91:. This male adaptation leads to a reduction in female survivorship, which is mediated by an increased rate of remating and increased toxicity of Acps in seminal fluid. Since non-reproductive proteins do not feel the same evolutionary pressure as Acps, they are not evolving nearly as quickly. Consistent with the arms race theory, DNA analyses reveal a two-fold increase in Acp divergence relative to non-reproductive proteins.
219:) males will harass females and try to grasp them by chasing and lunging at them. Females can be extremely evasive and often fend off these aggressive attacks. Even when a female is finally grasped she continues to struggle. However, this type of avoidance is very costly to a female, so she ends up having to balance the cost of
276:
in the female's reproductive tract. As a result, females’ connective tissue in the copulatory tract increased in thickness. However, females with a thicker copulatory tract correlated positively to the amount of scarring, suggesting that scarring is a poor measure of costs for females. Females have
367:
found in females. It has been found that females with larger seminal receptacles “choose” sperm with long tails over sperm with short tails. Although females seem to “favor” this trait, no reproductive advantage for long tails has been found except for better correspondence to females with large
83:. While Acps facilitate the mutually beneficial outcome of increased progeny production, several Acps have detrimental effects on female fitness as they are toxic and shorten her lifespan. This leads to antagonistic co-evolution, as the female must evolve in order to defend herself. When female
396:. In this species females have coiled oviducts that lead to the spermatheca that in turn make it hard for males to reach the area needed to release their sperm. Once copulation is initiated the males are able to unfold their aedeagus and use its flexibility to maneuver the coiled oviducts.
152:
when she finds it optimal. It is this factor that has put females in the driver seat of evolution. These organs give females the ability to pick and choose which sperm they will use to fertilize their eggs. Males now have another factor they need to overcome. In the case of
159:, females will mate multiple times and then expel the excess sperm that she does not need. However, neither the first nor the second mate know if it is his sperm that was dispelled, because at any postcopulatory moment a female can store the sperm of more than one male.
107:
mentioned previously. Therefore, females who possess traits where they can lessen the impacts of male behavior are the ones who will survive and go on to reproduce. There are many ways a female can "defend" herself to the onslaught of potential mates.
372:
model, as females may choose for long tails based solely on inherited desirability, and would want to pass on that trait, which would improve the sexual success of their male progeny. This also could be an example of the “good genes” model of
267:
and allow a rapid passage to the female's reproductive tract, thus overcoming female barriers to sperm. Females suffer costs as a result of injuries, but males do not benefit directly from harm inflicted on their mates. Damage, such as
210:
Before a male even has to begin worrying if the female will use his sperm or not, he must mate with her, which can be a problem within itself. Potential mates often play a game of persistence and resistance. In the case of
272:, increases in the female tract with the number of matings. In seed beetles, a positive correlation exists between the degree of harmfulness of the male's genitalia and the thickness or reinforcement of the wall of the
309:
where sperm is deposited. The sperm migrates through the blood to the sperm storage site and oviducts, and then to the ovaries to fertilize eggs. Female bed bugs have also evolved physiological by the presence of
565:
Civetta, A.; Singh, R. (1995). "High divergence of reproductive tract proteins and their association with postzygotic reproductive isolation in
Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila virilis group species".
330:
is not significant to either body size or growth rate, but variation in development time was significantly related to population fitness. In females, genes associated with long development time lead to high
1139:
Bath, Eleanor; Tatarnic, Nikolai; Bonduriansky, Russell (2012-12-01). "Asymmetric reproductive isolation and interference in neriid flies: the roles of genital morphology and behaviour".
776:
Manier, M. K.; Belote, J. M.; Berben, K. S.; Novikov, D.; Stuart, W. T.; Pitnick, S. (2010). "Resolving
Mechanisms of Competitive Fertilization Success in Drosophila melanogaster".
886:
Rowe, L.; Arnqvist, G. (2002). "Sexually antagonistic coevolution in a mating system: Combining experimental and comparative approaches to address evolutionary processes".
77:
Additionally, sexual antagonistic co-evolution can be the cause of rapid evolution, as is thought to be the case in seminal proteins known as Acps in species of
58:, it is very disadvantageous to the female's health. During mating, males will try to inseminate as many females as possible, however, the more times a female's
62:
is punctured, the less likely she is to survive. Females that possess traits to avoid multiple matings will be more likely to survive, resulting in a change in
929:
Bonduriansky, Russell; Rowe, Locke (2003). "Interactions Among
Mechanisms of Sexual Selection on Male Body Size and Head Shape in a Sexually Dimorphic Fly".
