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hypothetical assumptions based not only on their knowledge of animal behavior, but also on their creative ability to solve new problems and discover new information. The working hypothesis is often a reconstruction of what the animal was doing, how fast it was moving, when it was there, where it was going to and where it might be at that time. Such a working hypothesis enables the trackers to predict the animal's movements. As new information is gathered, they may have to revise their working hypothesis, creating a better reconstruction of the animal's activities. Anticipating and predicting an animal's movements, therefore, involves a continuous process of problem-solving, creating new hypotheses and discovering new information.
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animal and thereby alert it. It is also important that the animal does not have the opportunity to cross their tracks, since the lingering human scent will alert it. Most animals prefer to keep the wind in their faces when traveling so that they can scent danger ahead of them. Trackers will therefore usually be downwind from them as they approach the animals from behind. The wind direction may, however, have changed. If the wind direction is unfavorable, the trackers may have to leave the spoor to search for their quarry from the downwind side.
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made by another animal, or even in random markings. Their mind will be prejudiced to see what they want to see, and in order to avoid making such errors they must be careful not to reach decisions too soon. Decisions made at a glance can often be erroneous, so when encountering new signs, trackers take their time to study signs in detail. While preconceived images may help in recognizing signs, the tracker must, however, avoid the preconditioned tendency to look for one set of things in the environment to the exclusion of all others.
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moving in a straight line at a steady pace, and it is known that there is a waterhole or a pan further ahead, trackers should leave the spoor to look for signs of it at the waterhole or pan. While feeding, an animal will usually move into the wind, going from one bush to another. If the trackers know the animal's favored food, and know moreover how they generally move, they need not follow its zigzag path, but leave the spoor at places, moving in a straight course to save time, and pick up the spoor further on.
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that the animal does not see them first. Animals usually rest facing downwind, so that they can see danger approaching from the downwind side, while they can smell danger coming from behind them. An animal may also double back on its spoor and circle downwind before settling down to rest. A predator following its trail will move past the resting animal on the upwind side before realizing that the animal had doubled back, and the resting animal will smell the predator in time to make its escape.
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the other side of the clearing. If the animal was moving from shade to shade, they will look for spoor in the shade ahead. If their quarry has consistently moved in a general direction, it may be possible to follow the most likely route by focusing on the terrain, and to look for signs of spoor only occasionally. They must, however, always be alert for an abrupt change in direction.
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be hidden by the ridges that cast them. Tracking is easiest in the morning and late afternoon, as the shadows cast by the ridges in the spoor are longer and stand out better than at or near midday. As the sun moves higher in the sky, the shadows grow shorter. At midday the spoor may cast no shadows at all, making them difficult to see in the glare of the sunlight.
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or when the animal is walking it may leave a characteristic scuff mark. Experienced trackers will memorise a spoor and be able to distinguish that individual animal's spoor from others. When following a spoor, trackers will walk next to it, not on it, taking care not to spoil the trail so that it can easily be found again if the spoor is lost.
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time, moving slowly when the animal is not looking, and keeping still when the animal is looking in their direction. When stalking an animal, trackers must also be careful not to disturb other animals. A disturbed animal will give its alarm signal, thereby alerting all animals in the vicinity, including the animal being tracked down.
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more closely, it is not necessary to examine every sign. If they see a sign ten meters ahead, those in between can be ignored while they look for spoor further on. Over difficult terrain it may not be possible to see signs well ahead, so trackers will have to look at the ground in front of them and move more slowly.
380:(Gulo gulo). Various measurements of tracks, and/or an animal's paws, and subsequent analyses of the datum, can also reveal important information about animals' physiology and their behavior. For example, measurements of lynx paws demonstrate their support capacity (on snow) to be double that of bobcat.
