia
2351:Fatphobia
2246:Acephobia
2241:Arophobia
2225:Viewpoint
1869:TakatÄpui
1844:Pansexual
1797:Ex-ex-gay
1636:Koekchuch
1616:GĂŒevedoce
1536:and sexes
1506:Fakaleitī
1496:Trans man
1489:Akava'ine
1439:Cisgender
1429:Androgyne
1181:0027-8424
1003:148460313
982:Sex Roles
966:145728097
929:143533483
890:143834265
869:Sex Roles
845:144493073
824:Sex Roles
810:145006661
646:146234748
625:Sex Roles
526:1678-4464
440:988836210
314:499596825
178:they/them
131:Caldecott
67:The term
63:Etymology
28:masculine
4045:Misogyny
3984:Category
3966:The talk
3902:Snobbery
3820:Net bias
3650:Feminism
3577:Ugly law
3418:Catholic
3386:policies
3233:Mortgage
3228:Lynching
3159:examples
3154:Genocide
3074:Economic
3059:Democide
3019:Bullying
2936:Romanian
2901:Nigerian
2851:Japanese
2781:Georgian
2766:Filipino
2699:Assyrian
2672:Armenian
2662:American
2657:Albanian
2639:National
2623:Yazidism
2545:Hinduism
2503:Buddhism
2406:Nepotism
2401:Misogyny
2396:Misandry
2321:Cronyism
2316:Clannism
2311:Biphobia
2251:Adultism
2168:Language
2006:Intersex
1984:See also
1971:Sapphism
1756:Bisexual
1716:X-gender
1691:Travesti
1666:NĂĄdleehi
1579:Chibados
1511:Mak nyah
1323:(1991).
1297:(1986).
1219:(1985).
1199:35074880
1109:(4): 8.
1082:17 March
765:17 March
738:17 March
732:New York
707:17 March
701:New York
676:17 March
544:37585901
535:10494683
428:(1911).
302:(1940).
220:See also
138:The arts
115:Medicine
91:deviance
44:feminine
3994:Commons
3773:Figleaf
3198:Housing
2966:Turkish
2916:Pashtun
2886:Mexican
2866:Kurdish
2846:Italian
2841:Israeli
2791:Haitian
2776:Finnish
2751:Chinese
2746:Chechen
2741:Catalan
2731:Bengali
2652:African
2637:Ethnic/
2596:Judaism
2587:Sunnism
2577:Shi'ism
2493:Atheism
2326:Elitism
2215:Species
2153:Genetic
2143:Dialect
1834:Lesbian
1829:Khanith
1807:Gay men
1751:Asexual
1681:Sipiniq
1641:Lhamana
1626:Kathoey
1573:Calalai
1570:Calabai
1516:Rae-rae
1401:Genders
1190:8812520
1159:Bibcode
780:Studies
211:Impacts
97:Science
3959:threat
3813:autism
3550:sexual
3540:racial
3423:Jewish
3280:Pogrom
3258:Chiefs
3248:Braves
2976:Uyghur
2951:Somali
2946:Slavic
2931:Romani
2926:Quebec
2921:Polish
2861:Korean
2856:Jewish
2824:Canada
2811:Indian
2796:Hazara
2771:Fulani
2682:France
2647:Afghan
2582:Sufism
2306:Audism
2234:Social
2163:Height
1792:Ex-gay
1782:Banjee
1730:Sexual
1711:Winkte
1696:Tumtum
1676:Palopa
1589:Eunuch
1584:Enaree
1548:Apwint
1449:Femboy
1424:Female
1390:Gender
1381:sexual
1377:Gender
1335:
1309:
1283:
1261:
1245:", in
1231:
1197:
1187:
1179:
1029:
1019:", in
1001:
964:
927:
888:
843:
808:
644:
542:
532:
524:
438:
385:
312:
57:sexism
3937:white
3290:Purge
2956:Tatar
2881:MÄori
2876:Malay
2836:Irish
2786:Greek
2761:Croat
2719:China
2677:Asian
2562:Islam
2436:White
2173:Looks
2138:Class
2133:Caste
2090:Forms
1914:Other
1854:Queer
1671:Nullo
1631:Köçek
1621:Hijra
1594:Galli
1567:Bissu
1553:Bakla
1414:Woman
1255:69â84
1157:(5).
999:S2CID
962:S2CID
925:S2CID
886:S2CID
841:S2CID
806:S2CID
642:S2CID
589:2015.
512:(7).
82:other
3932:male
3731:Bias
3176:LGBT
2961:Thai
2941:Serb
2806:Igbo
2667:Arab
2441:Male
2220:Size
2200:Rank
1661:Muxe
1646:MÄhĆ«
1419:Male
1379:and
1333:ISBN
1307:ISBN
1281:ISBN
1259:ISBN
1229:ISBN
1195:PMID
1177:ISSN
1084:2011
1027:ISBN
767:2011
740:2011
709:2011
678:2011
604:In:
570:2024
540:PMID
522:ISSN
468:2024
436:OCLC
396:2024
383:ISBN
310:OCLC
3535:age
2205:Sex
2128:Age
1802:Gay
1434:Boi
1409:Man
1185:PMC
1167:doi
1155:119
1111:doi
991:doi
954:doi
917:doi
878:doi
833:doi
798:doi
634:doi
530:PMC
514:doi
375:doi
348:doi
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