301:
volume and time of copulation through the presence of ejaculates in females to conserve sperm and determine paternity outcomes. Females have evolved a
241:
adaptations of the opposite sex. Responses in insects can vary in both genitalia and sperm structures, along with variations in behavior.
838:
1041:"Sexual conflict and the gender load: Correlated evolution between population fitness and sexual dimorphism in seed beetles"
1188:
326:
is often sexually antagonistic. In seed beetles, populations differed in development time and growth rate between sexes.
30:
is the relationship between males and females where sexual morphology changes over time to counteract the opposite's
387:
514:
Rice, W. R. (1996). "Sexually antagonistic male adaptation triggered by experimental arrest of female evolution".
144:
and are hypothesized to have functioned as spermatheca at one point in time. They now serve as storage units for
899:
729:
Marchini, D.; Bene, G. D.; Dallai, R. (2009). "Functional morphology of the female reproductive apparatus of
155:
79:
793:
225:
55:
39:
377:, as correlations have been found between sperm tail length and the physiological condition of the male.
327:
302:
125:
415:"Sexually antagonistic coevolution in insects is associated with only limited morphological diversity"
323:
273:
1097:
993:
785:
634:
575:
523:
264:
63:
35:
798:
278:
117:
87:
are experimentally prevented from co-evolving with males, males rapidly adapt to the static female
51:
1164:
1121:
962:
911:
868:
819:
758:
599:
547:
444:
364:
290:
171:
623:"Evolutionary EST analysis identifies rapidly evolving male reproductive proteins in Drosophila"
363:
that there is a positive correlation between the length of male sperm tails and the size of the
1156:
1113:
1070:
1021:
954:
946:
903:
860:
811:
750:
711:
662:
591:
539:
496:
436:
369:
199:
182:
have been associated with female sperm storage organs (most notably, the spermatheca) through
47:
229:, the cost of resisting mating is low relative to the benefit of evading a low quality male.
1148:
1105:
1060:
1052:
1011:
1001:
938:
895:
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803:
742:
701:
693:
652:
642:
583:
531:
486:
478:
426:
374:
195:
71:
289:
Male bed bugs have a unique way to copulate called traumatic insemination. Males use their
618:
256:
179:
1101:
997:
789:
638:
579:
527:
223:
and the cost of resistance. However, in species with singly mating females like the fly
17:
1065:
1040:
1016:
981:
942:
706:
681:
491:
466:
306:
294:
183:
837:
Prokupek, A.; Hoffmann, F.; Eyun, S. I.; Moriyama, E.; Zhou, M.; Harshman, L. (2008).
1182:
855:
657:
622:
431:
414:
250:
212:
191:
149:
133:
129:
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1125:
966:
915:
872:
823:
762:
603:
551:
100:
1152:
982:"Coevolution between harmful male genitalia and female resistance in seed beetles"
448:
124:. Some species do not have a spermatheca in the traditional sense, but do possess
839:"An Evolutionary Expressed Sequence Tag Analysis of Drosophila Spermatheca Genes"
297:
even though females contain a genital tract. Male bed bugs can also adjust their
260:
121:
356:
175:
74:. This results in a new trait that females have to avoid in order to survive.
31:
1160:
950:
1109:
1088:
Miller, G. T.; Pitnick, S (2002). "Sperm-Female
Coevolution in Drosophila".
1006:
807:
733:
pyrioides(Heteroptera, Tingidae): A novel role for the pseudospermathecae".
352:
340:
332:
311:
298:
238:
88:
67:
1117:
1074:
1056:
1025:
958:
907:
864:
815:
754:
715:
697:
666:
647:
500:
482:
467:"A matter of taste: Direct detection of female mating status in the bedbug"
440:
70:
is relatively simple and more likely to vary among generations compared to
595:
543:
202:
or physiological ability to produce greater quality or quantity of sperm.
194:. This would result in females choosing for males that can overcome these
393:
336:
269:
187:
137:
746:
587:
174:
may also play a role in sexual antagonistic coevolution with males. In
141:
59:
686:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
305:
to counter traumatic inseminations. The paragenital system contains a
535:
220:
216:
167:
43:
682:"Rapid evolution of reproductive proteins in abalone and Drosophila"
145:
104:
368:
seminal receptacles. This discrimination is reminiscent of the
255:
Male genitalia evolve more rapidly and divergently in animals.