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Animals usually make use of a network of paths to move from one locality to another. If it is clear that an animal was using a particular path, this can simply be followed up to the point where it forks, or to where the animal has left the path. Where one of several paths may have been used, trackers
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Although in principle it is possible to follow a trail by simply looking for one sign after the other, this may prove so time-consuming that the tracker will never catch up with the quarry. Instead, trackers place themselves in the position of their quarry in order to anticipate the route it may have
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Trackers will always try to identify the trail positively by some distinguishing mark or mannerism in order not to lose it in any similar spoor. They will look for such features in the footprints as well as for an individual manner of walking. Often hoofs of antelope are broken or have chipped edges,
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Trackers will never look down at their feet if they can help it, since this will slow them down. By looking up, well ahead of themselves, approximately five to ten meters (15–30 feet) depending on the terrain, they are able to track much faster and with more ease. Unless they need to study the spoor
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Since signs may be fractional or partly obliterated, it may not always be possible to make a complete reconstruction of the animal's movements and activities on the basis of spoor evidence alone. Trackers may therefore have to create a working hypothesis in which spoor evidence is supplemented with
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In difficult terrain, where signs are sparse, trackers may have to rely extensively on anticipating the animal's movements. In order to move fast enough to overtake the animal, one may not be able to detect all the signs. Trackers sometimes identify themselves with the animal to such an extent that
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The shadows cast by ridges in the spoor show up best if the spoor is kept between the tracker and the sun. With the sun shining from behind the spoor, the shadows cast by small ridges and indentations in the spoor will be clearly visible. With the sun behind the tracker, however, these shadows will
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The modern science of animal tracking is widely practiced in the fields of wildlife biology, zoology, mammalogy, conservation, and wildlife management. Tracking enables the detection of rare, endangered, and elusive species. The science of tracking is utilized in the study of forest carnivores like
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Trackers will often look for spoor in obvious places such as openings between bushes, where the animal would most likely have moved. In thick bushes they will look for the most accessible thruways. Where the spoor crosses an open clearing, they will look in the general direction for access ways on
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As the trackers get closer to the animal, they must make sure that they see it before it sees them. Some trackers maintain that an animal keeps looking back down its own trail, always on the alert for danger coming from behind. When the spoor is very fresh, trackers may have to leave the spoor so
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If the trackers are in close proximity to the animal, it is important that they remain downwind of it, that is, in a position where the wind is blowing away from the animal in the direction of the tracker. They must never be in a position where their scent could be carried in the wind towards the
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In areas of high animal densities that have much-used animal paths which interlink, it may seem impossible to follow tracks. However, once tracks have been located on an animal path, it is often possible for a tracker to follow the path even though no further tracks are seen. By looking to either
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In order to recognize a specific sign, a tracker often has a preconceived image of what a typical sign looks like. Without preconceived images many signs may be overlooked. However, with a preconceived image of a specific animal's spoor in mind, trackers will tend to 'recognize' spoor in markings
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Apart from knowledge based on direct observations of animals, trackers gain a detailed understanding of animal behavior through the interpretation of tracks and signs. In this way much information can be obtained that would otherwise remain unknown, especially on the behavior of rare or nocturnal
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When stalking an animal, trackers use the cover of bushes, going down on their hands and knees where necessary. In long grass they go down on their stomachs pulling themselves forward with their elbows. The most important thing is not to attract attention by sudden movements. Trackers take their
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Knowledge of the terrain and animal behavior allows trackers to save valuable time by predicting the animal's movements. Once the general direction of movement is established and it is known that an animal path, river or any other natural boundary lies ahead, they can leave the spoor and move to
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To be able to anticipate and predict the movements of an animal, trackers must know the animal and its environment so well that they can identify themselves with that animal. They must be able to visualize how the animal was moving around, and place themselves in its position. If the animal was
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When the trackers lose the spoor, they first search obvious places for signs, choosing several likely access ways through the bush in the general direction of movement. When several trackers work together, they can simply fan out and quarter the ground until one of them finds it. An experienced
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Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Aubrey, Keith B.; Buskirk, Steven W.; Lyon, L. Jack; Zeilinski, William J., tech. eds. 1994. The
Scientific Basis for Conserving Forest Carnivores: American Marten, Fisher, Lynx, and Wolverine in the Western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-254. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S.