392:
males have been observed to have coevolved to have a flexible
103:
can be very dangerous and disadvantageous as in the case of
900:
10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[0754:saciam]2.0.co;2
339:. Males have shorter development time and emerge early (
237:
Like females, males have developed responses to counter
1045:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
471:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
148:, where a female can introduce the stored sperm to her
314:
in the mesospermalege that ingest sperm after mating.
116:
Females have a very complex and an extremely variable
888:
Evolution; International
Journal of Organic Evolution
680:
Panhuis, T. M.; Clark, N. L.; Swanson, W. J. (2006).
343:) resulting in greater fertilization opportunities.
617:Swanson, W. J.; Clark, A. G.; Waldrip-Dail, H. M.;
460:
458:
140:, pseudospermatheca are located at the base of the
281:to help with trauma associated during copulation.
986:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
627:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
293:to stab and inseminate females through their
8:
980:Ronn, J.; Katvala, M.; Arnqvist, G. (2007).
186:and analysis. It is hypothesized that these
277:evolved in other ways such as investing in
178:species, a large group of enzymes known as
263:, spiny genitalia help with anchor during
1064:
1015:
1005:
854:
797:
705:
656:
646:
490:
430:
465:Siva-Jothy, M. T.; Stutt, A. D. (2003).
405:
128:. Both forms play an essential role in
259:can aid in male-male competition. In
7:
190:break down various proteins in male
351:Competition between differing male
42:between sexes. In many cases, male
943:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00384.x
25:
856:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00493.x
432:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01057.x
28:Sexual antagonistic co-evolution
1039:Arnqvist, G.; Tuda, M. (2009).
419:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
385:In the case of the Neriid fly,
46:is detrimental to the female's
38:. This has been compared to an
568:Journal of Molecular Evolution
1:
1153:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.08.025
112:Spermatheca/pseudospermatheca
359:level. It has been found in
163:Enzymes secreted by females
1205:
388:Derocephalus angusticollis
335:and mate immediately upon
248:
621:; Aquadro, C. F. (2001).
381:Flexibility of genitalia
18:Antagonistic Coevolution
1110:10.1126/science.1076968
1007:10.1073/pnas.0701170104
808:10.1126/science.1187096
85:Drosophila melanogaster
80:Drosophila melanogaster
34:to achieve the maximum
1057:10.1098/rspb.2009.2026
698:10.1098/rstb.2005.1793
648:10.1073/pnas.131568198
483:10.1098/rspb.2002.2260
226:Prochyliza xanthostoma
120:, commonly known as a
56:traumatic insemination
735:Journal of Morphology
413:Eberhard, W. (2006).
1189:Evolutionary biology
50:. For example, when
36:reproductive success
1102:2002Sci...298.1230M
998:2007PNAS..10410921R
790:2010Sci...328..354M
639:2001PNAS...98.7375S
580:1995JMolE..41.1085C
528:1996Natur.381..232R
355:also exists at the
172:reproductive tracts
170:secreted by female
118:reproductive system
95:Female co-evolution
747:10.1002/jmor.10811
588:10.1007/BF00173190
365:seminal receptacle
328:Population fitness
303:paragenital system
291:intromittent organ
198:, whether through
184:genetic sequencing
99:For many females,
1051:(1686): 1345–52.
370:Fisherian runaway
347:Sperm tail length
233:Male co-evolution
200:genetic variation
196:digestive enzymes
126:pseudospermatheca
52:insects reproduce
16:(Redirected from
1196:
1173:
1172:
1147:(6): 1331–1339.
1141:Animal Behaviour
1136:
1130:
1129:
1096:(5596): 1230–3.
1085:
1079:
1078:
1068:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1009:
977:
971:
970:
937:(9): 2046–2053.
926:
920:
919:
883:
877:
876:
858:
834:
828:
827:
801:
773:
767:
766:
726:
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614:
608:
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562:
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536:10.1038/381232a0
511:
505:
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477:(1515): 649–52.
462:
453:
452:
434:
410:
375:sexual selection
324:development time
318:Development time
312:phagocytic cells
274:bursa copulatrix
180:serine proteases
136:. In the family
72:female genitalia
21:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1198:
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1179:
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1177:
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1138:
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1087:
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1038:
1037:
1033:
992:(26): 10921–5.
979:
978:
974:
928:
927:
923:
885:
884:
880:
849:(11): 2936–47.
836:
835:
831:
799:10.1.1.363.4222
784:(5976): 354–7.
775:
774:
770:
728:
727:
723:
692:(1466): 261–8.
679:
678:
674:
616:
615:
611:
564:
563:
559:
522:(6579): 232–4.
513:
512:
508:
464:
463:
456:
412:
411:
407:
402:
383:
349:
320:
287:
257:Spiny genitalia
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245:Spiny genitalia
235:
208:
165:
156:D. melanogaster
114:
97:
44:mating behavior
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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1200:
1192:
1191:
1181:
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1175:
1174:
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1080:
1031:
972:
921:
894:(4): 754–767.
878:
829:
768:
721:
672:
633:(13): 7375–9.
619:Wolfner, M. F.
609:
574:(6): 1085–95.
557:
506:
454:
404:
403:
401:
398:
382:
379:
348:
345:
319:
316:
307:mesospermalege
295:abdominal wall
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279:immunocapacity
246:
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213:water striders
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24:
14:
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783:
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772:
769:
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748:
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741:(4): 473–82.
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736:
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468:
461:
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438:
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428:
425:(3): 657–81.
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389:
380:
378:
376:
371:
366:
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322:Selection on
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251:Penile spines
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192:seminal fluid
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134:fertilization
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130:sperm storage
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57:
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37:
33:
29:
19:
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1083:
1048:
1044:
1034:
989:
985:
975:
934:
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846:
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771:
738:
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724:
689:
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515:
509:
474:
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261:seed beetles
254:
239:evolutionary
236:
224:
209:
166:
154:
115:
101:reproduction
98:
84:
78:
76:
66:. In males,
54:by means of
27:
26:
731:Stephanitis
122:spermatheca
400:References
361:Drosophila
357:microscale
353:phenotypes
285:Copulation
265:copulation
249:See also:
176:Drosophila
64:morphology
32:sex traits
1161:0003-3472
951:1558-5646
931:Evolution
843:Evolution
794:CiteSeerX
341:protandry
333:fecundity
299:ejaculate
188:proteases
89:phenotype
68:genitalia
40:arms race
1183:Category
1169:53191020
1126:46698905
1118:12424377
1075:20031994
1026:17573531
967:17859519
959:14575326
916:23103457
908:12038533
873:33477158
865:18752616
824:23053089
816:20299550
755:19941380
716:16612885
667:11404480
501:12769466
441:16674564
394:aedeagus
337:eclosion
270:scarring
206:Behavior
138:Tingidae
105:bed bugs
1098:Bibcode
1090:Science
1066:2871940
1017:1904142
994:Bibcode
786:Bibcode
778:Science
763:7316706
707:1569613
635:Bibcode
604:5687035
596:8587107
576:Bibcode
552:4308325
544:8622764
524:Bibcode
492:1691276
215:(genus
168:Enzymes
142:oviduct
60:abdomen
48:fitness
1167:
1159:
1124:
1116:
1073:
1063:
1024:
1014:
965:
957:
949:
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871:
863:
822:
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761:
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665:
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602:
594:
550:
542:
516:Nature
499:
489:
449:698028
447:
439:
221:mating
217:Gerris
1165:S2CID
1122:S2CID
963:S2CID
912:S2CID
869:S2CID
820:S2CID
759:S2CID
658:34676
600:S2CID
548:S2CID
445:S2CID
146:sperm
1157:ISSN
1114:PMID
1071:PMID
1022:PMID
955:PMID
947:ISSN
904:PMID
861:PMID
812:PMID
751:PMID
712:PMID
663:PMID
592:PMID
540:PMID
497:PMID
437:PMID
150:eggs
132:and
1149:doi
1106:doi
1094:298
1061:PMC
1053:doi
1049:277
1012:PMC
1002:doi
990:104
939:doi
896:doi
851:doi
804:doi
782:328
743:doi
739:271
702:PMC
694:doi
690:361
653:PMC
643:doi
584:doi
532:doi
520:381
487:PMC
479:doi
475:270
427:doi
1185::
1163:.
1155:.
1145:84
1143:.
1120:.
1112:.
1104:.
1092:.
1069:.
1059:.
1047:.
1043:.
1020:.
1010:.
1000:.
988:.
984:.
961:.
953:.
945:.
935:57
933:.
910:.
902:.
892:56
890:.
867:.
859:.
847:62
845:.
841:.
818:.
810:.
802:.
792:.
780:.
757:.
749:.
737:.
710:.
700:.
688:.
684:.
661:.
651:.
641:.
631:98
629:.
625:.
598:.
590:.
582:.
572:41
570:.
546:.
538:.
530:.
518:.
495:.
485:.
473:.
469:.
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