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Tracks and signs offer information on undisturbed, natural behavior, while direct observations often influence the animal by the mere presence of the observer. Tracking is therefore a non-invasive method of information gathering, in which potential stress caused to animals can be minimized.
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The skilled tracker is able to discern these clues, recreate what transpired on the landscape, and make predictions about the quarry. The tracker may attempt to predict the current location of the quarry and follow the quarry's spoor to that location, in an activity known as trailing.
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In order to come close to an animal, trackers must remain undetected not only by the animal, but also by other animals that may alert it. Moving as quietly as possible, trackers will avoid stepping on dry leaves and twigs, and take great care when moving through dry grass.
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and other signs, with the goal of gaining understanding of the landscape and the animal being tracked (the "quarry"). A further goal of tracking is the deeper understanding of the systems and patterns that make up the environment surrounding and incorporating the tracker.
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Trackers must also avoid concentrating all their attention on the tracks, thereby ignoring everything around them. Tracking requires varying attention, a constant refocusing between minute details of the track and the whole pattern of the environment.
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When trackers come to hard, stony ground, where tracks are virtually impossible to discern, apart from the odd small pebble that has been overturned, they may move around the patch of hard ground in order to find the spoor in softer ground.
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The practice of tracking may focus on, but is not limited to, the patterns and systems of the local animal life and ecology. Trackers must be able to recognize and follow animals through their tracks, signs, and trails, also known as
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Some of the most important applications of tracking are in hunting and trapping, as well as controlling poaching, ecotourism, environmental education, police investigation, search and rescue, and in scientific research.
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Carruthers, P. (2002) The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking, In: Carruthers, P., Stich, S., Siegal, M., (Eds.), The
Cognitive Basis of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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The
Handbook Of The SAS And Elite Forces. How The Professionals Fight And Win. Edited by Jon E. Lewis. p.389-Tactics And Techniques, Personal Skills And Techniques. Robinson Publishing Ltd 1997. ISBN 1-85487-675-9
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tracker may be able to predict more or less where the animal was going, and will not waste time in one spot looking for signs, but rather look for it further ahead.
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these places, cutting across the trail by sweeping back and forth across the predicted direction in order to pick up tracks a considerable distance ahead.
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Carruthers, P. (2002) The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking, In: Carruthers, P., Stich, S., Siegal, M., (Eds.),
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they follow an imaginary route which they think the animal would most likely have taken, only confirming their expectations with occasional signs.
775:. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. p. 93. Archived from
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Conesa-Sevilla, J. (2008). Thinking in Animal Signs: Tracking as a
Biosemiotic Exercise, Ecopsychological Practice, and a Transpersonal Path.
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Pickering, T.R., Bunn, H.T. (2007) The endurance running hypothesis and hunting and scavenging in savanna-woodlands. J. Hum. Evol. 53, 434-438.
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RM-GTR-254: The
Scientific basis for conserving forest carnivores: American Marten, Fisher, Lynx, and Wolverine in the Western United States
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must of course determine which path that specific animal used. This may not always be easy, since many animals often use the same paths.
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taken. They will thereby be able to decide in advance where they can expect to find signs and thus not waste time looking for them.
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side of the path, the tracker can establish if the animal has moved away from the path, and then follow the new trail.
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Liebenberg, L.W. (2006) Persistence hunting by modern hunter-gatherers. Curr. Anthropol. 47, 1017-1025.
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Tracking—Signs of Man, Signs of Hope: A Systematic
Approach to the Art and Science of Tracking Humans
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Man-tracking
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27:"Animal tracking" redirects here. For tracking of migration patterns, see
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Tracker: Case Files & Adventures of a
Professional Mantracker
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Citizen supported wildlife monitoring: founded by Susan Morse
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Mammal Tracks & Sign: A Guide to North American Species
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Tom Brown's Field Guide to Nature Observation and Tracking
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Fundamentals of Mantracking, the Step-by-Step Method
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578:Tracking : A Blueprint for Learning How
392:Squirrel tracks in snow at Loddebo, Lysekil
72:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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585:The Art of Tracking: The Origin of Science
246:Learn how and when to remove this message
169:Learn how and when to remove this message
517:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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198:instructions, advice, or how-to content
356:since the evolution of modern humans.
31:. For satellite tracking systems, see
599:Peterson Field Guide to Animal Tracks
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288:is the science and art of observing
107:adding citations to reliable sources
615:. Vermont: Camden House Publishing.
604:Pickering, T.R., Bunn, H.T. (2007)
597:Murie, O. & Elbroch, M. (2005)
207:so that it is more encyclopedic or
524:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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633:. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books.
594:. Curr. Anthropol. 47, 1017–1025.
541:Taylor, A. and Cooper, D. (1992)
360:animals that are not often seen.
53:This article has multiple issues.
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529:The SAS Guide to Tracking (SAS)
508:The Science and Art of Tracking
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61:or discuss these issues on the
515:The Cognitive Basis of Science
336:Tracking as an art and science
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1875:Countries by meat consumption
769:Ruggiero, Leonard F. (1994).
601:. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
2162:Non-vegetarian food in India
1880:Countries by meat production
608:. J. Hum. Evol. 53, 434–438.
557:Tactical Tracking Operations
522:The Architecture of the Mind
301:. Spoor may include tracks,
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1885:Food and drink prohibitions
417:Anticipation and prediction
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721:. Cape Town: David Philip.
587:. Cape Town: David Philip.
552:, Boston: The Lyons Press.
545:, Emergency Response Inst.
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324:all across the world. The
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1927:Psychology of eating meat
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717:Liebenberg, L.W. (1990).
573:. Boulder: Johnson Books.
559:, Boulder: Paladin Press.
510:. New York: Berkley Books
29:Animal migration tracking
2000:Beef hormone controversy
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583:Liebenberg, L.W. (1990)
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118:"Tracking" hunting
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562:Elbroch, M. (2003)
548:Diaz, David (2005)
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33:GPS animal tracking
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322:tribal people
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290:animal tracks
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229:February 2021
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120: –
119:
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114:Find sources:
108:
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92:This article
90:
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40:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2152:Mystery meat
2108:Arachnophagy
2048:Branch house
2015:Preservation
1992:Meat science
1943:Alternatives
1932:Meat paradox
1854:Smoked foods
1493:Grasshoppers
1438:Sea cucumber
1433:Shrimp/prawn
781:. Retrieved
777:the original
771:
764:
755:
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500:. New York:
497:
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316:Prehistoric
315:
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277:
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242:
226:
203:Please help
195:
165:
159:January 2017
156:
146:
139:
132:
125:
113:
101:Please help
96:verification
93:
69:
62:
56:
55:Please help
52:
2135:Entomophagy
2123:Meat diaper
2113:Cannibalism
1789:Meat dishes
1571:Charcuterie
1534:preparation
1518:Mopane worm
1508:Mezcal worm
374:Canada lynx
273:Deer tracks
213:Wikiversity
2238:Categories
2192:White meat
2167:Pink slime
2145:Artificial
2020:Tenderness
1905:psychology
1903:Ethics and
1737:Salt-cured
1443:Sea urchin
1011:Guinea pig
783:2017-01-23
676:References
221:Wikivoyage
129:newspapers
58:improve it
2083:Slaughter
2005:Drip loss
1727:Rillettes
1687:Marinated
1625:Forcemeat
1611:Fermented
1551:Barbecued
1523:Palm grub
1354:Shellfish
1324:Swordfish
1259:Mahi Mahi
1089:Crocodile
1064:Alligator
943:Livestock
873:Cassowary
659:Songlines
378:wolverine
217:Wikibooks
196:contains
64:talk page
2259:Tracking
2177:Red meat
2172:Raw meat
2101:subjects
1982:Veganism
1849:Meatball
1712:Pemmican
1697:Meatloaf
1692:Meatball
1532:Cuts and
1513:Silkworm
1503:Mealworm
1481:Crickets
1393:Crayfish
1373:Calamari
1269:Milkfish
1254:Mackerel
1249:Kingfish
1224:Flounder
1124:Pangolin
1109:Kangaroo
1094:Elephant
1079:Bushmeat
638:See also
326:military
278:Tracking
2140:Marbled
2099:Related
2078:Packing
2053:Butcher
1917:Carnism
1859:Sausage
1834:Seafood
1802:Chicken
1772:Tartare
1767:Tandoor
1747:Sausage
1732:Roasted
1717:Poached
1707:Pickled
1630:Cretons
1620:supreme
1561:Braised
1556:Biltong
1458:Insects
1423:Scallop
1413:Octopus
1403:Lobster
1398:Dolphin
1368:Abalone
1360:seafood
1344:Walleye
1329:Tilapia
1304:Sardine
1294:Pollock
1244:Herring
1239:Halibut
1234:Haddock
1229:Grouper
1214:Crappie
1204:Catfish
1184:Anchovy
1154:Venison
971:Buffalo
961:Beefalo
898:Ostrich
878:Chicken
865:Poultry
462:Stealth
350:science
318:hunters
286:ecology
282:hunting
143:scholar
2221:
2073:Jobber
2058:Cutter
2043:Broker
1844:Steaks
1762:Stewed
1752:Smoked
1742:Salumi
1722:Potted
1672:Kidney
1652:Ground
1647:Frozen
1616:Fillet
1596:Cutlet
1586:Corned
1581:Confit
1566:Burger
1497:locust
1476:Cicada
1418:Oyster
1408:Mussel
1378:Chiton
1358:other
1299:Salmon
1264:Marlin
1149:Turtle
1139:Rabbit
1114:Monkey
1104:Iguana
1046:Żubroń
1001:Snails
996:Donkey
951:Alpaca
918:Turkey
903:Pigeon
741:Press.
211:it to
145:
138:
131:
124:
116:
2157:Offal
1868:Other
1757:Steak
1702:Offal
1677:Liver
1667:Kebab
1662:Jerky
1642:Fried
1601:Dried
1591:Cured
1546:Bacon
1486:Flour
1448:Whale
1334:Trout
1309:Shark
1284:Perch
1144:Snake
1119:Mouse
1026:Llama
1016:Horse
976:Camel
966:Bison
908:Quail
893:Goose
299:spoor
219:, or
150:JSTOR
136:books
1839:Veal
1822:Pork
1817:Lamb
1812:Goat
1807:Fish
1797:Beef
1635:Pâté
1576:Chop
1541:Aged
1466:Ants
1428:Seal
1388:Crab
1383:Clam
1339:Tuna
1319:Swai
1314:Sole
1289:Pike
1199:Carp
1194:Bass
1189:Basa
1176:Fish
1164:Wolf
1134:Hare
1084:Boar
1074:Bear
1056:Game
1036:Veal
1031:Pork
1006:Frog
986:Goat
956:Beef
913:Rhea
883:Duck
857:Meat
372:the
328:and
303:scat
284:and
209:move
122:news
1827:Ham
1657:Ham
1606:Dum
1356:and
1219:Eel
1209:Cod
1159:Dog
1129:Rat
1099:Fox
1069:Bat
1041:Yak
991:Dog
981:Cat
888:Emu
280:in
105:by
2240::
693:^
215:,
67:.
1618:/
1499:)
1495:(
849:e
842:t
835:v
786:.
622:.
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243:(
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227:(
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201:.
172:)
166:(
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157:(
147:·
140:·
133:·
126:·
99:.
74:)
70:(
35:.
20:)
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